{"id":55071,"date":"2020-01-11T00:00:00","date_gmt":"2020-01-10T21:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/blog\/blog_prohoster\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote"},"modified":"2020-02-18T14:03:09","modified_gmt":"2020-02-18T11:03:09","slug":"istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/cs\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote","title":{"rendered":"Historie tranzistoru: klopot\u00e1n\u00ed ve tm\u011b","gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"text"}]},"content":{"rendered":"<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru: klopot\u00e1n\u00ed ve tm\u011b\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/16ad3c6eaa7f0e32992939696172bd90.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<br \/>\n<b class=\"spoiler_title\">Dal\u0161\u00ed \u010dl\u00e1nky cyklu:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Historie rel\u00e9\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404373\/\">Metoda \u201erychl\u00e9ho p\u0159enosu informac\u00ed\u201c, nebo Zrozen\u00ed rel\u00e9<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404475\/\">D\u00e1lkov\u00fd psac\u00ed stroj<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/370545\/\">Galvanismus<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404657\/\">Podnikatel\u00e9<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404723\/\">A tady je kone\u010dn\u011b rel\u00e9<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404889\/\">Hovorn\u00fd telegraf<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405025\/\">Jednodu\u0161e spojit<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/company\/mailru\/blog\/370471\/\">Zapomenut\u00e1 generace rel\u00e9ov\u00fdch po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016f<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">Elektronick\u00e1 \u00e9ra<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historie elektronick\u00fdch po\u010d\u00edta\u010d\u016f\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408611\/\">Prolog<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/374043\/\">Koloss<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408597\/\">ENIAC <\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Elektronick\u00e1 revoluce<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historie tranzistoru\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">Hmatem v temnot\u011b<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">Z pekla v\u00e1lky<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\"><\/a><\/noindex><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/449760\/\">Opakovan\u00e9 znovuobjeven\u00ed<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historie internetu\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450168\/\">P\u00e1te\u0159n\u00ed s\u00ed\u0165<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450522\/\">Rozpad, \u010d\u00e1st 1<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/451606\/\">Rozpad, \u010d\u00e1st 2<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/452030\/\">Otev\u00edr\u00e1n\u00ed interaktivity<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/453154\/\">Roz\u0161i\u0159ov\u00e1n\u00ed interaktivity<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">ARPANET \u2014 zrozen\u00ed<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">ARPANET \u2014 bal\u00ed\u010dek<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/461177\/\">ARPANET \u2014 pods\u00ed\u0165<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/472582\/\">Po\u010d\u00edta\u010d jako komunika\u010dn\u00ed za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/483366\/\">Historie