{"id":55048,"date":"2020-01-11T00:00:00","date_gmt":"2020-01-10T21:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/blog\/blog_prohoster\/istoriya-interneta-arpanet-paket"},"modified":"2020-02-18T14:03:07","modified_gmt":"2020-02-18T11:03:07","slug":"istoriya-interneta-arpanet-paket","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/cs\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-interneta-arpanet-paket","title":{"rendered":"Historie internetu: ARPANET \u2014 paket","gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"text"}]},"content":{"rendered":"<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie internetu: ARPANET \u2014 paket\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/9bc4fc8c536e15d3e2d4d90e4454cc66.png\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Sch\u00e9ma po\u010d\u00edta\u010dov\u00e9 s\u00edt\u011b ARPA v \u010dervnu 1967. Pr\u00e1zdn\u00fd kruh \u2013 po\u010d\u00edta\u010d se sd\u00edlen\u00fdm p\u0159\u00edstupem, kruh s \u010d\u00e1rkou \u2013 termin\u00e1l pro jednoho u\u017eivatele<\/i><\/p>\n<p><b class=\"spoiler_title\">Dal\u0161\u00ed \u010dl\u00e1nky cyklu:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Historie rel\u00e9\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404373\/\">Metoda \u201erychl\u00e9ho p\u0159enosu informac\u00ed\u201c, nebo Zrozen\u00ed rel\u00e9<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404475\/\">D\u00e1lkov\u00fd psac\u00ed stroj<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/370545\/\">Galvanismus<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404657\/\">Podnikatel\u00e9<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404723\/\">A tady je kone\u010dn\u011b rel\u00e9<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404889\/\">Hovorn\u00fd telegraf<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405025\/\">Jednodu\u0161e spojit<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/company\/mailru\/blog\/370471\/\">Zapomenut\u00e1 generace rel\u00e9ov\u00fdch po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016f<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">Elektronick\u00e1 \u00e9ra<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historie elektronick\u00fdch po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016f\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408611\/\">Prolog<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/374043\/\">Koloss<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408597\/\">ENIAC <\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Elektronick\u00e1 revoluce<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historie tranzistoru\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">Hmatem v temnot\u011b<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">Z pekla v\u00e1lky<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\"><\/a><\/noindex><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/449760\/\">Opakovan\u00e9 znovuobjeven\u00ed<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historie internetu\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450168\/\">P\u00e1te\u0159n\u00ed s\u00ed\u0165<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450522\/\">Rozpad, \u010d\u00e1st 1<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/451606\/\">Rozpad, \u010d\u00e1st 2<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/452030\/\">Otev\u00edr\u00e1n\u00ed interaktivity<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/453154\/\">Roz\u0161i\u0159ov\u00e1n\u00ed interaktivity<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">ARPANET \u2014 zrozen\u00ed<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">ARPANET \u2014 bal\u00ed\u010dek<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/461177\/\">ARPANET \u2014 pods\u00ed\u0165<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/472582\/\">Po\u010d\u00edta\u010d jako komunika\u010dn\u00ed za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/483366\/\">Historie internetu: mezi s\u00ed\u0165ov\u00e1 