{"id":55070,"date":"2020-01-11T00:00:00","date_gmt":"2020-01-10T21:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/blog\/blog_prohoster\/istoriya-tranzistora-chast-2-iz-gornila-vojny"},"modified":"2020-02-18T14:03:09","modified_gmt":"2020-02-18T11:03:09","slug":"istoriya-tranzistora-chast-2-iz-gornila-vojny","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/cs\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-tranzistora-chast-2-iz-gornila-vojny","title":{"rendered":"Historie tranzistoru, \u010d\u00e1st 2: z v\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9ho pekla","gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"text"}]},"content":{"rendered":"<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru, \u010d\u00e1st 2: z v\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9ho pekla\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/cff070a7b083f5b3945308e20ef9789d.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<br \/>\n<b class=\"spoiler_title\">Dal\u0161\u00ed \u010dl\u00e1nky cyklu:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Historie rel\u00e9\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404373\/\">Metoda \u201erychl\u00e9ho p\u0159enosu informac\u00ed\u201c, nebo Zrozen\u00ed rel\u00e9<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404475\/\">D\u00e1lkov\u00fd psac\u00ed stroj<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/370545\/\">Galvanismus<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404657\/\">Podnikatel\u00e9<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404723\/\">A tady je kone\u010dn\u011b rel\u00e9<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404889\/\">Hovorn\u00fd telegraf<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405025\/\">Jednodu\u0161e spojit<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/company\/mailru\/blog\/370471\/\">Zapomenut\u00e1 generace rel\u00e9ov\u00fdch po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016f<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">Elektronick\u00e1 \u00e9ra<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historie elektronick\u00fdch po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016f\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408611\/\">Prolog<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/374043\/\">Koloss<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408597\/\">ENIAC <\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Elektronick\u00e1 revoluce<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historie tranzistoru\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">Hmatem v temnot\u011b<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">Z pekla v\u00e1lky<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\"><\/a><\/noindex><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/449760\/\">Opakovan\u00e9 znovuobjeven\u00ed<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historie internetu\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450168\/\">P\u00e1te\u0159n\u00ed s\u00ed\u0165<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450522\/\">Rozpad, \u010d\u00e1st 1<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/451606\/\">Rozpad, \u010d\u00e1st 2<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/452030\/\">Otev\u00edr\u00e1n\u00ed interaktivity<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/453154\/\">Roz\u0161i\u0159ov\u00e1n\u00ed interaktivity<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">ARPANET \u2014 zrozen\u00ed<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">ARPANET \u2014 bal\u00ed\u010dek<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/461177\/\">ARPANET \u2014 pods\u00ed\u0165<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/472582\/\">Po\u010d\u00edta\u010d jako komunika\u010dn\u00ed za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/483366\/\">Historie internetu: mezi s\u00ed\u0165ov\u00e1 interakce<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\nV\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9 peklo p\u0159ipravilo p\u016fdu pro vznik tranzistoru. Mezi lety 1939 a 1945 se technick\u00e9 znalosti v oblasti polovodi\u010d\u016f neuv\u011b\u0159iteln\u011b rozrostly. A d\u016fvod byl jednoduch\u00fd: radar. Nejv\u00fdznamn\u011bj\u0161\u00ed technologie v\u00e1lky, mezi jej\u00edmi\u017e p\u0159\u00edklady pou\u017eit\u00ed je: detekce vzdu\u0161n\u00e9ho \u00fatoku, vyhled\u00e1v\u00e1n\u00ed ponorek, sm\u011brov\u00e1n\u00ed no\u010dn\u00edch leteck\u00fdch \u00fatok\u016f na c\u00edle, nav\u00e1d\u011bn\u00ed protivzdu\u0161n\u00fdch prost\u0159edk\u016f a n\u00e1mo\u0159n\u00edch d\u011bl. In\u017een\u00fd\u0159i dokonce dok\u00e1zali vm\u011bstnat drobn\u00e9 radary do d\u011blost\u0159eleck\u00fdch gran\u00e1t\u016f, aby vybuchly p\u0159i pr\u016fletu pobl\u00ed\u017e c\u00edle \u2013 <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B7%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C\">r\u00e1diov\u00e9 n\u00e1lo\u017ee<\/a><\/noindex>. Nicm\u00e9n\u011b zdrojem t\u00e9to nov\u00e9 mocn\u00e9 vojensk\u00e9 technologie byla klidn\u011bj\u0161\u00ed oblast: studium horn\u00edch vrstev atmosf\u00e9ry za v\u011bdeck\u00fdmi \u00fa\u010dely.<br \/>\n<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" name=\"habracut\"><\/a><\/noindex><\/p>\n<h2>Radar<\/h2>\n<p>\nV roce 1901 spole\u010dnost \u201eBezdr\u00e1tov\u00fd telegraf Marconi\u201c \u00fasp\u011b\u0161n\u011b p\u0159enesla bezdr\u00e1tovou zpr\u00e1vu p\u0159es Atlantik, z Cornwallu do Newfoundlandu. Tento fakt uvedl modern\u00ed v\u011bdu do rozpak\u016f. Pokud se r\u00e1diov\u00e9 sign\u00e1ly pohybuj\u00ed po p\u0159\u00edmce (jak by m\u011bly), takov\u00e1 p\u0159enos by nem\u011bl b\u00fdt mo\u017en\u00fd. Mezi Angli\u00ed a Kanadou neexistuje p\u0159\u00edm\u00e1 viditelnost, kter\u00e1 by neproch\u00e1zela Zem\u00ed, tak\u017ee zpr\u00e1va Marconiho musela vzl\u00e9tnout do vesm\u00edru. Americk\u00fd in\u017een\u00fdr Arthur Kennelly a britsk\u00fd fyzik Oliver Heaviside sou\u010dasn\u011b a nez\u00e1visle nazna\u010dili, \u017ee vysv\u011btlen\u00ed fenomen by m\u011blo souviset se vrstevnat\u00fdm ionizovan\u00fdm plynem v horn\u00edch vrstv\u00e1ch atmosf\u00e9ry, kter\u00fd je schopen odr\u00e1\u017eet r\u00e1diov\u00e9 vlny zp\u011bt k Zemi (s\u00e1m Marconi v\u011b\u0159il, \u017ee r\u00e1diov\u00e9 vlny sleduj\u00ed zak\u0159iven\u00ed povrchu Zem\u011b, ale fyzici ho nepodporovali).