internetu: mezi s\u00ed\u0165ov\u00e1 interakce<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\nCesta k polovodi\u010dov\u00fdm sp\u00edna\u010d\u016fm byla dlouh\u00e1 a slo\u017eit\u00e1. Za\u010dala odhalen\u00edm, \u017ee ur\u010dit\u00e9 materi\u00e1ly se zvl\u00e1\u0161tn\u011b chovaj\u00ed v p\u0159\u00edtomnosti elekt\u0159iny \u2013 ne tak, jak by tehdej\u0161\u00ed teorie p\u0159edpov\u00eddaly. N\u00e1sledovala historie o tom, jak se technologie ve 20. stolet\u00ed stala st\u00e1le v\u00edce v\u011bdeckou a institucion\u00e1ln\u00ed discipl\u00ednou. Amat\u00e9\u0159i, nov\u00e1\u010dci a profesion\u00e1ln\u00ed vyn\u00e1lezci, kte\u0159\u00ed prakticky nem\u011bli \u017e\u00e1dn\u00e9 v\u011bdeck\u00e9 vzd\u011bl\u00e1n\u00ed, v\u00fdrazn\u011b p\u0159isp\u00edvali k vzniku telegrafie, telefonie a r\u00e1dia. Ale, jak uvid\u00edme, t\u00e9m\u011b\u0159 v\u0161echna pokroky v historii polovodi\u010dov\u00e9 elektroniky se staly d\u00edky v\u011bdc\u016fm, kte\u0159\u00ed studovali na univerzit\u00e1ch (a obvykle m\u011bli titul Ph.D. z fyziky), a pracovali na univerzit\u00e1ch nebo v korpor\u00e1tn\u00edch v\u00fdzkumn\u00fdch laborato\u0159\u00edch.<br \/>\n<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" name=\"habracut\"><\/a><\/noindex><br \/>\nKdokoli s p\u0159\u00edstupem do d\u00edlny a s z\u00e1kladn\u00edmi dovednostmi pr\u00e1ce s materi\u00e1ly m\u016f\u017ee sestavit rel\u00e9 z dr\u00e1t\u016f, kovu a d\u0159eva. Na v\u00fdrobu elektronick\u00fdch lamp jsou pot\u0159eba specializovan\u011bj\u0161\u00ed n\u00e1stroje, schopn\u00e9 vytvo\u0159it sklen\u011bnou ba\u0148ku a ods\u00e1t z n\u00ed vzduch. Polovodi\u010dov\u00e1 za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed v\u0161ak vklouzla do kr\u00e1li\u010d\u00ed nory, ze kter\u00e9 digit\u00e1ln\u00ed sp\u00edna\u010d nikdy nevy\u0161el, a pono\u0159ila se hloub\u011bji do sv\u011bt\u016f, kter\u00e9 byly srozumiteln\u00e9 pouze abstraktn\u00ed matematice a p\u0159\u00edstupn\u00e9 pouze pomoc\u00ed \u0161\u00edlen\u011b drah\u00e9ho vybaven\u00ed.<\/p>\n<h2>Gal\u00e9nit<\/h2>\n<p>\nV roce 1874 <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD,_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4\">Ferdinand Braun<\/a><\/noindex>, 24let\u00fd fyzik z Thomasschule v Lipsku, publikoval prvn\u00ed z mnoha v\u00fdznamn\u00fdch v\u011bdeck\u00fdch prac\u00ed ve sv\u00e9 dlouh\u00e9 kari\u00e9\u0159e. Pr\u00e1ci \u201eO pr\u016fchodu elektrick\u00fdch proud\u016f p\u0159es sulfidy kov\u016f\u201c p\u0159ijali do \u010dasopisu Pogendorff\u2019s Annalen, presti\u017en\u00edho \u010dasopisu zam\u011b\u0159en\u00e9ho na fyzik\u00e1ln\u00ed v\u011bdy. P\u0159es nudn\u00fd n\u00e1zev pr\u00e1ce popisovala n\u011bkolik \u00fa\u017easn\u00fdch a z\u00e1hadn\u00fdch experiment\u00e1ln\u00edch v\u00fdsledk\u016f.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru: klopot\u00e1n\u00ed ve tm\u011b\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/dba4a5648572427d3c139ff9560f92f9.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Ferdinand Braun<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Braunovy sulfidy \u2013 miner\u00e1ln\u00ed krystaly slo\u017een\u00e9 z kyseliny s\u00edrov\u00e9 a kov\u016f \u2013 jej zaujaly d\u00edky prac\u00edm <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%93%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC\">Johanna Wilhelma Hittorfa<\/a><\/noindex>. Ji\u017e v roce 1833 Michael Faraday poznamenal, \u017ee vodivost s\u00edrn\u00edku st\u0159\u00edbrn\u00e9ho se zvy\u0161uje s teplotou, co\u017e je zcela opa\u010dn\u00e9 chov\u00e1n\u00ed ne\u017e u kovov\u00fdch vodi\u010d\u016f. Gittorf vypracoval