interakce<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\nNa konci roku 1966 <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80,_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_(%D1%83%D1%87%D1%91%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9)\">Robert Taylor<\/a><\/noindex> s pen\u011bzi ARPA zah\u00e1jil projekt propojen\u00ed mnoha po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016f do jedn\u00e9 syst\u00e9mu, inspirov\u00e1n my\u0161lenkou \u201e<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">mezigalaktick\u00e9 s\u00edt\u011b<\/a><\/noindex>\u201e <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%84_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82\">Josepha Carla Robnett Licklidera<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/p>\n<p>Odpov\u011bdnost za realizaci projektu Taylor p\u0159edal do zru\u010dn\u00fdch rukou <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%81,_%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81\">Larryho Robertse<\/a><\/noindex>. V n\u00e1sleduj\u00edc\u00edm roce Roberts p\u0159ijal n\u011bkolik kriticky d\u016fle\u017eit\u00fdch rozhodnut\u00ed, kter\u00e1 se pozd\u011bji odrazila v technick\u00e9 architektu\u0159e a kultu\u0159e ARPANETu a jej\u00edch n\u00e1sledovn\u00edk\u016f, v n\u011bkter\u00fdch p\u0159\u00edpadech \u2013 dokonce na cel\u00e9 desetilet\u00ed. Prvn\u00edm rozhodnut\u00edm podle d\u016fle\u017eitosti, i kdy\u017e nechronologicky, bylo ur\u010den\u00ed mechanismu sm\u011brov\u00e1n\u00ed zpr\u00e1v od jednoho po\u010d\u00edta\u010de k druh\u00e9mu.<br \/>\n<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" name=\"habracut\"><\/a><\/noindex><\/p>\n<h2>Probl\u00e9m<\/h2>\n<p>\nPokud po\u010d\u00edta\u010d A chce poslat zpr\u00e1vu po\u010d\u00edta\u010di B, jak najde cesta od jednoho k druh\u00e9mu? Teoreticky by bylo mo\u017en\u00e9 umo\u017enit ka\u017ed\u00e9mu uzlu s\u00edt\u011b komunikovat se v\u0161emi ostatn\u00edmi, propojen\u00edm fyzick\u00fdmi kabely ka\u017ed\u00fd uzel se v\u0161emi ostatn\u00edmi. Pro komunikaci s B by po\u010d\u00edta\u010d A jednodu\u0161e poslal zpr\u00e1vu po odchoz\u00edm kabelu, kter\u00fd ho spojuje s B. Takov\u00e1 s\u00ed\u0165 se naz\u00fdv\u00e1 pln\u011b propojen\u00e1. Av\u0161ak p\u0159i jak\u00e9koli v\u00fdznamn\u00e9 velikosti s\u00edt\u011b se takov\u00fd p\u0159\u00edstup rychle st\u00e1v\u00e1 nepraktick\u00fdm, proto\u017ee po\u010det spojen\u00ed roste, jako druh\u00e1 mocnina po\u010dtu uzl\u016f (p\u0159esn\u011bji, jako (n2 \u2014 n) \/ 2).<\/p>\n<p>Proto je zapot\u0159eb\u00ed n\u011bjak\u00fd zp\u016fsob, jak vybudovat trasu zpr\u00e1vy, kter\u00e1 by po p\u0159\u00edjezdu zpr\u00e1vy na mezilehl\u00fd uzel poslala d\u00e1l k c\u00edli. Na po\u010d\u00e1tku 60. let byly zn\u00e1my dva z\u00e1kladn\u00ed p\u0159\u00edstupy k \u0159e\u0161en\u00ed tohoto \u00fakolu. Prvn\u00ed \u2013 metoda p\u0159ep\u00edn\u00e1n\u00ed zpr\u00e1v prost\u0159ednictv\u00edm \u201euchov\u00e1v\u00e1n\u00ed a p\u0159ed\u00e1n\u00ed\u201c. Tento p\u0159\u00edstup se pou\u017e\u00edval v telegrafn\u00edm syst\u00e9mu. Kdy\u017e zpr\u00e1va dorazila na mezilehl\u00fd uzel, byla tam do\u010dasn\u011b ulo\u017eena (obvykle ve form\u011b pap\u00edrov\u00e9ho p\u00e1sku), dokud se nenaskytla mo\u017enost ji d\u00e1le odeslat k c\u00edli nebo k dal\u0161\u00edmu mezilehl\u00e9mu centru nach\u00e1zej\u00edc\u00edmu se bl\u00ed\u017e k c\u00edli.<\/p>\n<p>Pot\u00e9 se objevil telefon, a bylo pot\u0159eba zav\u00e9st nov\u00fd p\u0159\u00edstup. Zpo\u017ed\u011bn\u00ed n\u011bkolika minut po ka\u017ed\u00e9m vy\u0159\u010den\u00e9m slov\u011b, kter\u00e9 bylo nutn\u00e9 p\u0159epsat a p\u0159edat na m\u00edsto ur\u010den\u00ed, by dalo pocit, \u017ee mluv\u00edte s n\u011bk\u00fdm, kdo je na Marsu. M\u00edsto toho telefon pou\u017e\u00edval p\u0159ep\u00edn\u00e1n\u00ed okruh\u016f. Volaj\u00edc\u00ed za\u010d\u00ednal ka\u017ed\u00fd hovor posl\u00e1n\u00edm speci\u00e1ln\u00ed zpr\u00e1vy, kter\u00e1 ozna\u010dovala, komu chce zavolat. Zpo\u010d\u00e1tku to prob\u00edhalo tak, \u017ee se mluvilo