<\/p>\n<p>Do 20. let 20. stolet\u00ed vyvinuli v\u011bdci nov\u00e1 za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed, kter\u00e1 nejprve dok\u00e1zala existenci ionosf\u00e9ry a pot\u00e9 studovat jej\u00ed strukturu. Pou\u017e\u00edvali elektronk\u00e1 za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed k generov\u00e1n\u00ed kr\u00e1tkovlnn\u00fdch r\u00e1dioimpuls\u016f, sm\u011brov\u00e9 ant\u00e9ny k jejich vys\u00edl\u00e1n\u00ed vzh\u016fru do atmosf\u00e9ry a registraci echa, a <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B\">elektronov\u00e9 trubice<\/a><\/noindex> k demonstraci v\u00fdsledk\u016f. \u010c\u00edm del\u0161\u00ed byla prodleva n\u00e1vratu echa, t\u00edm d\u00e1l musela b\u00fdt ionosf\u00e9ra. Tato technologie byla nazv\u00e1na atmosf\u00e9rick\u00fdm sondov\u00e1n\u00edm a poskytla z\u00e1kladn\u00ed technickou infrastrukturu pro vznik radaru (term\u00edn \u201eradar\u201c, od RAdio Detection And Ranging, se objevil a\u017e v 40. letech v n\u00e1mo\u0159nictvu USA).<\/p>\n<p>\u017de lid\u00e9 s pot\u0159ebn\u00fdmi znalostmi, zdroji a motivac\u00ed pochopili potenci\u00e1l pozemn\u00edho vyu\u017eit\u00ed tohoto za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed, byla jen ot\u00e1zka \u010dasu (historie radaru je tedy opa\u010dn\u00e1 ne\u017e historie dalekohledu, kter\u00fd byl p\u016fvodn\u011b ur\u010den pro pozemn\u00ed pou\u017eit\u00ed). A pravd\u011bpodobnost takov\u00e9ho osv\u00edcen\u00ed se zvy\u0161ovala s t\u00edm, jak se r\u00e1dio st\u00e1le v\u00edce \u0161\u00ed\u0159ilo po planet\u011b, a st\u00e1le v\u00edce lid\u00ed si za\u010d\u00ednalo v\u0161\u00edmat ru\u0161en\u00ed poch\u00e1zej\u00edc\u00edho od nedalek\u00fdch plavidel, letadel a dal\u0161\u00edch velk\u00fdch objekt\u016f. Znalosti z oblasti technologi\u00ed sondov\u00e1n\u00ed horn\u00edch vrstev atmosf\u00e9ry se roz\u0161\u00ed\u0159ily b\u011bhem druh\u00e9ho <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4\">Mezin\u00e1rodn\u00edho pol\u00e1rn\u00edho roku<\/a><\/noindex> (1932-1933), kdy v\u011bdci z r\u016fzn\u00fdch arktick\u00fdch stanic vytv\u00e1\u0159eli mapu ionosf\u00e9ry. Brzy pot\u00e9 t\u00fdmy z Brit\u00e1nie, USA, N\u011bmecka, It\u00e1lie, SSSR a dal\u0161\u00edch zem\u00ed vyvinuly sv\u00e9 nejjednodu\u0161\u0161\u00ed radarov\u00e9 syst\u00e9my.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru, \u010d\u00e1st 2: z v\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9ho pekla\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/a85e0d4cec7bba6ab1fea42422b906b0.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD-%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82,_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82\">Robert Watson-Watt<\/a><\/noindex> se sv\u00fdm radarem z roku 1935.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Pak p\u0159i\u0161la v\u00e1lka a d\u016fle\u017eitost radar\u016f pro zem\u011b \u2013 a zdroj\u016f na jejich v\u00fdvoj \u2013 prudce vzrostla. V USA se tyto zdroje soust\u0159edily kolem nov\u00e9 organizace zalo\u017een\u00e9 v roce 1940 na MIT, zn\u00e1m\u00e9 jako <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory\">Rad Lab<\/a><\/noindex> (byla pojmenov\u00e1na tak, aby uvedla zahrani\u010dn\u00ed \u0161pehy v omyl a vytvo\u0159ila dojem, \u017ee se v laborato\u0159i zkoum\u00e1 radioaktivita \u2013 tehdy je\u0161t\u011b m\u00e1lokdo v\u011b\u0159il v atomov\u00e9 bomby). Projekt Rad Lab, kter\u00fd se neproslavil tolik jako Manhattan Project, p\u0159esto z\u00edskal do sv\u00fdch \u0159ad stejn\u011b v\u00fdjime\u010dn\u00e9 a talentovan\u00e9 fyziky z cel\u00fdch USA. P\u011bt z prvn\u00edch zam\u011bstnanc\u016f laborato\u0159e (v\u010detn\u011b <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81,_%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8%D1%81\">Luise Alvareze<\/a><\/noindex> a <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8,_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BA\">Isidora Isaaca Rabia<\/a><\/noindex>) n\u00e1sledn\u011b z\u00edskalo Nobelovy ceny. Na konci v\u00e1lky v laborato\u0159i pracovalo kolem 500 doktor\u016f v\u011bd, v\u011bdc\u016f a in\u017een\u00fdr\u016f, a celkem tam bylo 4000 lid\u00ed. P\u016fl milionu dolar\u016f \u2013 co\u017e je srovnateln\u00e9 s celkov\u00fdm rozpo\u010dtem na vytvo\u0159en\u00ed ENIAC \u2013 bylo vynalo\u017eeno pouze na vyd\u00e1n\u00ed Radiation Laboratory Series, dvaceti sedmi svazk\u016f, kde bylo pops\u00e1no ve\u0161ker\u00e9 znalosti z\u00edskan\u00e9 v laborato\u0159i b\u011bhem v\u00e1lky (p\u0159itom v\u00fddaje vl\u00e1dy USA na radarov\u00e9 technologie nebyly omezeny rozpo\u010dtem Rad Lab; b\u011bhem v\u00e1lky vl\u00e1da zakoupila radary v hodnot\u011b t\u0159\u00ed miliard dolar\u016f).<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru, \u010d\u00e1st 2: z v\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9ho pekla\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/71dd40bc59a59a891eba0a244d94fdbc.