d\u016fkladnou kvantitativn\u00ed zpr\u00e1vu o m\u011b\u0159en\u00edch tohoto efektu v 50. letech 19. stolet\u00ed, pro s\u00edrn\u00edky jak st\u0159\u00edbra, tak m\u011bdi. Nyn\u00ed Brown, pou\u017e\u00edvaj\u00edc\u00ed d\u016fmysln\u00e9 experiment\u00e1ln\u00ed za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed, kter\u00e9 p\u0159itahovalo kovov\u00fd vodi\u010d k s\u00edrn\u00edkov\u00e9mu krystalu pru\u017einou, aby zajistil dobr\u00fd kontakt, objevil n\u011bco je\u0161t\u011b podivn\u011bj\u0161\u00edho. Vodivost krystal\u016f z\u00e1visela na sm\u011bru \u2013 nap\u0159\u00edklad proud mohl dob\u0159e prot\u00e9kat jedn\u00edm sm\u011brem, ale p\u0159i oto\u010den\u00ed polarity baterie mohl proud n\u00e1hle v\u00fdrazn\u011b klesnout. Krystaly v jednom sm\u011bru pracovaly v\u00edce jako vodi\u010de (jak b\u011b\u017en\u00e9 kovy), zat\u00edmco v jin\u00e9m \u2013 v\u00edce jako izol\u00e1tory (jak sklo nebo guma). Tento jev se stal zn\u00e1m\u00fdm jako usm\u011brn\u011bn\u00ed, d\u00edky schopnosti usm\u011br\u0148ovat \u201ezato\u010den\u00fd\u201c st\u0159\u00eddav\u00fd proud a p\u0159em\u011b\u0148ovat ho na \u201eploch\u00fd\u201c stejnosm\u011brn\u00fd.<\/p>\n<p>P\u0159ibli\u017en\u011b ve stejn\u00e9 dob\u011b objevili v\u011bdci i dal\u0161\u00ed podivn\u00e9 vlastnosti t\u011bchto materi\u00e1l\u016f, jako nap\u0159\u00edklad selen, kter\u00fd bylo mo\u017en\u00e9 vyrobit z n\u011bkter\u00fdch s\u00edrn\u00edkov\u00fdch rud kov\u016f. Pod vlivem sv\u011btla selen zvy\u0161oval vodivost a dokonce za\u010dal generovat elektrick\u00fd proud, a tak\u00e9 se dal pou\u017e\u00edt k usm\u011br\u0148ov\u00e1n\u00ed. Byla zde n\u011bjak\u00e1 souvislost s krystaly s\u00edrn\u00edk\u016f? Bez teoretick\u00fdch model\u016f schopn\u00fdch vysv\u011btlit, co se d\u011bje, panoval v t\u00e9to oblasti zmatek.<\/p>\n<p>Nicm\u00e9n\u011b nedostatek teorie nezastavil snahy o praktick\u00e9 vyu\u017eit\u00ed v\u00fdsledk\u016f. Na konci 90. let 19. stolet\u00ed se Brown stal profesorem na Univerzit\u011b ve \u0160trasburku \u2013 ned\u00e1vno anektovan\u00e9 Francii b\u011bhem <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0\">Francouzsko-prusk\u00e9 v\u00e1lky<\/a><\/noindex> a p\u0159ejmenovan\u00e9 na Kaiserovu univerzitu Wilhelma. Tam ho vt\u00e1hl vzru\u0161uj\u00edc\u00ed nov\u00fd sv\u011bt radiotelegrafie. P\u0159ijal nab\u00eddku skupiny podnikatel\u016f na spole\u010dn\u00e9 vytvo\u0159en\u00ed bezdr\u00e1tov\u00e9ho komunika\u010dn\u00edho syst\u00e9mu zalo\u017een\u00e9ho na p\u0159enosu r\u00e1diov\u00fdch vln skrze vodu. Nicm\u00e9n\u011b oni a jeho spole\u010dn\u00edci brzy opustili p\u016fvodn\u00ed my\u0161lenku ve prosp\u011bch vzdu\u0161n\u00e9ho p\u0159enosu sign\u00e1l\u016f, kter\u00fd pou\u017e\u00edval Marconi a dal\u0161\u00ed.<\/p>\n<p>Mezi aspekty r\u00e1dia, kter\u00e9 skupina Browna usilovala vylep\u0161it, byl v t\u00e9 dob\u011b standardn\u00ed p\u0159ij\u00edma\u010d, <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%80\">koherer<\/a><\/noindex>Zalo\u017eil to na skute\u010dnosti, \u017ee r\u00e1diov\u00e9 vlny nutily kovov\u00e9 piliny hromadit se do kuli\u010dky, co\u017e umo\u017enilo proudu z baterie proch\u00e1zet k sign\u00e1ln\u00edmu za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed. Fungovalo to, ale syst\u00e9m reagoval pouze na relativn\u011b siln\u00e9 sign\u00e1ly a k rozbit\u00ed kuli\u010dky pilin bylo nutn\u00e9 neust\u00e1le do za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed bouchat. Brown si vzpomn\u011bl na sv\u00e9 star\u00e9 experimenty s krystaly s\u00edranu a v roce 1899 znovu vytvo\u0159il svou starou experiment\u00e1ln\u00ed sestavu s nov\u00fdm c\u00edlem \u2013 