s oper\u00e1torem, a pot\u00e9 se vyto\u010dil \u010d\u00edslo, kter\u00e9 zpracov\u00e1valo automatick\u00e9 za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed na \u00fast\u0159edn\u011b. Oper\u00e1tor nebo za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed nav\u00e1zali vyhrazen\u00e9 elektrick\u00e9 spojen\u00ed mezi volaj\u00edc\u00edm a volan\u00fdm \u00fa\u010dastn\u00edkem. V p\u0159\u00edpad\u011b mezim\u011bstsk\u00fdch hovor\u016f to mohlo vy\u017eadovat n\u011bkolik iterac\u00ed, kter\u00e9 spojovaly hovor p\u0159es n\u011bkolik \u00fast\u0159eden. Pot\u00e9, co bylo spojen\u00ed nav\u00e1z\u00e1no, mohl za\u010d\u00edt samotn\u00fd rozhovor, a spojen\u00ed z\u016fstalo aktivn\u00ed, dokud jedna ze stran nezav\u011bsila.<\/p>\n<p>Digit\u00e1ln\u00ed komunikaci, kterou se rozhodlo pou\u017e\u00edt ARPANET pro spojen\u00ed po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016f, pracuj\u00edc\u00ed na z\u00e1klad\u011b <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8\">\u010dasov\u00e9ho rozd\u011blen\u00ed<\/a><\/noindex>, vyu\u017e\u00edvala rysy jak telegrafu, tak telefonu. Z jedn\u00e9 strany byly zpr\u00e1vy s daty odes\u00edl\u00e1ny v samostatn\u00fdch paketech, jako na telegrafu, a nikoli jako nekone\u010dn\u00e9 rozhovory na telefonu. Tyto zpr\u00e1vy v\u0161ak mohly m\u00edt r\u016fznou velikost pro r\u016fzn\u00e9 \u00fa\u010dely, od p\u0159\u00edkaz\u016f v konzoli o d\u00e9lce n\u011bkolika znak\u016f a\u017e po velk\u00e9 soubory s daty, kter\u00e9 byly p\u0159en\u00e1\u0161eny z jednoho po\u010d\u00edta\u010de na druh\u00fd. Pokud byly soubory zpo\u017ed\u011bny na cest\u011b, nikdo si na to nest\u011b\u017eoval. Ale vzd\u00e1len\u00e1 interaktivita by vy\u017eadovala rychlou odezvu, jako p\u0159i telefonn\u00edm hovoru.<\/p>\n<p>Jedn\u00edm z kl\u00ed\u010dov\u00fdch rozd\u00edl\u016f mezi po\u010d\u00edta\u010dov\u00fdmi datov\u00fdmi s\u00edt\u011bmi a telefony s telegrafem byla citlivost na chyby v datech zpracov\u00e1van\u00fdch stroji. Zm\u011bna nebo ztr\u00e1ta jednoho znaku b\u011bhem p\u0159enosu v telegramech, \u010di ztr\u00e1ta \u010d\u00e1sti slova v telefonn\u00edm rozhovoru pravd\u011bpodobn\u011b nemohly v\u00e1\u017en\u011b naru\u0161it komunikaci mezi dv\u011bma lidmi. Ale pokud \u0161um na lince p\u0159epnul jedin\u00fd bit z 0 na 1 v p\u0159\u00edkazu pos\u00edlan\u00e9m na vzd\u00e1len\u00fd po\u010d\u00edta\u010d, mohlo to zcela zm\u011bnit smysl p\u0159\u00edkazu. Proto bylo nutn\u00e9 ka\u017ed\u00e9 zpr\u00e1v\u011b zkontrolovat chyby a v p\u0159\u00edpad\u011b jejich zji\u0161t\u011bn\u00ed ji znovu odeslat. Takov\u00e9 opakov\u00e1n\u00ed by bylo p\u0159\u00edli\u0161 n\u00e1kladn\u00e9 pro velk\u00e9 zpr\u00e1vy, a pravd\u011bpodobnost vzniku chyb v nich byla vy\u0161\u0161\u00ed, proto\u017ee byly p\u0159en\u00e1\u0161eny d\u00e9le.<\/p>\n<p>\u0158e\u0161en\u00ed tohoto probl\u00e9mu p\u0159i\u0161lo d\u00edky dv\u011bma nez\u00e1visl\u00fdm ud\u00e1lostem, kter\u00e9 se staly v roce 1960; ov\u0161em ta, kter\u00e1 se objevila pozd\u011bji, byla nejprve zaznamen\u00e1na Larrym Robertsem a ARPA.<\/p>\n<h2>Setk\u00e1n\u00ed<\/h2>\n<p>\nNa podzim roku 1967 dorazil Roberts do Gatlinburgu v Tennessee, obklopen\u00e9ho zalesn\u011bn\u00fdmi vrcholky Velk\u00e9 Smoky, aby doru\u010dil dokument popisuj\u00edc\u00ed pl\u00e1ny ARPA na nasazen\u00ed s\u00edt\u011b. Ji\u017e t\u00e9m\u011b\u0159 rok pracoval v \u00da\u0159adu technologi\u00ed zpracov\u00e1n\u00ed informac\u00ed (Information Processing Technology Office, IPTO), ale mnoho podrobnost\u00ed o projektu s\u00edt\u011b bylo st\u00e1le velmi nejasn\u00fdch, v\u010detn\u011b \u0159e\u0161en\u00ed probl\u00e9mu sm\u011brov\u00e1n\u00ed. Krom\u011b nejasn\u00fdch zm\u00ednek o bloc\u00edch a jejich velikostech byla jedinou referenc\u00ed na to v Robertsov\u011b pr\u00e1ci stru\u010dn\u00e1 a vyh\u00fdbav\u00e1 pozn\u00e1mka na sam\u00e9m konci: \u201eZd\u00e1 se, \u017ee je nezbytn\u00e9 dr\u017eet pravideln\u011b pou\u017e\u00edvanou komunika\u010dn\u00ed linku pro odpov\u011bdi v \u010dasov\u00e9m rozmez\u00ed od jedn\u00e9 des\u00e1t\u00e9 do jedn\u00e9 sekundy, co\u017e je pot\u0159eba pro interaktivn\u00ed pr\u00e1ci. To je velmi n\u00e1kladn\u00e9 z pohledu s\u00ed\u0165ov\u00fdch zdroj\u016f a pokud se n\u00e1m nepoda\u0159\u00ed zrychlit vol\u00e1n\u00ed, sm\u011brov\u00e1n\u00ed zpr\u00e1v a koncentrace se stanou pro \u00fa\u010dastn\u00edky s\u00edt\u011b velmi d\u016fle\u017eit\u00fdmi.