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>20. budova MIT, kde s\u00eddlila Rad Lab<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Jednou z hlavn\u00edch oblast\u00ed v\u00fdzkumu Rad Lab byl vysokofrekven\u010dn\u00ed radar. Ran\u00e9 radary pou\u017e\u00edvaly vlny s d\u00e9lkami m\u011b\u0159en\u00fdmi v metrech. Ale paprsky vy\u0161\u0161\u00ed frekvence, jejich\u017e vlnov\u00e9 d\u00e9lky se m\u011b\u0159ily v centimetrech \u2013 mikrovlny \u2013 umo\u017enily pou\u017eit\u00ed kompaktn\u011bj\u0161\u00edch ant\u00e9n a m\u00e9n\u011b se rozptylovaly na velk\u00e9 vzd\u00e1lenosti, co\u017e slibovalo velk\u00e9 v\u00fdhody v dosahu a p\u0159esnosti. Mikrovlnn\u00e9 radary by se mohly vej\u00edt do nosu letadla a detekovat objekty velikosti periskopu ponorky.<\/p>\n<p>Tuto \u00falohu se jako prvn\u00ed poda\u0159ilo vy\u0159e\u0161it t\u00fdmu britsk\u00fdch fyzik\u016f z Birminghamu. V roce 1940 vyvinuli &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD\">rezon\u00e1tor magnetron<\/a><\/noindex>&#171;, kter\u00fd fungoval jako elektromagnetick\u00fd \u201ep\u00ed\u0161\u0165alka\u201c, p\u0159etv\u00e1\u0159ej\u00edc\u00ed chaotick\u00fd elektrick\u00fd impuls na siln\u00fd a p\u0159esn\u011b lad\u011bn\u00fd mikrovlnn\u00fd paprsek. Tento mikrovlnn\u00fd vys\u00edla\u010d byl tis\u00edckr\u00e1t siln\u011bj\u0161\u00ed ve srovn\u00e1n\u00ed s nejbli\u017e\u0161\u00edm konkurentem; otev\u0159el cestu k v\u00fdvoji praktick\u00fdch vysokofrekven\u010dn\u00edch radarov\u00fdch vys\u00edla\u010d\u016f. Av\u0161ak pot\u0159eboval partnera, p\u0159ij\u00edma\u010d, kter\u00fd by byl schopen zachytit vysok\u00e9 frekvence. A zde se vrac\u00edme do historie polovodi\u010d\u016f.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru, \u010d\u00e1st 2: z v\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9ho pekla\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/13f66e3564bea4c6795a774ef2412e99.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Magnetron v \u0159ezu<\/i><\/p>\n<h2>Druh\u00e9 p\u0159\u00edchod ko\u010di\u010d\u00edho vousu<\/h2>\n<p>\nUk\u00e1zalo se, \u017ee elektronov\u00e9 lampy v\u016fbec nebyly p\u0159izp\u016fsobeny pro p\u0159\u00edjem mikrovlnn\u00fdch radarov\u00fdch sign\u00e1l\u016f. Mezera mezi horkou katodou a studen\u00fdm anod\u011bm vytv\u00e1\u0159ela kapacitu, co\u017e zp\u016fsobovalo, \u017ee obvod odm\u00edtal pracovat na vysok\u00fdch frekvenc\u00edch. Nejlep\u0161\u00edm dostupn\u00fdm technologi\u00ed pro vysokofrekven\u010dn\u00ed radary byl zastaral\u00fd &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">ko\u010di\u010d\u00ed vous<\/a><\/noindex>&#187; \u2013 mal\u00fd \u00fasek dr\u00e1tu p\u0159itisknut\u00fd k polovodi\u010dov\u00e9mu krystalu. To nez\u00e1visle objevilo n\u011bkolik lid\u00ed, av\u0161ak k na\u0161emu p\u0159\u00edb\u011bhu je nejbl\u00ed\u017ee to, co se odehr\u00e1lo v New Jersey.<\/p>\n<p>V roce 1938 laborato\u0159e Bella uzav\u0159ely smlouvu s n\u00e1mo\u0159nictvem na v\u00fdvoj \u0159\u00edzen\u00ed palby radaru v rozsahu 40 cm \u2013 to bylo mnohem krat\u0161\u00ed a tedy vy\u0161\u0161\u00ed frekvence ne\u017e u tehdy existuj\u00edc\u00edch radar\u016f p\u0159ed obdob\u00edm rezonan\u010dn\u00edch magnetron\u016f. Hlavn\u00ed v\u00fdzkumnou pr\u00e1ci p\u0159evzalo odd\u011blen\u00ed laborato\u0159\u00ed v Holmdelu na jih od Staten Islandu. V\u00fdzkumn\u00edk\u016fm netrvalo dlouho, aby pochopili, co budou pot\u0159ebovat pro vysokofrekven\u010dn\u00ed p\u0159ij\u00edma\u010d, a brzy se in\u017een\u00fdr George Southworth proch\u00e1zel obchody s radiovybaven\u00edm na Manhattanu, aby hledal star\u00e9 detektory \u201eko\u010di\u010d\u00ed vous\u201c. Jak se o\u010dek\u00e1valo, fungoval mnohem l\u00e9pe ne\u017e lampov\u00fd detektor, ale jeho v\u00fdkonnost byla nestabiln\u00ed. Proto Southworth na\u0161el elektrochemika Russella Olla a po\u017e\u00e1dal ho, aby se pokusil zlep\u0161it homogenitu odezvy krystalov\u00e9ho detektoru s jedn\u00edm bodem kontaktu.<\/p>\n<p>Ol byl docela osobit\u00fd \u010dlov\u011bk, pova\u017euj\u00edc\u00ed v\u00fdvoj technologie za sv\u016fj osud, a vypr\u00e1v\u011bl o periodick\u00fdch osv\u00edcen\u00edch s vizemi budoucnosti. Nap\u0159\u00edklad tvrdil, \u017ee u\u017e v roce 1939 v\u011bd\u011bl o budouc\u00edm vyn\u00e1lezu k\u0159em\u00edkov\u00e9ho zesilova\u010de, ale osud cht\u011bl, aby to vynalezl n\u011bkdo jin\u00fd. Po prostudov\u00e1n\u00ed des\u00edtek variant se rozhodl pro k\u0159em\u00edk jako nejlep\u0161\u00ed materi\u00e1l pro Southworthovy p\u0159ij\u00edma\u010de. Probl\u00e9mem byla mo\u017enost kontrolovat obsah materi\u00e1lu, aby se daly ovl\u00e1dat jeho elektrick\u00e9 vlastnosti. V t\u00e9 dob\u011b byly \u0161iroce dostupn\u00e9 pr\u016fmyslov\u00e9 ingoty z k\u0159em\u00edku, kter\u00e9 se pou\u017e\u00edvaly ve sl\u00e9v\u00e1rn\u00e1ch, ale v takov\u00e9 v\u00fdrob\u011b nikoho nezaj\u00edmalo nap\u0159\u00edklad 1% fosforu v k\u0159em\u00edku. S pomoc\u00ed n\u011bkolika metalurg\u016f si Oll polo\u017eil c\u00edl z\u00edskat mnohem \u010dist\u0161\u00ed ingoty, ne\u017e jak\u00e9 byly d\u0159\u00edve dostupn\u00e9.<\/p>\n<p>V pr\u016fb\u011bhu pr\u00e1ce objevili, \u017ee n\u011bkter\u00e9 jejich krystaly usm\u011br\u0148uj\u00ed proud jedn\u00edm sm\u011brem, zat\u00edmco jin\u00e9 naopak. Nazvali je \"n-typ\" a \"p-typ\". Dal\u0161\u00ed anal\u00fdza uk\u00e1zala, \u017ee za tyto typy odpov\u00eddaj\u00ed r\u016fzn\u00e9 druhy p\u0159\u00edm\u011bs\u00ed. K\u0159em\u00edk se nach\u00e1z\u00ed ve \u010dtvrt\u00e9m sloupci periodick\u00e9 tabulky, co\u017e znamen\u00e1, \u017ee m\u00e1 \u010dty\u0159i elektrony na vn\u011bj\u0161\u00ed vrstv\u011b. V ty\u010dce z \u010dist\u00e9ho k\u0159em\u00edku by se ka\u017ed\u00fd z t\u011bchto elektron\u016f spojil se sousedem. P\u0159\u00edm\u011bsi ze t\u0159et\u00edho sloupce, dejme tomu bor, kter\u00fd m\u00e1 o jeden elektron m\u00e9n\u011b, vytv\u00e1\u0159ely \"d\u00edru\", dodate\u010dn\u00fd prostor pro pohyb proudu v krystalu. V\u00fdsledkem byl polovodi\u010d p-typu (s p\u0159ebytkem kladn\u00fdch n\u00e1boj\u016f). Prvky z p\u00e1t\u00e9ho sloupce, jako nap\u0159\u00edklad fosfor, dod\u00e1valy dal\u0161\u00ed voln\u00e9 elektrony pro p\u0159enos proudu, a vznikal polovodi\u010d n-typu.