slou\u017eit jako detektor bezdr\u00e1tov\u00fdch sign\u00e1l\u016f. Pou\u017eil vypr\u00e1v\u011bc\u00ed efekt k p\u0159etvo\u0159en\u00ed mali\u010dk\u00e9ho kol\u00edsaj\u00edc\u00edho proudu, vytv\u00e1\u0159en\u00e9ho proch\u00e1zej\u00edc\u00edmi r\u00e1diov\u00fdmi vlnami, na stejnosm\u011brn\u00fd proud, kter\u00fd mohl nap\u00e1jet mal\u00fd reproduktor vyd\u00e1vaj\u00edc\u00ed sly\u0161iteln\u00e9 cvaknut\u00ed pro ka\u017edou te\u010dku nebo \u010d\u00e1rku. Toto za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed se pozd\u011bji stalo zn\u00e1m\u00fdm jako<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80\">ko\u010di\u010d\u00ed vous<\/a><\/noindex>\u201e d\u00edky vzhledu dr\u00e1tku, kter\u00fd se snadno dot\u00fdkal vrcholku krystalu. V Britsk\u00e9 Indii (kde se dnes nach\u00e1z\u00ed Banglad\u00e9\u0161) v\u011bdec a vyn\u00e1lezce D\u017eagadi\u0161 Bose postavil podobn\u00e9 za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed, mo\u017en\u00e1 dokonce v roce 1894. Ostatn\u00ed brzy za\u010dali vyr\u00e1b\u011bt podobn\u00e9 detektory na b\u00e1zi k\u0159em\u00edku a karborunda (karbidu k\u0159em\u00edku).<\/p>\n<p>Nicm\u00e9n\u011b pr\u00e1v\u011b <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82\">galenit<\/a><\/noindex>, sulfid olova, kter\u00fd se od starov\u011bku tav\u00ed k z\u00edsk\u00e1n\u00ed olova, se stal preferovan\u00fdm materi\u00e1lem pro krystalov\u00e9 detektory. Byly snadno vyrobiteln\u00e9 a levn\u00e9, a proto se staly nesm\u00edrn\u011b popul\u00e1rn\u00ed mezi ran\u00fdmi generacemi amat\u00e9rsk\u00fdch radiov\u00fdch nad\u0161enc\u016f. Nav\u00edc, na rozd\u00edl od bin\u00e1rn\u00edho kohereru (s pilinami, kter\u00e9 byly bu\u010f shlukov\u00e1ny, nebo ne), krystalov\u00fd usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d mohl reprodukovat nep\u0159etr\u017eit\u00fd sign\u00e1l. To mu umo\u017enilo vyd\u00e1vat sly\u0161iteln\u00fd p\u0159enos hlasu a hudby, a to nejen Morseovu abecedu s jej\u00edmi te\u010dkami a \u010d\u00e1rkami.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru: klopot\u00e1n\u00ed ve tm\u011b\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/b43382b70622d1171b8d3e65e5927526.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Detektor \"ko\u010di\u010d\u00ed vous\" na b\u00e1zi galenitu. Mal\u00fd \u00fasek dr\u00e1tu vlevo \u2013 to je vous, a kousek st\u0159\u00edbrn\u00e9ho materi\u00e1lu dole \u2013 krystal galenitu.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Nicm\u00e9n\u011b, jak brzy zjistili roz\u010darovan\u00ed r\u00e1diov\u00ed nad\u0161enci, nalezen\u00ed kouzeln\u00e9ho bodu na povrchu krystalu, kter\u00fd by poskytoval dobr\u00e9 usm\u011brn\u011bn\u00ed, mohlo trvat minuty nebo dokonce hodiny. A sign\u00e1ly bez zes\u00edlen\u00ed byly slab\u00e9 a m\u011bly kovov\u00fd n\u00e1dech. K 20. l\u00e9t\u016fm 20. stolet\u00ed prakticky vytla\u010dily p\u0159ij\u00edma\u010de na elektronick\u00fdch lamp\u00e1ch s triodov\u00fdmi zesilova\u010di krystalov\u00e9 detektory t\u00e9m\u011b\u0159 v\u0161ude. Jejich atraktivn\u00ed vlastnost\u00ed z\u016fst\u00e1vala pouze n\u00edzk\u00e1 cena.<\/p>\n<p>Toto kr\u00e1tk\u00e9 vystoupen\u00ed na sc\u00e9n\u011b r\u00e1diov\u00fdch p\u0159ij\u00edma\u010d\u016f se zd\u00e1lo b\u00fdt vrcholem praktick\u00e9ho vyu\u017eit\u00ed podivn\u00fdch elektrick\u00fdch vlastnost\u00ed materi\u00e1lu, kter\u00e9 objevil Brown a dal\u0161\u00ed.