\u201c Je z\u0159ejm\u00e9, \u017ee v t\u00e9 dob\u011b Roberts je\u0161t\u011b nerozhodl, zda se vzd\u00e1t metody, kterou pou\u017eil ve spolupr\u00e1ci s Tomem Marriellem v roce 1965, tedy p\u0159ipojen\u00ed po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016f prost\u0159ednictv\u00edm ve\u0159ejn\u00e9 telefonn\u00ed s\u00edt\u011b pomoc\u00ed automatick\u00e9ho vyt\u00e1\u010den\u00ed.<\/p>\n<p>Na stejn\u00e9m symposium byl p\u0159\u00edtomen i jin\u00fd \u010dlov\u011bk s mnohem l\u00e9pe promy\u0161len\u00fdm \u0159e\u0161en\u00edm probl\u00e9mu s routov\u00e1n\u00edm v datov\u00fdch s\u00edt\u00edch. Roger Scantlebury p\u0159ekro\u010dil Atlantik a dorazil z Britsk\u00e9 n\u00e1rodn\u00ed fyzik\u00e1ln\u00ed laborato\u0159e British National Physical Laboratory (NPL) se sv\u00fdm p\u0159\u00edsp\u011bvkem. Scantlebury si po jeho v\u00fdstupu odvedl Robertse na bok a vypr\u00e1v\u011bl mu o sv\u00e9 my\u0161lence. <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2\">paketov\u00e9ho p\u0159ep\u00edn\u00e1n\u00ed<\/a><\/noindex>. Tuto technologii vyvinul jeho vedouc\u00ed v NPL, Donald Davies. V USA jsou dosa\u017een\u00e9 v\u00fdsledky a historie Daviese \u0161patn\u011b zn\u00e1m\u00e9, a\u010dkoli na podzim roku 1967 byla skupina Daviese v NPL alespo\u0148 o rok nap\u0159ed p\u0159ed ARPA se sv\u00fdmi n\u00e1pady.<\/p>\n<p>Davies, jako mnoz\u00ed ran\u00ed pion\u00fd\u0159i elektronick\u00fdch po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016f, m\u011bl vzd\u011bl\u00e1n\u00ed fyzika. V roce 1943, ve v\u011bku 19 let, absolvoval Imperi\u00e1ln\u00ed \u0161kolu v Lond\u00fdn\u011b a byl ihned p\u0159ijat do tajn\u00e9ho programu v\u00fdvoje jadern\u00fdch zbran\u00ed s kryc\u00edm n\u00e1zvem <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tube_Alloys\">Tube Alloys<\/a><\/noindex>. Tam vedl t\u00fdm v\u00fdpo\u010dt\u00e1\u0159\u016f, kte\u0159\u00ed pou\u017e\u00edvali mechanick\u00e9 a elektrick\u00e9 kalkula\u010dky pro rychl\u00e9 z\u00edsk\u00e1v\u00e1n\u00ed \u010d\u00edseln\u00fdch \u0159e\u0161en\u00ed \u00faloh spojen\u00fdch s jadernou f\u00faz\u00ed (byl pod veden\u00edm <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%81,_%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%AE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81\">Emil Julius Klaus Fuchs<\/a><\/noindex>, n\u011bmeck\u00fd fyzik-expatriant, kter\u00fd ji\u017e v t\u00e9 dob\u011b za\u010dal p\u0159ed\u00e1vat tajemstv\u00ed jadern\u00fdch zbran\u00ed SSSR). Po v\u00e1lce se od matematika Johna Womersleyho dozv\u011bd\u011bl o projektu, kter\u00fd vedl v NPL \u2013 \u0161lo o vytvo\u0159en\u00ed elektronick\u00e9ho po\u010d\u00edta\u010de, kter\u00fd m\u011bl prov\u00e1d\u011bt toto\u017en\u00e9 v\u00fdpo\u010dty mnohem rychleji. <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Po\u010d\u00edta\u010d navr\u017een\u00fd Alanem Turingem<\/a><\/noindex> byl nazv\u00e1n ACE, \"automated computing engine\".<\/p>\n<p>Davis se chopil t\u00e9to my\u0161lenky a p\u0159ipojil se k NPL co nejrychleji. P\u0159isp\u011bl k podrobn\u00e9mu projektu a vytvo\u0159en\u00ed po\u010d\u00edta\u010de ACE, z\u016fstal hluboce zapojen do oblasti v\u00fdpo\u010detn\u00edch stroj\u016f jako vedouc\u00ed v\u00fdzkumu v NPL. V roce 1965 se stalo, \u017ee byl v USA na odborn\u00e9 sch\u016fzce souvisej\u00edc\u00ed se svou prac\u00ed a vyu\u017eil t\u00e9to p\u0159\u00edle\u017eitosti, aby nav\u0161t\u00edvil n\u011bkolik v\u00fdznamn\u00fdch z\u00e1kladn\u00edch stanic po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016f s \u010dasov\u00fdm d\u011blen\u00edm, aby zjistil, o co jde. V britsk\u00e9m prost\u0159ed\u00ed