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru, \u010d\u00e1st 2: z v\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9ho pekla\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/065eeabf6c247a41cfb05093bf8d3a64.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Krystalick\u00e1 struktura k\u0159em\u00edku<\/i><\/p>\n<p>V\u0161echna tato v\u00fdzkumy byla velmi zaj\u00edmav\u00e1, av\u0161ak do roku 1940 se Southworth s Olem nep\u0159ibl\u00ed\u017eili k vytvo\u0159en\u00ed funk\u010dn\u00edho prototypu vysokofrekven\u010dn\u00edho radaru. Britsk\u00e1 vl\u00e1da p\u0159itom po\u017eadovala okam\u017eit\u00e9 praktick\u00e9 v\u00fdsledky kv\u016fli hrozb\u011b ze strany Luftwaffe, kter\u00e1 ji\u017e vyvinula mikrovlnn\u00e9 detektory p\u0159ipraven\u00e9 k v\u00fdrob\u011b, pracuj\u00edc\u00ed v p\u00e1ru s magnetronov\u00fdmi vys\u00edla\u010di.<\/p>\n<p>Nicm\u00e9n\u011b brzy se technick\u00e9 pokroky za\u010dnou p\u0159ikl\u00e1n\u011bt na z\u00e1padn\u00ed stranu Atlantiku. Churchill se rozhodl odhalit v\u0161echny technick\u00e9 tajemstv\u00ed Brit\u00e1nie Ameri\u010dan\u016fm je\u0161t\u011b p\u0159edt\u00edm, ne\u017e skute\u010dn\u011b vstoupil do v\u00e1lky (nebo\u0165, jak p\u0159edpokl\u00e1dal, to stejn\u011b m\u011blo nastat). Domn\u00edval se, \u017ee stoj\u00ed za riskov\u00e1n\u00ed \u00faniku informac\u00ed, proto\u017ee pak by v\u0161echny pr\u016fmyslov\u00e9 kapacity USA byly zam\u011b\u0159eny na \u0159e\u0161en\u00ed takov\u00fdch \u00fakol\u016f, jako je jadern\u00e9 zbran\u011b a radary. Britsk\u00e1 v\u011bdecko-technick\u00e1 mise (zn\u00e1m\u011bj\u0161\u00ed jako <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tizard_Mission\">Tizardova mise<\/a><\/noindex>) dorazila do Washingtonu v z\u00e1\u0159\u00ed 1940 a p\u0159ivezla v zavazadle d\u00e1rek v podob\u011b technick\u00fdch z\u00e1zrak\u016f.<\/p>\n<p>Odhalen\u00ed neuv\u011b\u0159iteln\u00e9 s\u00edly rezonance magnetronu a \u00fa\u010dinnost britsk\u00fdch krystalick\u00fdch detektor\u016f p\u0159i p\u0159\u00edjmu jeho sign\u00e1lu o\u017eivila americk\u00e9 v\u00fdzkumy v oblasti polovodi\u010d\u016f jako z\u00e1kladu pro vysokofrekven\u010dn\u00ed radary. Bylo pot\u0159eba vykonat mnoho pr\u00e1ce, p\u0159edev\u0161\u00edm v oblasti materi\u00e1lov\u00e9ho in\u017een\u00fdrstv\u00ed. Aby bylo mo\u017en\u00e9 uspokojit po\u017eadavky, bylo t\u0159eba vyr\u00e1b\u011bt polovodi\u010dov\u00e9 krystaly miliony kus\u016f, mnohem v\u00edc ne\u017e bylo d\u0159\u00edve mo\u017en\u00e9. Bylo nutn\u00e9 zlep\u0161it usm\u011brn\u011bn\u00ed, sn\u00ed\u017eit citlivost na n\u00e1razy a pravd\u011bpodobnost vyho\u0159en\u00ed a minimalizovat rozd\u00edly mezi r\u016fzn\u00fdmi \u0161ar\u017eemi krystal\u016f.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru, \u010d\u00e1st 2: z v\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9ho pekla\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/e91a9d61d7a3b34a7cb7efc59ad2cacf.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>K\u0159em\u00edkov\u00fd usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d s bodov\u00fdm kontaktem<\/i><\/p>\n<p>V Rad Lab otev\u0159eli nov\u00e9 v\u00fdzkumn\u00e9 odd\u011blen\u00ed pro studium vlastnost\u00ed polovodi\u010dov\u00fdch krystal\u016f a toho, jak je mo\u017en\u00e9 je upravit pro maximalizaci cenn\u00fdch vlastnost\u00ed jako p\u0159ij\u00edma\u010de. Nejv\u00edce slibn\u00e9 materi\u00e1ly byly k\u0159em\u00edk a germ\u00e1nium, a proto se v Rad Lab rozhodli pro jistotu spustit paraleln\u00ed programy pro studium obou: k\u0159em\u00edk na Pennsylv\u00e1nsk\u00e9 univerzit\u011b a germ\u00e1nium na Purdue. Takov\u00ed pr\u016fmyslov\u00ed giganti jako Bell, Westinghouse, Du Pont a Sylvania za\u010dali vlastn\u00ed programy v\u00fdzkumu polovodi\u010d\u016f a za\u010dali vyv\u00edjet nov\u00e9 v\u00fdrobn\u00ed kapacity pro krystalick\u00e9 detektory.<\/p>\n<p>Spole\u010dn\u00fdmi silami se poda\u0159ilo zv\u00fd\u0161it \u010distotu krystal\u016f k\u0159em\u00edku a germ\u00e1nia z 99 % na 99,999 % \u2014 tedy na jednu \u010d\u00e1stici ne\u010distoty na 100 000 atom\u016f. V pr\u016fb\u011bhu tohoto procesu se v\u011bdeck\u00fd a in\u017een\u00fdrsk\u00fd person\u00e1l bl\u00ed\u017ee sezn\u00e1mil s abstraktn\u00edmi vlastnostmi germ\u00e1nia a k\u0159em\u00edku a aplikovan\u00fdmi technologiemi pro jejich kontrolu: t\u00e1n\u00ed, r\u016fst krystal\u016f, p\u0159id\u00e1v\u00e1n\u00ed pot\u0159ebn\u00fdch p\u0159\u00edm\u011bs\u00ed (nap\u0159\u00edklad b\u00f3ru, kter\u00fd zvy\u0161oval vodivost).<\/p>\n<p>A pak v\u00e1lka skon\u010dila. Popt\u00e1vka po radarech zmizela, ale znalosti a dovednosti z\u00edskan\u00e9 b\u011bhem v\u00e1lky nikam nezmizely a sen o polovodi\u010dov\u00e9m zesilova\u010di nebyl zapomenut. Nyn\u00ed byla z\u00e1vodn\u00ed situace o vytvo\u0159en\u00ed takov\u00e9ho zesilova\u010de. A alespo\u0148 t\u0159i t\u00fdmy byly v dobr\u00e9 pozici k zisku t\u00e9to ceny.<\/p>\n<h2>West Lafayette<\/h2>\n<p>\nPrvn\u00ed skupinou byla skupina z Purdue University, veden\u00e1 rakousk\u00e9ho p\u016fvodu fyzikem Karlem Lark-Horowitzem. D\u00edky sv\u00e9mu talentu a vlivu dok\u00e1zal osamocen\u011b vyv\u00e9st fyzik\u00e1ln\u00ed odd\u011blen\u00ed univerzity z zapomn\u011bn\u00ed a ovlivnil rozhodnut\u00ed Rad Lab sv\u011b\u0159it jeho laborato\u0159i v\u00fdzkum germ\u00e1nia.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru, \u010d\u00e1st 2: z v\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9ho pekla\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/537267231b55feaedce69e7191597d4b.