<\/p>\n<h2>Oxid m\u011bdi<\/h2>\n<p>\nPak v 20. letech 20. stolet\u00ed objevil jin\u00fd fyzik jm\u00e9nem Lars Grondal n\u011bco zvl\u00e1\u0161tn\u00edho pomoc\u00ed sv\u00e9ho experiment\u00e1ln\u00edho za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed. Grondal, prvn\u00ed z \u0159ady inteligentn\u00edch a nespokojen\u00fdch mu\u017e\u016f v historii americk\u00e9ho Z\u00e1padu, byl synem stavebn\u00edho in\u017een\u00fdra. Jeho otec, kter\u00fd emigroval z Norska v roce 1880, pracoval n\u011bkolik desetilet\u00ed na \u017eeleznic\u00edch v Kalifornii, Oregonu a Washingtonu. Zpo\u010d\u00e1tku se Grondal zd\u00e1l rozhodnut\u00fd opustit in\u017een\u00fdrsk\u00fd sv\u011bt sv\u00e9ho otce a zam\u00ed\u0159il na Johns Hopkinsovu univerzitu, aby z\u00edskal doktor\u00e1t z fyziky a \u0161el akademickou cestou. Ale pak se tak\u00e9 zapojil do \u017eelezni\u010dn\u00edho byznysu a nastoupil na pozici \u0159editele pro v\u00fdzkum ve spole\u010dnosti Union Switch and Signal, dce\u0159in\u00e9 spole\u010dnosti pr\u016fmyslov\u00e9ho giganta <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Westinghouse_Electric\">Westinghouse<\/a><\/noindex>, kter\u00e1 dod\u00e1vala vybaven\u00ed pro \u017eelezni\u010dn\u00ed pr\u016fmysl.<\/p>\n<p>V r\u016fzn\u00fdch zdroj\u00edch se uv\u00e1d\u011bj\u00ed protich\u016fdn\u00e9 d\u016fvody, kter\u00e9 motivovaly Grondala ke jeho v\u00fdzkum\u016fm, ale a\u0165 u\u017e to bylo jakkoli, za\u010dal experimentovat s m\u011bd\u011bn\u00fdmi disky, kter\u00e9 byly z jedn\u00e9 strany zah\u0159\u00edv\u00e1ny za \u00fa\u010delem vytvo\u0159en\u00ed oxidovan\u00e9ho vrstvy. P\u0159i pr\u00e1ci s nimi si v\u0161iml asymetrie proudu \u2013 odpor v jednom sm\u011bru byl t\u0159ikr\u00e1t vy\u0161\u0161\u00ed ne\u017e v druh\u00e9m. Disk z m\u011bdi a oxidu m\u011bdi usm\u011br\u0148oval proud, stejn\u011b jako krystal sulfidu.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru: klopot\u00e1n\u00ed ve tm\u011b\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/5ea17aa0272848adb9fdb122b650dc19.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Sch\u00e9ma usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010de z oxidu m\u011bdi<\/i><\/p>\n<p>V p\u0159\u00ed\u0161t\u00edch \u0161esti letech vyvinul Grondahl na z\u00e1klad\u011b tohoto jevu komer\u010dn\u011b pou\u017eiteln\u00fd usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d, p\u0159i\u010dem\u017e si vy\u017e\u00e1dal pomoc dal\u0161\u00edho badatele z USA, Paula Geigera, a pot\u00e9 podal \u017e\u00e1dost o patent a ozn\u00e1mil sv\u016fj objev na Americk\u00e9m fyzik\u00e1ln\u00edm sdru\u017een\u00ed v roce 1926. P\u0159\u00edstroj se okam\u017eit\u011b stal komer\u010dn\u00edm hitem. D\u00edky absenci k\u0159ehk\u00fdch vodi\u010d\u016f byl mnohem spolehliv\u011bj\u0161\u00ed ne\u017e usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d na elektronick\u00fdch lamp\u00e1ch zalo\u017een\u00fd na principu ventil\u016f od Fleminga a byl levn\u00fd na v\u00fdrobu. Na rozd\u00edl od braunovsk\u00fdch krystalov\u00fdch usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d\u016f fungoval p\u0159i prvn\u00ed pokusu, a d\u00edky v\u011bt\u0161\u00ed kontaktn\u00ed plo\u0161e kovu a oxidu pracoval v \u0161ir\u0161\u00edm rozsahu proud\u016f a nap\u011bt\u00ed. Mohl nab\u00edjet akumul\u00e1tory, detekovat sign\u00e1ly v r\u016fzn\u00fdch elektrick\u00fdch syst\u00e9mech a fungovat jako bezpe\u010dnostn\u00ed bypass ve v\u00fdkonn\u00fdch gener\u00e1torech. P\u0159i pou\u017eit\u00ed jako fotoprvku mohly disky fungovat jako m\u011b\u0159i\u010de sv\u011btla a byly obzvl\u00e1\u0161t\u011b u\u017eite\u010dn\u00e9 ve fotografii. Dal\u0161\u00ed v\u011bdci p\u0159ibli\u017en\u011b ve stejnou dobu vyvinuli usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010de ze selenu, kter\u00e9 na\u0161ly podobn\u00e9 zp\u016fsoby pou\u017eit\u00ed.