v\u00fdpo\u010detn\u00ed techniky nebylo \u010dasov\u00e9 d\u011blen\u00ed v americk\u00e9m smyslu interaktivn\u00edho sd\u00edlen\u00ed po\u010d\u00edta\u010de v\u00edce u\u017eivateli zn\u00e1m\u00e9. M\u00edsto toho m\u011blo \u010dasov\u00e9 d\u011blen\u00ed za c\u00edl rozlo\u017eit z\u00e1t\u011b\u017e po\u010d\u00edta\u010de mezi n\u011bkolika programy pro d\u00e1vkov\u00e9 zpracov\u00e1n\u00ed dat (tak\u017ee nap\u0159\u00edklad jeden program b\u011b\u017eel, zat\u00edmco druh\u00fd byl zanepr\u00e1zdn\u011bn \u010dten\u00edm z p\u00e1sky). Tento zp\u016fsob byl pozd\u011bji nazv\u00e1n multiprogramov\u00e1n\u00edm.<\/p>\n<p>Davisovy cesty ho zavedly k projektu MAC na MIT, projektu JOSS od RAND Corporation v Kalifornii a k Dartmouthov\u011b syst\u00e9mu \u010dasov\u00e9ho d\u011blen\u00ed v New Hampshire. Po cest\u011b dom\u016f navrhl jeden z jeho koleg\u016f uspo\u0159\u00e1dat semin\u00e1\u0159 o sd\u00edlen\u00e9m pou\u017e\u00edv\u00e1n\u00ed, aby britsk\u00e9 komunit\u011b p\u0159ibl\u00ed\u017eil nov\u00e9 technologie, kter\u00e9 se dozv\u011bd\u011bli v USA. Davis souhlasil a p\u0159iv\u00edtal mnoho v\u00fdznamn\u00fdch postav americk\u00e9 v\u00fdpo\u010detn\u00ed oblasti, v\u010detn\u011b <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE,_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE_%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5\">Fernanda Jos\u00e9 Corbata<\/a><\/noindex> (tv\u016frce \"kompatibiln\u00edho syst\u00e9mu \u010dasov\u00e9ho d\u011blen\u00ed\" na MIT) a samotn\u00e9ho Larryho Robertse.<\/p>\n<p>B\u011bhem semin\u00e1\u0159e (nebo mo\u017en\u00e1 hned pot\u00e9) Davise oslovila my\u0161lenka, \u017ee filozofii \u010dasov\u00e9ho sd\u00edlen\u00ed lze aplikovat i na po\u010d\u00edta\u010dov\u00e9 komunika\u010dn\u00ed linky, a ne jen na samotn\u00e9 po\u010d\u00edta\u010de. Po\u010d\u00edta\u010de s \u010dasov\u00fdm sd\u00edlen\u00edm poskytuj\u00ed ka\u017ed\u00e9mu u\u017eivateli mal\u00fd \u00fasek procesorov\u00e9ho \u010dasu a pak p\u0159epnou na jin\u00e9ho, co\u017e vytv\u00e1\u0159\u00ed iluzi, \u017ee m\u00e1 ka\u017ed\u00fd u\u017eivatel sv\u016fj vlastn\u00ed interaktivn\u00ed po\u010d\u00edta\u010d. Podobn\u011b lze rozd\u011blen\u00edm ka\u017ed\u00e9 zpr\u00e1vy na kusy standardn\u00ed velikosti, kter\u00e9 Davis nazval 'pakety', sd\u00edlet jeden komunika\u010dn\u00ed kan\u00e1l mezi mnoha po\u010d\u00edta\u010di nebo u\u017eivateli jednoho po\u010d\u00edta\u010de. Co v\u00edce, to by vy\u0159e\u0161ilo v\u0161echny aspekty p\u0159enosu dat, pro kter\u00e9 byly telefonn\u00ed a telegrafn\u00ed p\u0159ep\u00edna\u010de nevhodn\u00e9. U\u017eivatel pracuj\u00edc\u00ed s interaktivn\u00edm termin\u00e1lem, kter\u00fd pos\u00edl\u00e1 kr\u00e1tk\u00e9 p\u0159\u00edkazy a dost\u00e1v\u00e1 kr\u00e1tk\u00e9 odpov\u011bdi, nebude blokov\u00e1n p\u0159enosem velk\u00e9ho souboru, proto\u017ee tento p\u0159enos bude rozd\u011blen na mnoho paket\u016f. Jak\u00e9koliv po\u0161kozen\u00ed v takov\u00fdch velk\u00fdch zpr\u00e1v\u00e1ch se dotkne pouze jednoho paketu, kter\u00fd lze snadno znovu poslat k dokon\u010den\u00ed zpr\u00e1vy.<\/p>\n<p>Davis popsal sv\u00e9 my\u0161lenky v nezve\u0159ejn\u011bn\u00e9 pr\u00e1ci z roku 1966, 'N\u00e1vrh pro digit\u00e1ln\u00ed s\u00ed\u0165 komunikace'. V t\u00e9 dob\u011b byly nejmodern\u011bj\u0161\u00ed telefonn\u00ed s\u00edt\u011b na pokraji digitalizace p\u0159ep\u00edna\u010d\u016f a Davis navrhl integrovat p\u0159ep\u00edn\u00e1n\u00ed paket\u016f do telefonn\u00ed s\u00edt\u011b nov\u00e9 generace, \u010d\u00edm\u017e vytvo\u0159il jednotnou \u0161irokop\u00e1smovou komunika\u010dn\u00ed s\u00ed\u0165 schopnou obsluhovat r\u016fzn\u00e9 po\u017eadavky, od jednoduch\u00fdch telefonn\u00edch hovor\u016f po vzd\u00e1len\u00fd p\u0159\u00edstup k po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016fm. Do t\u00e9 doby byl Davis pov\u00fd\u0161en na vedouc\u00edho NPL a sestavil skupinu pro digit\u00e1ln\u00ed komunikaci vedenou Scantleburym, aby realizoval jeho projekt a vytvo\u0159il funk\u010dn\u00ed demonstra\u010dn\u00ed verzi.