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Karel Lark-Horowitz v roce 1947, uprost\u0159ed, s d\u00fdmkou<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Na za\u010d\u00e1tku 40. let byl k\u0159em\u00edk pova\u017eov\u00e1n za nejlep\u0161\u00ed materi\u00e1l pro radarov\u00e9 usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010de, av\u0161ak materi\u00e1l um\u00edst\u011bn\u00fd hned pod n\u00edm v periodick\u00e9 tabulce se tak\u00e9 zd\u00e1l b\u00fdt hodn\u00fd dal\u0161\u00edho zkoum\u00e1n\u00ed. Germ\u00e1nium m\u011blo praktickou v\u00fdhodu d\u00edky ni\u017e\u0161\u00ed teplot\u011b t\u00e1n\u00ed, kter\u00e1 \u010dinila p\u0159ibli\u017en\u011b 940 stup\u0148\u016f, ve srovn\u00e1n\u00ed s 1400 stupni pro k\u0159em\u00edk (prakticky jako u oceli). Vzhledem k vysok\u00e9 teplot\u011b t\u00e1n\u00ed bylo extr\u00e9mn\u011b obt\u00ed\u017en\u00e9 vyrobit polotovar, kter\u00fd by se neroztavil v kapaln\u00e9m k\u0159em\u00edku, \u010d\u00edm\u017e by se kontaminoval.<\/p>\n<p>Proto Lark-Horowitz se sv\u00fdmi kolegy str\u00e1vili celou v\u00e1lku zkoum\u00e1n\u00edm chemick\u00fdch, elektrick\u00fdch a fyzik\u00e1ln\u00edch vlastnost\u00ed germ\u00e1nia. Nejv\u011bt\u0161\u00ed p\u0159ek\u00e1\u017ekou bylo \u201ezp\u011btn\u00e9 nap\u011bt\u00ed\u201c: germaniov\u00e9 usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010de p\u0159i velmi n\u00edzk\u00e9m nap\u011bt\u00ed p\u0159est\u00e1valy usm\u011br\u0148ovat proud a umo\u017e\u0148ovaly mu proudit zp\u011bt. Impuls zp\u011btn\u00e9ho proudu spaloval ostatn\u00ed komponenty radaru. Jeden z postgradu\u00e1ln\u00edch student\u016f Lark-Horowitze, Seymour Benzer, v\u00edce ne\u017e rok studoval tento probl\u00e9m a nakonec vyvinul p\u0159\u00edsadu na b\u00e1zi olova, kter\u00e1 zastavila zp\u011btn\u00e9 impulsy p\u0159i nap\u011bt\u00edch a\u017e do sta volt\u016f. Kr\u00e1tce pot\u00e9 Western Electric, v\u00fdrobn\u00ed divize Bellovy laborato\u0159e, za\u010dala dod\u00e1vat usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010de pracuj\u00edc\u00ed podle Benzerova sch\u00e9matu pro vojensk\u00e9 \u00fa\u010dely.<\/p>\n<p>Studium germ\u00e1nia na Purdue pokra\u010dovalo i po v\u00e1lce. V \u010dervnu 1947, Benzer, ji\u017e jako profesor, ozn\u00e1mil neobvyklou anom\u00e1lii: v n\u011bkter\u00fdch experimentech se v krystalech germ\u00e1nia objevovaly vysokofrekven\u010dn\u00ed oscilace. Jeho kolega Ralph Bray pokra\u010doval ve studiu \"objemov\u00e9ho odporu\" podle projektu, zah\u00e1jen\u00e9ho b\u011bhem v\u00e1lky. Objemov\u00fd odpor popisoval, jak elektrick\u00fd proud prot\u00e9k\u00e1 krystalem germ\u00e1nia v bod\u011b kontaktu usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010de. Bray zjistil, \u017ee impulsy vysok\u00e9ho nap\u011bt\u00ed v\u00fdrazn\u011b sni\u017eovaly odpor typu n v\u016f\u010di t\u011bmto proud\u016fm. Nev\u011bd\u011bl p\u0159itom, \u017ee byl sv\u011bdkem tzv. \"nepodstatn\u00fdch\" nosi\u010d\u016f n\u00e1boje. V polovodi\u010d\u00edch typu n p\u0159ebyte\u010dn\u00fd z\u00e1porn\u00fd n\u00e1boj slou\u017e\u00ed jako hlavn\u00ed nosi\u010d n\u00e1boje, ale kladn\u00e9 \"d\u00edry\" tak\u00e9 mohou p\u0159en\u00e1\u0161et proud, a v tomto p\u0159\u00edpad\u011b vysokonap\u011b\u0165ov\u00e9 impulsy vytv\u00e1\u0159ely d\u00edry ve germaniov\u00e9 struktu\u0159e, co\u017e vedlo k pojmenov\u00e1n\u00ed nepodstatn\u00fdch nosi\u010d\u016f n\u00e1boje.<\/p>\n<p>Bray a Benzer se nebezpe\u010dn\u011b p\u0159ibl\u00ed\u017eili k germaniov\u00e9mu zesilova\u010di, ani\u017e by si toho byli v\u011bdomi. Benzer na konferenci v lednu 1948 zastihl Waltera Brattaina, v\u011bdce z Bell Laboratories, aby s n\u00edm prodiskutoval objemov\u00fd odpor. Navrhl Brattainovi um\u00edstit dal\u0161\u00ed bodov\u00fd kontakt bl\u00edzko prvn\u00edho, kter\u00fd by mohl v\u00e9st proud, a tak by mo\u017en\u00e1 mohli pochopit, co se d\u011bje pod povrchem. Brattain ti\u0161e souhlasil s t\u00edmto n\u00e1vrhem a ode\u0161el. Jak pozd\u011bji uvid\u00edme, m\u011bl p\u0159\u00edli\u0161 dobrou p\u0159edstavu o tom, co by podobn\u00fd experiment mohl odhalit.<\/p>\n<h2>On\u00e9su-Bois<\/h2>\n<p>\nT\u00fdm z Purdue disponoval jak technologiemi, tak teoretick\u00fdmi z\u00e1klady k tomu, aby u\u010dinil skok sm\u011brem k tranzistoru. Ale narazit na n\u011bj mohli jen n\u00e1hodou. Zaj\u00edmali se o fyzik\u00e1ln\u00ed vlastnosti materi\u00e1lu, nikoli o hled\u00e1n\u00ed za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed nov\u00e9ho typu. Naprosto jin\u00e1 situace panovala v On\u00e9su-Bois (Francie), kde dva b\u00fdval\u00ed v\u00fdzkumn\u00edci radar\u016f z N\u011bmecka, Heinrich Welker a Herbert Mattere, vedli t\u00fdm, jeho\u017e c\u00edlem bylo vytvo\u0159en\u00ed pr\u016fmyslov\u00fdch polovodi\u010dov\u00fdch za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed.<\/p>\n<p>Velker nejprve studoval a pot\u00e9 vyu\u010doval fyziku na Mnichovsk\u00e9 univerzit\u011b, kterou vedl zn\u00e1m\u00fd teoretik Arnold Sommerfeld. Od roku 1940 opustil \u010dist\u011b teoretickou dr\u00e1hu a za\u010dal pracovat na radaru pro Luftwaffe. Matare (belgick\u00e9ho p\u016fvodu) vyr\u016fstal v Aachenu, kde studoval fyziku. V roce 1939 se p\u0159ipojil k v\u00fdzkumn\u00e9mu odd\u011blen\u00ed n\u011bmeck\u00e9ho radiogiganta Telefunken. B\u011bhem v\u00e1lky p\u0159esunul svou pr\u00e1ci z Berl\u00edna na v\u00fdchod do kl\u00e1\u0161tera v Slezsku, aby se vyhnul bombardov\u00e1n\u00ed sil proti Hitlerovi, a pot\u00e9 zp\u011bt na z\u00e1pad, aby unikl postupuj\u00edc\u00ed Rud\u00e9 arm\u00e1d\u011b, a nakonec se dostal do zajet\u00ed americk\u00e9 arm\u00e1dy.