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru: klopot\u00e1n\u00ed ve tm\u011b\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/61c76a25b892e1064316faf461bd3da1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Bal\u00ed\u010dek usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d\u016f na b\u00e1zi m\u011bd\u011bn\u00e9ho oxidu. Sestaven\u00ed v\u00edcera disk\u016f zvy\u0161ovalo zp\u011btn\u00fd odpor, co\u017e umo\u017enilo jejich pou\u017eit\u00ed p\u0159i vysok\u00e9m nap\u011bt\u00ed.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>O n\u011bkolik let pozd\u011bji se dva fyzici z Bellov\u00fdch laborato\u0159\u00ed, Joseph Becker a <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD,_%D0%A3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80\">Walter Brattain<\/a><\/noindex>, rozhodli prozkoumat princip fungov\u00e1n\u00ed m\u011bd\u011bn\u00e9ho usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010de \u2013 zaj\u00edmalo je, jak funguje a jak ho lze vyu\u017e\u00edt ve spole\u010dnosti Bell System.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historie tranzistoru: klopot\u00e1n\u00ed ve tm\u011b\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/a670707a5c9ee86ae7b7f129fd8fdee1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Brattain ve st\u00e1\u0159\u00ed \u2013 kolem roku 1950<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Brattain poch\u00e1zel ze stejn\u00fdch m\u00edst jako Grondahl, z Tichomo\u0159sk\u00e9ho severoz\u00e1padu, kde vyrostl na farm\u011b vzd\u00e1len\u00e9 n\u011bkolik kilometr\u016f od kanadsk\u00e9 hranice. V posledn\u00edch ro\u010dn\u00edc\u00edch st\u0159edn\u00ed \u0161koly se za\u010dal zaj\u00edmat o fyziku, projevoval v t\u00e9to oblasti nad\u00e1n\u00ed, a nakonec z\u00edskal doktor\u00e1t na Minnesotsk\u00e9 univerzit\u011b koncem 20. let, a nastoupil do pr\u00e1ce v Bellov\u00fdch laborato\u0159\u00edch v roce 1929. Mimo jin\u00e9 na univerzit\u011b studoval novou teoretickou fyziku, kter\u00e1 nab\u00edrala na popularit\u011b v Evrop\u011b, a zn\u00e1mou jako kvantov\u00e1 mechanika (jeho \u0161kolitelem byl <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA\">John Hasbrook Van Fleck<\/a><\/noindex>, kter\u00fd tak\u00e9 vedl Johna Atanasova).<\/p>\n<h2>Kvantov\u00e1 revoluce<\/h2>\n<p>\nNov\u00e1 teoretick\u00e1 platforma se v posledn\u00edch t\u0159ech desetilet\u00edch vyv\u00edjela pomalu a jednou bude schopna vysv\u011btlit v\u0161echny podivn\u00e9 jevy, kter\u00e9 byly mnohokr\u00e1t pozorov\u00e1ny v materi\u00e1lech, jako je galenit, selen a oxid m\u011bdi. Cel\u00e1 skupina p\u0159ev\u00e1\u017en\u011b mlad\u00fdch fyzik\u016f, p\u0159ev\u00e1\u017en\u011b z N\u011bmecka a sousedn\u00edch zem\u00ed, vyvolala kvantov\u00fd zvrat ve fyzice. Kdekoli se pod\u00edvali, objevovali nikoli hladk\u00fd a spojit\u00fd sv\u011bt, kter\u00e9mu je u\u010dili, ale zvl\u00e1\u0161tn\u00ed diskr\u00e9tn\u00ed kuli\u010dky.<\/p>\n<p>V\u0161echno za\u010dalo v 90. letech 19. stolet\u00ed. Max Planck, nejzn\u00e1m\u011bj\u0161\u00ed profesor Berlinsk\u00e9 univerzity, se rozhodl pracovat na zn\u00e1m\u00e9m nevy\u0159e\u0161en\u00e9m probl\u00e9mu: jak\u00fdm zp\u016fsobem \u201e<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%87%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE\">absolutn\u011b \u010dern\u00e9 t\u011bleso<\/a><\/noindex>\u201c (ide\u00e1ln\u00ed substance, kter\u00e1 absorbuje ve\u0161kerou energii a neodr\u00e1\u017e\u00ed ji) vyza\u0159uje z\u00e1\u0159en\u00ed v elektromagnetick\u00e9m spektru? Byly vyzkou\u0161eny r\u016fzn\u00e9 modely, kter\u00e9 se ani jeden neshodovaly s experiment\u00e1ln\u00edmi v\u00fdsledky \u2013 neodpov\u00eddaly bu\u010f na jednom, nebo na druh\u00e9m konci spektra. Planck objevil, \u017ee pokud p\u0159edpokl\u00e1d\u00e1me, \u017ee energie je vyza\u0159ov\u00e1na t\u011blesem ve form\u011b mal\u00e9 \u201ebal\u00ed\u010dky\u201c diskr\u00e9tn\u00ed velikosti, lze zapsat jednoduch\u00fd z\u00e1kon vztahu mezi frekvenc\u00ed a energi\u00ed, kter\u00fd dokonale odpov\u00edd\u00e1 empirick\u00fdm v\u00fdsledk\u016fm.