<\/p>\n<p>V roce p\u0159edch\u00e1zej\u00edc\u00edm konferenci v Gatlinburgu t\u00fdm Skantlbery vypracoval v\u0161echny detaily pro vytvo\u0159en\u00ed s\u00edt\u011b s p\u0159ep\u00edn\u00e1n\u00edm paket\u016f. Selh\u00e1n\u00ed jednoho uzlu bylo mo\u017en\u00e9 p\u0159ekonat pomoc\u00ed adaptivn\u00edho sm\u011brov\u00e1n\u00ed, kter\u00e9 mohlo pracovat s v\u00edce cestami k c\u00edli, a selh\u00e1n\u00ed jednotliv\u00e9ho paketu bylo mo\u017en\u00e9 vy\u0159e\u0161it jeho op\u011btovn\u00fdm odesl\u00e1n\u00edm. Simulace a anal\u00fdzy uk\u00e1zaly, \u017ee optim\u00e1ln\u00ed velikost paketu bude 1000 byt\u016f \u2013 pokud by byl p\u0159\u00edli\u0161 mal\u00fd, n\u00e1klady na \u0161\u00ed\u0159ku p\u00e1sma pro metadata v hlavi\u010dce by byly p\u0159\u00edli\u0161 vysok\u00e9, a pokud by byl p\u0159\u00edli\u0161 velk\u00fd, doba odezvy pro interaktivn\u00ed u\u017eivatele by se p\u0159\u00edli\u0161 \u010dasto prodlu\u017eovala kv\u016fli velk\u00fdm zpr\u00e1v\u00e1m.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie internetu: ARPANET \u2014 paket\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/9e5ff363887f30af503522d67645ef70.png\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Pr\u00e1ce Skantlbery obsahovala takov\u00e9 detaily jako form\u00e1t paketu\u2026<\/i><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie internetu: ARPANET \u2014 paket\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/27aaf70301d4564d088ab5106d8dc158.png\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>\u2026a anal\u00fdzu vlivu velikosti paketu na zpo\u017ed\u011bn\u00ed v s\u00edti.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Mezit\u00edm p\u00e1tr\u00e1n\u00ed po Davisovi a Skantlbery vedlo k odhalen\u00ed podrobn\u00fdch v\u00fdzkumn\u00fdch prac\u00ed, kter\u00e9 provedl jin\u00fd Ameri\u010dan, kter\u00fd p\u0159i\u0161el na podobnou my\u0161lenku n\u011bkolik let p\u0159ed nimi. Ale p\u0159itom <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD,_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB\">Paul Baran<\/a><\/noindex>, elektrick\u00fd in\u017een\u00fdr z RAND Corporation, v\u016fbec nezva\u017eoval pot\u0159eby u\u017eivatel\u016f po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016f s \u010dasov\u00fdm d\u011blen\u00edm. RAND byl analytick\u00fd centrum, kter\u00e9 pracovalo za pen\u00edze ministerstva obrany USA v Santa Monice v Kalifornii, zalo\u017een\u00e9 po druh\u00e9 sv\u011btov\u00e9 v\u00e1lce pro dlouhodob\u00e9 pl\u00e1nov\u00e1n\u00ed a anal\u00fdzu strategick\u00fdch probl\u00e9m\u016f pro vojensk\u00e9 pot\u0159eby. C\u00edlem Barana bylo odd\u00e1lit jadernou v\u00e1lku vytvo\u0159en\u00edm velmi spolehliv\u00e9 vojensk\u00e9 komunika\u010dn\u00ed s\u00edt\u011b, kter\u00e1 by dok\u00e1zala p\u0159e\u017e\u00edt i rozs\u00e1hl\u00fd jadern\u00fd \u00fatok. Takov\u00e1 s\u00ed\u0165 by u\u010dinila preventivn\u00ed \u00fader ze strany SSSR m\u00e9n\u011b atraktivn\u00edm, nebo\u0165 by bylo velmi obt\u00ed\u017en\u00e9 zni\u010dit schopnost USA zas\u00e1hnout n\u011bkolik citliv\u00fdch bod\u016f. K tomu Baran navrhl syst\u00e9m, kter\u00fd rozd\u011blil zpr\u00e1vy na to, \u010demu \u0159\u00edkal bloky zpr\u00e1v, kter\u00e9 by mohly b\u00fdt nez\u00e1visle p\u0159en\u00e1\u0161eny po s\u00edti uzl\u016f s redundantn\u00edm po\u010dtem spojen\u00ed a pot\u00e9 shrom\u00e1\u017ed\u011bny na kone\u010dn\u00e9m bod\u011b.<\/p>\n<p>ARPA m\u011blo p\u0159\u00edstup k rozs\u00e1hl\u00fdm zpr\u00e1v\u00e1m Behrana pro RAND, av\u0161ak proto\u017ee nebyly spojeny s interaktivn\u00edmi po\u010d\u00edta\u010di, jejich v\u00fdznam pro ARPANET nebyl z\u0159ejm\u00fd. Roberts a Taylor si jich z\u0159ejm\u011b nev\u0161imli. M\u00edsto toho, na z\u00e1klad\u011b jedn\u00e9 n\u00e1hodn\u00e9 sch\u016fzky, Skantlbery v\u0161echno prezentoval Robertsovi na st\u0159\u00edbrn\u00e9m podnosu: dob\u0159e promy\u0161len\u00fd mechanismus sp\u00edn\u00e1n\u00ed, pou\u017eitelnost pro \u00fakol vytv\u00e1\u0159en\u00ed interaktivn\u00edch po\u010d\u00edta\u010dov\u00fdch s\u00edt\u00ed, reference od RAND a dokonce i n\u00e1zev \u201epacket\u201c. Pr\u00e1ce NPL tak\u00e9 p\u0159esv\u011bd\u010dila Robertse, \u017ee pro zaji\u0161t\u011bn\u00ed dobr\u00e9 propustnosti budou pot\u0159eba vy\u0161\u0161\u00ed rychlosti, a proto aktualizoval sv\u00e9 pl\u00e1ny na komunika\u010dn\u00ed linky s rychlost\u00ed 50 Kbit\/s. Pro vytvo\u0159en\u00ed ARPANET byla z\u00e1sadn\u00ed \u010d\u00e1st probl\u00e9mu sm\u011brov\u00e1n\u00ed vy\u0159e\u0161ena.