<\/p>\n<p>Stejn\u011b jako jejich protivn\u00edci z Antihitlerovsk\u00e9 koalice, N\u011bmci na za\u010d\u00e1tku 40. let v\u011bd\u011bli, \u017ee krystalov\u00e9 detektory byly ide\u00e1ln\u00edmi p\u0159ij\u00edma\u010di pro radary a \u017ee k\u0159em\u00edk a germanium byly nejv\u00edce slibn\u00e9 materi\u00e1ly pro jejich v\u00fdrobu. Matare a Velker se b\u011bhem v\u00e1lky sna\u017eili zlep\u0161it \u00fa\u010dinn\u00e9 vyu\u017eit\u00ed t\u011bchto materi\u00e1l\u016f v usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d\u00edch. Po v\u00e1lce oba podl\u00e9hali periodick\u00fdm v\u00fdslech\u016fm ohledn\u011b sv\u00e9 vojensk\u00e9 pr\u00e1ce a nakonec dostali pozv\u00e1n\u00ed od francouzsk\u00e9ho \u0161peha do Pa\u0159\u00ed\u017ee v roce 1946.<\/p>\n<p>Compagnie des Freins &amp; Signaux (\u201espole\u010dnost brzd a sign\u00e1l\u016f\u201c), francouzsk\u00e1 divize Westinghouse, z\u00edskala smlouvu od francouzsk\u00e9ho telefonn\u00edho \u00fa\u0159adu na v\u00fdrobu polovodi\u010dov\u00fdch usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d\u016f a hledala n\u011bmeck\u00e9 v\u011bdce, aby jim pomohli. Takov\u00e9 spojenectv\u00ed ned\u00e1vn\u00fdch nep\u0159\u00e1tel se m\u016f\u017ee zd\u00e1t podivn\u00e9, nicm\u00e9n\u011b tato dohoda se uk\u00e1zala jako dosti v\u00fdhodn\u00e1 pro ob\u011b strany. Francouzi, pora\u017een\u00ed v roce 1940, nem\u011bli mo\u017enost z\u00edskat znalosti v oblasti polovodi\u010d\u016f a zoufale pot\u0159ebovali dovednosti N\u011bmc\u016f. N\u011bmci nemohli pokra\u010dovat ve v\u00fdvoji jak\u00fdchkoli vysoce technologick\u00fdch oblast\u00ed v okupovan\u00e9 a v\u00e1lkou zni\u010den\u00e9 zemi, a proto se chopili p\u0159\u00edle\u017eitosti pokra\u010dovat v pr\u00e1ci.<\/p>\n<p>Velker a Matare z\u0159\u00eddili z\u00e1kladnu ve dvoupatrov\u00e9m dom\u011b v p\u0159edm\u011bst\u00ed Pa\u0159\u00ed\u017ee, v Onne-sous-Bois, a s pomoc\u00ed t\u00fdmu technik\u016f zavedli \u00fasp\u011b\u0161nou v\u00fdrobu germanov\u00fdch usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d\u016f do konce roku 1947. Pot\u00e9 se zam\u011b\u0159ili na v\u00e1\u017en\u011bj\u0161\u00ed c\u00edle: Velker se vr\u00e1til ke sv\u00fdm z\u00e1jm\u016fm o supravodi\u010de, zat\u00edmco Matare se pustil do zesilova\u010d\u016f.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru, \u010d\u00e1st 2: z v\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9ho pekla\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/0e2b1d04e85c02f64555fc137ba65eae.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Herbert Matare v roce 1950<\/i><\/p>\n<p>B\u011bhem v\u00e1lky Matar\u00e9 experimentoval s usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010di se dv\u011bma kontaktn\u00edmi body \u2013 \u201eduodiodami\u201c \u2013 ve snaze sn\u00ed\u017eit \u0161um v obvodu. Obnovil sv\u00e9 pokusy a brzy zjistil, \u017ee druh\u00fd \u201evous\u201c, um\u00edst\u011bn\u00fd 1\/100 milionu metru od prvn\u00edho, n\u011bkdy dok\u00e1zal modulovat proud proch\u00e1zej\u00edc\u00ed prvn\u00edm vousem. Vytvo\u0159il pevnol\u00e1tkov\u00fd zesilova\u010d, i kdy\u017e pon\u011bkud k ni\u010demu. Aby dos\u00e1hl spolehliv\u011bj\u0161\u00edho v\u00fdkonu, obr\u00e1til se na Welkera, kter\u00fd m\u011bl velk\u00e9 zku\u0161enosti s germanov\u00fdmi krystaly b\u011bhem v\u00e1lky. Welker\u016fv t\u00fdm p\u011bstoval v\u011bt\u0161\u00ed a \u010dist\u0161\u00ed vzorky germanov\u00fdch krystal\u016f, a spole\u010dn\u011b s vylep\u0161en\u00edm kvality materi\u00e1lu se v \u010dervnu 1948 staly Matar\u00e9ovy usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010de s kontaktem spolehliv\u00fdmi.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru, \u010d\u00e1st 2: z v\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9ho pekla\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/a8144b93316280b86206f061db496895.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Rentgenov\u00fd sn\u00edmek \u201etranzistoru\u201c na z\u00e1klad\u011b Matar\u00e9ovy sch\u00e9matu, kter\u00fd m\u00e1 dva kontaktn\u00ed body s germanem<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Matar\u00e9 dokonce m\u011bl teoretick\u00fd model toho, co se d\u011bje: v\u011b\u0159il, \u017ee druh\u00fd kontakt vytv\u00e1\u0159\u00ed v germaniu d\u00edry, urychluj\u00edc\u00ed tok proudu p\u0159es prvn\u00ed kontakt, dod\u00e1vaj\u00edc\u00ed nepodstatn\u00e9 nositele n\u00e1boje. Welker s n\u00edm nesouhlasil a myslel si, \u017ee to, co se d\u011bje, z\u00e1vis\u00ed na jak\u00e9msi poln\u00edm efektu. Nicm\u00e9n\u011b, ne\u017e mohli pracovat na za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed nebo teorii, zjistili, \u017ee skupina Ameri\u010dan\u016f vyvinula p\u0159esn\u011b stejnou koncepci \u2013 germanov\u00fd zesilova\u010d se dv\u011bma kontaktn\u00edmi body \u2013 o \u0161est m\u011bs\u00edc\u016f d\u0159\u00edve.<\/p>\n<h2>Murray Hill<\/h2>\n<p>\nNa konci v\u00e1lky reformoval Merwin Kelly v\u00fdzkumnou skupinu laborato\u0159\u00ed Bell, kter\u00e1 se zab\u00fdvala polovodi\u010di pod veden\u00edm Billa Shockleyho. Projekt se rozrostl, z\u00edskal v\u00edce financ\u00ed a p\u0159est\u011bhoval se z p\u016fvodn\u00ed budovy laborato\u0159\u00ed na Manhattanu na roz\u0161i\u0159uj\u00edc\u00ed se kampus v Murray Hill (New Jersey).<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru, \u010d\u00e1st 2: z v\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9ho pekla\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/560531e9e37e48adf34d521238d1f77c.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Kampus v Murray Hill, cca 1960<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Aby se znovu sezn\u00e1mil s pokro\u010dil\u00fdmi polovodi\u010di (po tom, co b\u011bhem v\u00e1lky zkoumal opera\u010dn\u00ed v\u00fdzkum), na ja\u0159e 1945 nav\u0161t\u00edvil Shockley laborato\u0159 Russella Oala v Holmdelu. Ol str\u00e1vil roky v\u00e1lky prac\u00ed na k\u0159em\u00edku a neztr\u00e1cel \u010das. Uk\u00e1zal Shockleymu hrub\u00fd zesilova\u010d vlastn\u00ed konstrukce, nazvan\u00fd \"deziester\". Vzal k\u0159em\u00edkov\u00fd usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d s bodov\u00fdm kontaktem a zapnul \u010dinnost pomoc\u00ed baterie. Zd\u00e1 se, \u017ee teplo z baterie sn\u00ed\u017eilo odpor v bod\u011b kontaktu a p\u0159em\u011bnilo usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d na zesilova\u010d schopn\u00fd p\u0159en\u00e1\u0161et p\u0159\u00edchoz\u00ed r\u00e1diov\u00e9 sign\u00e1ly do obvodu siln\u00e9ho po\u017eadavku pro nap\u00e1jen\u00ed reproduktoru.