<\/p>\n<p>Kr\u00e1tce pot\u00e9 Einstein zjistil, \u017ee tot\u00e9\u017e plat\u00ed i pro absorpci sv\u011btla (prvn\u00ed n\u00e1znak foton\u016f), a J. J. Thomson uk\u00e1zal, \u017ee elektrick\u00fd proud tak\u00e9 p\u0159en\u00e1\u0161\u00edno jako souvislou tekutinu nebo vlnu, ale diskr\u00e9tn\u00edmi \u010d\u00e1sticemi \u2013 elektrony. Pot\u00e9 Niels Bohr vytvo\u0159il model, kter\u00fd vysv\u011btloval, jak excitovan\u00e9 atomy vyza\u0159uj\u00ed z\u00e1\u0159en\u00ed, p\u0159id\u011bluj\u00edc elektron\u016fm jednotliv\u00e9 dr\u00e1hy v atomu, z nich\u017e ka\u017ed\u00e1 m\u00e1 svou energii. Toto pojmenov\u00e1n\u00ed v\u0161ak m\u016f\u017ee b\u00fdt zav\u00e1d\u011bj\u00edc\u00ed, proto\u017ee se chovaj\u00ed zdaleka ne jako dr\u00e1hy planet \u2013 v Bohr\u00e9m modelu elektrony okam\u017eit\u011b p\u0159ech\u00e1zely z jedn\u00e9 dr\u00e1hy neboli energetick\u00e9 hladiny na druhou, ani\u017e by proch\u00e1zely mezistavem. A nakonec v 20. letech 20. stolet\u00ed vytvo\u0159ili Erwin Schr\u00f6dinger, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born a dal\u0161\u00ed ob\u0161\u00edrnou matematickou platformu zn\u00e1mou jako kvantov\u00e1 mechanika, kter\u00e1 zahrnovala v\u0161echny zvl\u00e1\u0161tn\u00ed kvantov\u00e9 modely, je\u017e byly vytvo\u0159eny v p\u0159edchoz\u00edch dvaceti letech.<\/p>\n<p>V tuto dobu ji\u017e fyzici byli p\u0159esv\u011bd\u010deni, \u017ee materi\u00e1ly jako selen a galenit, kter\u00e9 vykazuj\u00ed fotovoltaick\u00e9 a usm\u011br\u0148ovac\u00ed vlastnosti, pat\u0159\u00ed do samostatn\u00e9 t\u0159\u00eddy materi\u00e1l\u016f, kterou nazvali polovodi\u010de. Klasifikace zabrala tolik \u010dasu z n\u011bkolika d\u016fvod\u016f. Za prv\u00e9, samotn\u00e9 kategorie 'vodiv\u00e9' a 'izola\u010dn\u00ed' byly dost \u0161irok\u00e9. Takzvan\u00ed 'vodiv\u00ed' se v\u00fdrazn\u011b li\u0161ili v elektrick\u00e9 vodivosti, tot\u00e9\u017e (v men\u0161\u00ed m\u00ed\u0159e) platilo i pro izolanty, a nebylo jasn\u00e9, jak\u00fdm zp\u016fsobem by mohl b\u00fdt n\u011bjak\u00fd konkr\u00e9tn\u00ed vodi\u010d za\u0159azen do kter\u00e9koliv z t\u011bchto t\u0159\u00edd. Nav\u00edc a\u017e do poloviny 20. stolet\u00ed bylo nemo\u017en\u00e9 z\u00edskat nebo vytvo\u0159it velmi \u010dist\u00e9 l\u00e1tky, a jak\u00e9koli zvl\u00e1\u0161tnosti v elektrick\u00e9 vodivosti p\u0159\u00edrodn\u00edch materi\u00e1l\u016f bylo mo\u017en\u00e9 v\u017edy p\u0159i\u010d\u00edst zne\u010di\u0161t\u011bn\u00ed.<\/p>\n<p>Nyn\u00ed fyzici m\u011bli jak matematick\u00e9 n\u00e1stroje kvantov\u00e9 mechaniky, tak nov\u00fd typ materi\u00e1l\u016f, na kter\u00e9 je mohli aplikovat. Britsk\u00fd teoretik <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Herries_Wilson\">Alan Wilson<\/a><\/noindex> jako prvn\u00ed v\u0161echno toto spojil dohromady a v roce 1931 vytvo\u0159il obecn\u00fd model polovodi\u010d\u016f a princip jejich fungov\u00e1n\u00ed.