<\/p>\n<p>Pravda, existuje i jin\u00e1 verze vzniku my\u0161lenky sp\u00edn\u00e1n\u00ed paket\u016f. Roberts pozd\u011bji tvrdil, \u017ee u\u017e m\u011bl podobn\u00e9 my\u0161lenky d\u00edky pr\u00e1ci sv\u00e9ho kolegy, Lena Kleinrocka, kter\u00fd \u00fadajn\u011b popsal tento koncept ji\u017e v roce 1962 ve sv\u00e9 doktorandsk\u00e9 pr\u00e1ci o komunika\u010dn\u00edch s\u00edt\u00edch. Nicm\u00e9n\u011b z t\u00e9to pr\u00e1ce je neuv\u011b\u0159iteln\u011b obt\u00ed\u017en\u00e9 tuto my\u0161lenku vyvodit a krom\u011b toho jsem nena\u0161el \u017e\u00e1dn\u00e1 dal\u0161\u00ed potvrzen\u00ed t\u00e9to verze.<\/p>\n<h2>S\u00edt\u011b, kter\u00e9 neexistovaly<\/h2>\n<p>\nJak vid\u00edme, cel\u00e9 dv\u011b t\u00fdmy p\u0159edb\u011bhly ARPA v ot\u00e1zce v\u00fdvoje sp\u00edn\u00e1n\u00ed paket\u016f, technologie, kter\u00e1 se uk\u00e1zala jako tak efektivn\u00ed, \u017ee nyn\u00ed le\u017e\u00ed v z\u00e1kladu prakticky v\u0161ech komunikac\u00ed. Pro\u010d tedy ARPANET byla prvn\u00ed v\u00fdznamn\u00e1 s\u00ed\u0165, kter\u00e1 ji pou\u017eila?<\/p>\n<p>V\u0161echny tyto ot\u00e1zky souvisej\u00ed s organiza\u010dn\u00edmi nuancemi. ARPA nem\u011bla ofici\u00e1ln\u00ed povolen\u00ed k vytvo\u0159en\u00ed komunika\u010dn\u00ed s\u00edt\u011b, av\u0161ak existovalo mnoho ji\u017e existuj\u00edc\u00edch v\u00fdzkumn\u00fdch center se sv\u00fdmi po\u010d\u00edta\u010di, kultura \u201evoln\u00fdch\u201c mrav\u016f, nad kterou prakticky nikdo nedohl\u00ed\u017eel, a hromady pen\u011bz. P\u016fvodn\u00ed \u017e\u00e1dost Taylora z roku 1966 o finan\u010dn\u00ed prost\u0159edky na vytvo\u0159en\u00ed ARPANET uvedla \u010d\u00e1stku 1 milion dolar\u016f, a Roberts pokra\u010doval v utr\u00e1cen\u00ed podobn\u00e9 \u010d\u00e1stky ka\u017ed\u00fd rok od roku 1969 a d\u00e1le na vytvo\u0159en\u00ed a provoz t\u00e9to s\u00edt\u011b. Pro ARPA byly tyto pen\u00edze drobn\u00e9, a tak nikdo z jeho nad\u0159\u00edzen\u00fdch nem\u011bl obavy o to, co Roberts s nimi d\u011bl\u00e1, pokud to \u0161lo n\u011bjak p\u0159it\u00e1hnout k pot\u0159eb\u00e1m n\u00e1rodn\u00ed obrany.<\/p>\n<p>Behran v RAND nem\u011bl ani mo\u017enosti, ani autoritu n\u011bco podniknout. Jeho pr\u00e1ce byla \u010dist\u011b v\u00fdzkumn\u00e1 a analytick\u00e1, a mohla b\u00fdt v p\u0159\u00edpad\u011b pot\u0159eby pou\u017eita pro obranu. V roce 1965 skute\u010dn\u011b RAND doporu\u010dil jeho syst\u00e9m pro letectvo, a ti souhlasili s \u017eivotaschopnost\u00ed projektu. Ale jeho realizace spadla na bedra agentury obrann\u00fdch komunikac\u00ed, kter\u00e1 se p\u0159\u00edli\u0161 nerozptylovala s digit\u00e1ln\u00edmi komunika\u010dn\u00edmi syst\u00e9my. Behran p\u0159esv\u011bd\u010dil veden\u00ed v RAND, \u017ee je lep\u0161\u00ed tento n\u00e1vrh p\u0159evz\u00edt, ne\u017e ho nechat realizovat n\u011bjak\u00fdm zp\u016fsobem a po\u0161kodit tak pov\u011bst distribuovan\u00fdch digit\u00e1ln\u00edch komunikac\u00ed.<\/p>\n<p>Davis, jako vedouc\u00ed NPL, m\u011bl mnohem v\u011bt\u0161\u00ed moc ne\u017e Behran, ale omezen\u011bj\u0161\u00ed rozpo\u010det ne\u017e ARPA, a nem\u011bl p\u0159ipravenou soci\u00e1ln\u00ed a technickou s\u00ed\u0165 v\u00fdzkumn\u00fdch po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016f. Poda\u0159ilo se mu vytvo\u0159it prototyp lok\u00e1ln\u00ed s\u00edt\u011b s paketov\u00fdm p\u0159ep\u00edn\u00e1n\u00edm (byl tam jen jeden uzel, ale hodn\u011b termin\u00e1l\u016f) v NPL na konci 60. let s skromn\u00fdm rozpo\u010dtem 120 000 liber za t\u0159i roky. ARPANET utr\u00e1cel p\u0159ibli\u017en\u011b polovinu t\u00e9to \u010d\u00e1stky