<\/p>\n<p>Efekt byl hrub\u00fd a nespolehliv\u00fd, nevhodn\u00fd pro komercializaci. Nicm\u00e9n\u011b sta\u010dilo to k potvrzen\u00ed Shockleyho n\u00e1zoru o mo\u017enosti vytvo\u0159en\u00ed polovodi\u010dov\u00e9ho zesilova\u010de a \u017ee by to m\u011blo b\u00fdt prioritn\u00edm zam\u011b\u0159en\u00edm v\u00fdzkumu v oblasti tuh\u00e9 elektroniky. Tato setk\u00e1n\u00ed s Oalov\u00fdm t\u00fdmem tak\u00e9 p\u0159esv\u011bd\u010dila Shockleyho, \u017ee studium k\u0159em\u00edku a germania by m\u011blo b\u00fdt prioritou. Ukazovali atraktivn\u00ed elektrick\u00e9 vlastnosti, a nav\u00edc Oalovi kolegov\u00e9, metalurgov\u00e9 Jack Skaff a Henry Tabor, dos\u00e1hli \u00fa\u017easn\u00fdch \u00fasp\u011bch\u016f v p\u011bstov\u00e1n\u00ed, \u010di\u0161t\u011bn\u00ed a p\u0159id\u00e1v\u00e1n\u00ed p\u0159\u00edsad do t\u011bchto krystal\u016f b\u011bhem v\u00e1lky, p\u0159edstihuj\u00edc v\u0161echny technologie dostupn\u00e9 pro jin\u00e9 polovodi\u010dov\u00e9 materi\u00e1ly. Shockleyho skupina se u\u017e nehodlala zdr\u017eovat p\u0159edv\u00e1le\u010dn\u00fdmi zesilova\u010di z oxidu m\u011bdi.<\/p>\n<p>S pomoc\u00ed Kellyho za\u010dal Shockley shrom\u00e1\u017e\u010fovat nov\u00fd t\u00fdm. Mezi kl\u00ed\u010dov\u00fdmi hr\u00e1\u010di byl Walter Brattain, kter\u00fd pom\u00e1hal Shockleymu s jeho prvn\u00edm pokusem o vytvo\u0159en\u00ed polovodi\u010dov\u00e9ho zesilova\u010de (v roce 1940), a John Bardeen, mlad\u00fd fyzik a nov\u00fd zam\u011bstnanec Bellov\u00fdch laborato\u0159\u00ed. Bardeen m\u011bl pravd\u011bpodobn\u011b nej\u0161ir\u0161\u00ed znalosti o fyzice pevn\u00fdch l\u00e1tek ze v\u0161ech \u010dlen\u016f t\u00fdmu \u2013 jeho disertace popisovala energetick\u00e9 \u00farovn\u011b elektron\u016f ve struktu\u0159e kovov\u00e9ho sod\u00edku. Tak\u00e9 byl dal\u0161\u00edm chr\u00e1n\u011bncem Johna Hazebrooka Van Flecka, stejn\u011b jako Atanasoff a Brattain.<\/p>\n<p>A jako u Atanasova, disertace Bardina a Shockley vy\u017eadovaly slo\u017eit\u00e9 v\u00fdpo\u010dty. Museli pou\u017e\u00edvat kvantov\u011b-mechanickou teorii polovodi\u010d\u016f, kterou definoval Alan Wilson, aby vypo\u010d\u00edtali energetickou strukturu materi\u00e1l\u016f pomoc\u00ed stoln\u00edho kalkul\u00e1toru Monroe. Pom\u00e1haj\u00edc p\u0159i v\u00fdvoji tranzistoru, v podstat\u011b p\u0159isp\u011bli k osvobozen\u00ed budouc\u00edch postgradu\u00e1ln\u00edch student\u016f od takov\u00e9 pr\u00e1ce.<\/p>\n<p>Prvn\u00ed p\u0159\u00edstup Shockleyho k polovodi\u010dov\u00e9mu zesilova\u010di spo\u010d\u00edval na tom, co bylo pozd\u011bji nazv\u00e1no &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%AD%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F\">efektem pole<\/a><\/noindex>&#171;. Zav\u011bsil kovovou desku nad polovodi\u010d n-typu (s p\u0159ebytkem z\u00e1porn\u00fdch n\u00e1boj\u016f). Aplikace kladn\u00e9ho n\u00e1boje na desku vytahovala p\u0159ebytek elektron\u016f na povrch krystalu, vytv\u00e1\u0159ej\u00edc \u0159eku z\u00e1porn\u00fdch n\u00e1boj\u016f, po kter\u00e9 mohl snadno proudit elektrick\u00fd proud. Zes\u00edlen\u00fd sign\u00e1l (p\u0159edstavovan\u00fd \u00farovn\u00ed n\u00e1boje na desce) takto mohl modulovat hlavn\u00ed obvod (proch\u00e1zej\u00edc\u00ed povrchem polovodi\u010de). Funk\u010dnost t\u00e9to sch\u00e9matu mu napov\u011bd\u011bly jeho teoretick\u00e9 znalosti fyziky. Ale navzdory mnoha pokus\u016fm a experiment\u016fm sch\u00e9ma nikdy nefungovalo.<\/p>\n<p>Do b\u0159ezna 1946 vytvo\u0159il Bardin docela dob\u0159e propracovanou teorii, kter\u00e1 vysv\u011btlovala p\u0159\u00ed\u010dinu tohoto: povrch polovodi\u010de na kvantov\u00e9 \u00farovni se chov\u00e1 jinak ne\u017e jeho vnit\u0159nosti. Z\u00e1porn\u00e9 n\u00e1boje, vyta\u017een\u00e9 na povrch, kon\u010d\u00ed v pasti \"povrchov\u00fdch stav\u016f\" a blokuj\u00ed pronik\u00e1n\u00ed elektrick\u00e9ho pole z desky do materi\u00e1lu. Ostatn\u00ed \u010dlenov\u00e9 t\u00fdmu pova\u017eovali tuto anal\u00fdzu za p\u0159esv\u011bd\u010divou a spustili nov\u00fd v\u00fdzkumn\u00fd program ve t\u0159ech oblastech:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>Dok\u00e1zat existenci povrchov\u00fdch stav\u016f.<\/li>\n<li>Prozkoumat jejich vlastnosti.<\/li>\n<li>Vymyslet, jak je p\u0159ekonat a vytvo\u0159it funk\u010dn\u00ed <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80\">poln\u00ed tranzistor<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Po v\u00edce ne\u017e roce a p\u016fl v\u00fdzkum\u016f a experiment\u016f provedl 17. listopadu 1947 Brettain pr\u016flom. Objevil, \u017ee kdy\u017e um\u00edst\u00ed tekutinu napln\u011bnou ionty, nap\u0159\u00edklad vodu, mezi desku a polovodi\u010d, elektrick\u00e9 pole z desky bude tla\u010dit ionty k polovodi\u010di, kde neutr\u00e1ln\u011b zneutralizuj\u00ed n\u00e1boje uv\u011bzn\u011bn\u00e9 v povrchov\u00fdch stavech. Nyn\u00ed mohl \u0159\u00eddit elektrick\u00e9 chov\u00e1n\u00ed kusu k\u0159em\u00edku zm\u011bnou n\u00e1boje na desce. Tento \u00fasp\u011bch podal Bardinovi my\u0161lenku na nov\u00fd p\u0159\u00edstup k v\u00fdrob\u011b zesilova\u010de: obklopit kontaktn\u00ed bod usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010de elektrolytickou vodou a pot\u00e9 pou\u017e\u00edt druh\u00fd vodi\u010d ve vod\u011b k \u0159\u00edzen\u00ed povrchov\u00fdch stav\u016f a t\u00edm kontrolovat \u00farove\u0148 vodivosti z\u00e1kladn\u00edho kontaktu. Tak se Bardin a Brettain dostali na c\u00edlovou rovinku.