ro\u010dn\u011b na provoz a \u00fadr\u017ebu na ka\u017ed\u00e9m z mnoha uzl\u016f s\u00edt\u011b, krom\u011b po\u010d\u00e1te\u010dn\u00edch investic do hardwaru a softwaru. Organizac\u00ed schopnou vytvo\u0159it velkoform\u00e1tovou britskou s\u00ed\u0165 s paketov\u00fdm p\u0159ep\u00edn\u00e1n\u00edm byla britsk\u00e1 po\u0161ta, kter\u00e1 spravovala telekomunika\u010dn\u00ed s\u00edt\u011b v zemi, krom\u011b samotn\u00e9 po\u0161tovn\u00ed komunikace. Davis dok\u00e1zal zaujmout n\u011bkolik vlivn\u00fdch \u00fa\u0159edn\u00edk\u016f sv\u00fdmi my\u0161lenkami na sjednocenou digit\u00e1ln\u00ed s\u00ed\u0165 n\u00e1rodn\u00edho m\u011b\u0159\u00edtka, ale zm\u011bnit sm\u011br tak obrovsk\u00e9ho syst\u00e9mu nebylo v jeho sil\u00e1ch.<\/p>\n<p>Lickliderovi se, kombinac\u00ed \u0161t\u011bst\u00ed a pl\u00e1nov\u00e1n\u00ed, poda\u0159ilo naj\u00edt vynikaj\u00edc\u00ed sklen\u00edk, kde by mohla kv\u00e9st jeho mezigalaktick\u00e1 s\u00ed\u0165. Nen\u00ed v\u0161ak mo\u017en\u00e9 tvrdit, \u017ee krom\u011b paketov\u00e9ho p\u0159ep\u00edn\u00e1n\u00ed \u0161lo v\u0161echno jen o pen\u00edze. D\u016fle\u017eitou roli hr\u00e1lo tak\u00e9 proveden\u00ed my\u0161lenky. Nav\u00edc, ducha ARPANETu ur\u010dily i dal\u0161\u00ed d\u016fle\u017eit\u00e9 rozhodnut\u00ed b\u011bhem n\u00e1vrhu. Proto se nyn\u00ed pod\u00edv\u00e1me na to, jak byla odpov\u011bdnost rozd\u011blena mezi po\u010d\u00edta\u010de, kter\u00e9 pos\u00edlaly a p\u0159ij\u00edmaly zpr\u00e1vy, a s\u00edt\u00ed, p\u0159es kterou tyto zpr\u00e1vy odes\u00edlaly.<\/p>\n<h2>Co si je\u0161t\u011b p\u0159e\u010d\u00edst<\/h2>\n<p><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Janet Abbate, Vyn\u00e1lez internetu (1999)<\/li>\n<li>Katie Hafner a Matthew Lyon, Kde \u010darod\u011bjov\u00e9 nesp\u00ed (1996)<\/li>\n<li>Leonard Kleinrock, \u201cRan\u00e1 historie internetu,\u201d IEEE Communications Magazine (srpen 2010)<\/li>\n<li>Arthur Norberg a Julie O\u2019Neill, Transformace po\u010d\u00edta\u010dov\u00e9 technologie: Zpracov\u00e1n\u00ed informac\u00ed pro Pentagon, 1962-1986 (1996)<\/li>\n<li>M. Mitchell Waldrop, The Dream Machine: J.C.R. Licklider a revoluce, kter\u00e1 u\u010dinila po\u010d\u00edta\u010de osobn\u00edmi (2001)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Zdroj: <a content=\"nofollow\" rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">habr.com<\/a><\/p>","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u0421\u0445\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u0442\u0438 ARPA \u043d\u0430 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044c 1967. \u041f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043e\u043a \u2013 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0441 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430, \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043e\u043a \u0441 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u2013 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430: \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u041c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434 \u00ab\u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439\u00bb, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0417\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0414\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0446 \u0413\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0410 \u0432\u043e\u0442, \u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0446, \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0413\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0417\u0430\u0431\u044b\u0442\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u042d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u044d\u0440\u0430 \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[688],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-55048","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-administrirovanie"],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t<!-- All in One SEO 5.0.3 - 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