<\/p>\n<p>Bardinova my\u0161lenka zafungovala, nicm\u00e9n\u011b zes\u00edlen\u00ed bylo slab\u00e9 a fungovalo na velmi mal\u00fdch frekvenc\u00edch, kter\u00e9 byly pro lidsk\u00e9 ucho nedostupn\u00e9 \u2013 proto bylo bezcenn\u00e9 jako telefonn\u00ed nebo r\u00e1diov\u00fd zesilova\u010d. Bardin navrhl p\u0159epnout na germanium odoln\u00e9 v\u016f\u010di zp\u011btn\u00e9mu nap\u011bt\u00ed, z\u00edskan\u00e9 na Purdue, proto\u017ee si myslel, \u017ee na jeho povrchu se bude shroma\u017e\u010fovat m\u00e9n\u011b n\u00e1boj\u016f. Najednou z\u00edskali ohromn\u00e9 zes\u00edlen\u00ed, ale v opa\u010dn\u00e9m ne\u017e o\u010dek\u00e1van\u00e9m sm\u011bru. Objevili \u00fa\u010dinek minoritn\u00edch nosi\u010d\u016f \u2013 m\u00edsto o\u010dek\u00e1van\u00fdch elektron\u016f zesiloval proud proch\u00e1zej\u00edc\u00ed germanem d\u00edry poch\u00e1zej\u00edc\u00ed z elektrolytu. Proud na vodi\u010di v elektrolytu vytvo\u0159il vrstvu typu p (oblast nadm\u011brn\u00fdch kladn\u00fdch n\u00e1boj\u016f) na povrchu germania typu n.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00e1sleduj\u00edc\u00ed experimenty uk\u00e1zaly, \u017ee elektrolyt v\u016fbec nebyl pot\u0159eba: jednodu\u0161e um\u00edst\u011bn\u00edm dvou kontaktn\u00edch bod\u016f bl\u00edzko k sob\u011b na povrchu germania bylo mo\u017en\u00e9 modulovat proud z jednoho z nich na druh\u00fd. Aby je co nejv\u00edce p\u0159ibl\u00ed\u017eil, obalil Brettain troj\u00faheln\u00edkov\u00fd kus plastiku kouskem zlat\u00e9 f\u00f3lie a pot\u00e9 opatrn\u011b roz\u0159ezal f\u00f3lii na konci. Pot\u00e9 pomoc\u00ed pru\u017einy p\u0159itla\u010dil troj\u00faheln\u00edk k germania, \u010d\u00edm\u017e se okraje \u0159ezu dot\u00fdkaly jeho povrchu ve vzd\u00e1lenosti 0,05 mm. To dalo prototypu tranzistoru z laborato\u0159\u00ed Bell jeho charakteristick\u00fd vzhled:<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru, \u010d\u00e1st 2: z v\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9ho pekla\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/ffead032339d3960dfce3a691005f6e1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Prototyp tranzistoru Brettaina a Bardina<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Stejn\u011b jako za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed Matara a Welkera, to bylo v podstat\u011b klasick\u00e9 \"ko\u010di\u010d\u00ed vous\", jen s dv\u011bma kontaktn\u00edmi body m\u00edsto jednoho. Dne 16. prosince dos\u00e1hlo v\u00fdznamn\u00e9ho zes\u00edlen\u00ed v\u00fdkonu a nap\u011bt\u00ed, a frekvence 1000 Hz v rozsahu sly\u0161itelnosti. O t\u00fdden pozd\u011bji, po men\u0161\u00edch vylep\u0161en\u00edch, Bardin a Brettain dos\u00e1hli zes\u00edlen\u00ed nap\u011bt\u00ed 100kr\u00e1t a v\u00fdkonu 40kr\u00e1t, a demonstrovali \u0159editel\u016fm Bella, \u017ee jejich za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed dok\u00e1\u017ee reprodukovat sly\u0161itelnou \u0159e\u010d. John Pierce, dal\u0161\u00ed \u010dlen t\u00fdmu v\u00fdvoje pevn\u00fdch za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed, vymyslel term\u00edn \"tranzistor\" inspirovan\u00fd n\u00e1zvem Bellova usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010de na oxid\u011b m\u011bdi, varistoru.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00e1sleduj\u00edc\u00edch \u0161est m\u011bs\u00edc\u016f laborato\u0159 dr\u017eela nov\u00fd vyn\u00e1lez v tajnosti. Veden\u00ed cht\u011blo m\u00edt jistotu, \u017ee budou m\u00edt n\u00e1skok v realizaci komer\u010dn\u00edch mo\u017enost\u00ed tranzistoru, ne\u017e si ho n\u011bkdo jin\u00fd p\u0159ivlastn\u00ed. Tiskov\u00e1 konference byla napl\u00e1nov\u00e1na na 30. \u010dervna 1948, p\u0159esn\u011b v\u010das, aby zbo\u0159ila v\u0161echny sny Welkera a Matara o nesmrtelnosti. Mezit\u00edm se skupina pro v\u00fdzkum polovodi\u010d\u016f ti\u0161e rozpadla. Kdy\u017e sly\u0161el o \u00fasp\u011b\u0161\u00edch Bardina a Brettaina, jejich \u0161\u00e9f, Bill Shockley, za\u010dal pracovat na tom, aby si p\u0159ivlastnil ve\u0161kerou sl\u00e1vu. A p\u0159esto\u017ee hr\u00e1l jen pozorovatelskou roli, v ve\u0159ejn\u00e9 prezentaci z\u00edskal stejnou, ne-li v\u011bt\u0161\u00ed reklamu \u2013 co\u017e je patrn\u00e9 z t\u00e9to zve\u0159ejn\u011bn\u00e9 fotografie, na kter\u00e9 je p\u0159\u00edmo u laboratorn\u00edho stolu:<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru, \u010d\u00e1st 2: z v\u00e1le\u010dn\u00e9ho pekla\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/5f65d24d08f716197396b59aa12b4a2d.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Reklamn\u00ed fotografie z roku 1948 \u2013 Bardin, Shockley a Brettain<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Shockleymu v\u0161ak nesta\u010dila rovn\u00e1 sl\u00e1va. A je\u0161t\u011b p\u0159ed t\u00edm, ne\u017e se kdokoli mimo laborato\u0159e Bella dozv\u011bd\u011bl o tranzistoru, za\u010dal se jeho op\u011btovn\u00fdm vyn\u00e1lezem, aby si ho p\u0159ivlastnil. A to bylo pouze prvn\u00ed z mnoha podobn\u00fdch op\u011btovn\u00fdch vyn\u00e1lez\u016f.<\/p>\n<h2>Co si je\u0161t\u011b p\u0159e\u010d\u00edst<\/h2>\n<p><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Robert Buderi, Vyn\u00e1lez, kter\u00fd zm\u011bnil sv\u011bt (1996)<\/li>\n<li>Michael Riordan, \"Jak Evropa minula tranzistor,\" IEEE Spectrum (1. listopadu 2005)<\/li>\n<li>Michael Riordan a Lillian Hoddeson, Krystalov\u00fd ohe\u0148 (1997)<\/li>\n<li>Armand Van Dormael, \"Francouzsk\u00fd tranzistor,\" <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cdvandt.org\/VanDormael.pdf\">www.cdvandt.org\/VanDormael.pdf<\/a><\/noindex> (1994)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Zdroj: <a content=\"nofollow\" rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">habr.com<\/a><\/p>","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430: \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f 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