<\/p>\n<p>Zpo\u010d\u00e1tku Wilson tvrdil, \u017ee vodiv\u00e9 materi\u00e1ly se od dielektrik li\u0161\u00ed stavem energetick\u00fdch p\u00e1s\u016f. Kvantov\u00e1 mechanika \u0159\u00edk\u00e1, \u017ee elektrony mohou existovat na omezen\u00e9m po\u010dtu energetick\u00fdch \u00farovn\u00ed, kter\u00e9 pat\u0159\u00ed obal\u016fm, nebo orbital\u016fm jednotliv\u00fdch atom\u016f. Pokud se tyto atomy stla\u010d\u00ed dohromady ve struktu\u0159e n\u011bjak\u00e9ho materi\u00e1lu, bylo by p\u0159esn\u011bj\u0161\u00ed si p\u0159edstavovat nep\u0159etr\u017eit\u00e9 energetick\u00e9 p\u00e1sy, proch\u00e1zej\u00edc\u00ed j\u00edm nap\u0159\u00ed\u010d. V vodi\u010d\u00edch jsou v oblast\u00edch s vysokou energi\u00ed voln\u00e1 m\u00edsta, a elektrick\u00e9 pole m\u016f\u017ee voln\u011b p\u0159esouvat elektrony do t\u011bchto m\u00edst. U izolant\u016f jsou p\u00e1sy zapln\u011bn\u00e9, a do vy\u0161\u0161\u00ed vodiv\u00e9 z\u00f3ny, po kter\u00e9 elektri\u010dnost snadn\u011bji putuje, je nutn\u00e9 se dostat pom\u011brn\u011b daleko.<\/p>\n<p>To vedlo k jeho z\u00e1v\u011bru, \u017ee p\u0159\u00edm\u011bsi \u2013 ciz\u00ed atomy ve struktu\u0159e materi\u00e1lu \u2013 mus\u00ed p\u0159isp\u00edvat k jeho polovodi\u010dov\u00fdm vlastnostem. Mohou bu\u010f dod\u00e1vat nadbyte\u010dn\u00e9 elektrony, kter\u00e9 snadno p\u0159ech\u00e1zej\u00ed do vodivostn\u00ed z\u00f3ny, nebo d\u00edry \u2013 nedostatek elektron\u016f v porovn\u00e1n\u00ed s ostatn\u00edm materi\u00e1lem \u2013 co\u017e vytv\u00e1\u0159\u00ed pr\u00e1zdn\u00e1 energetick\u00e1 m\u00edsta, do kter\u00fdch se mohou pohybovat voln\u00e9 elektrony. Prvn\u00ed varianta byla pozd\u011bji nazv\u00e1na polovodi\u010demi n-typu (nebo elektronick\u00fdmi) \u2013 kv\u016fli nadbyte\u010dn\u00e9mu z\u00e1porn\u00e9mu n\u00e1boji, zat\u00edmco druh\u00e9 \u2013 p-typu, nebo d\u00edrkov\u00fdmi \u2013 kv\u016fli nadbyte\u010dn\u00e9mu kladn\u00e9mu n\u00e1boji.<\/p>\n<p>Nakonec Wilson navrhl, \u017ee usm\u011brn\u011bn\u00ed proudu polovodi\u010di lze vysv\u011btlit v term\u00ednech kvantov\u00e9ho <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%8D%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82\">tunelov\u00e9ho efektu<\/a><\/noindex>, n\u00e1hl\u00e9ho skoku elektron\u016f p\u0159es tenkou elektrickou bari\u00e9ru v materi\u00e1lu. Teorie se zd\u00e1la b\u00fdt pravd\u011bpodobn\u00e1, av\u0161ak p\u0159edpov\u00eddala, \u017ee v usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010di by m\u011bl proud t\u00e9ct od oxidu k m\u011bdi, p\u0159i\u010dem\u017e ve skute\u010dnosti to bylo naopak.<\/p>\n<p>Tak, navzdory v\u0161em pr\u016flom\u016fm Wilsona, polovodi\u010de z\u016fst\u00e1valy slo\u017eit\u00e9 k vysv\u011btlen\u00ed. Jak postupn\u011b vy\u0161lo najevo, mikroskopick\u00e9 zm\u011bny krystalov\u00e9 struktury a koncentrace p\u0159\u00edm\u011bs\u00ed nesoum\u011brn\u011b siln\u011b ovlivnily jejich makroskopick\u00e9 elektrick\u00e9 chov\u00e1n\u00ed. P\u0159es nedostatek porozum\u011bn\u00ed \u2013 proto\u017ee nikdo nikdy nedok\u00e1zal vysv\u011btlit experiment\u00e1ln\u00ed pozorov\u00e1n\u00ed, kter\u00e9 u\u010dinil Brown p\u0159ed 60 lety \u2013 Brattain a Becker vyvinuli efektivn\u00ed v\u00fdrobn\u00ed proces m\u011b\u010f-oxidov\u00fdch usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d\u016f pro sv\u00e9ho zam\u011bstnavatele. Bell System rychle za\u010dalo nahrazovat usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010de na elektronov\u00fdch lamp\u00e1ch po cel\u00e9 s\u00edti nov\u00fdm za\u0159\u00edzen\u00edm, kter\u00e9 jejich in\u017een\u00fd\u0159i nazvali <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80\">varistor<\/a><\/noindex>, proto\u017ee jeho odpor se m\u011bnil v z\u00e1vislosti na sm\u011bru.<\/p>\n<h2>Zlat\u00e1 medaile<\/h2>\n<p>\nMervin Kelly, fyzik a b\u00fdval\u00fd vedouc\u00ed odd\u011blen\u00ed elektronick\u00fdch lamp Laborato\u0159\u00ed Bell, se t\u00edmto \u00fasp\u011bchem velmi zaujal. B\u011bhem n\u011bkolika des\u00edtek let elektronick\u00e9 lampy poskytly Bellu neoceniteln\u00e9 slu\u017eby a dok\u00e1zaly vykon\u00e1vat funkce, kter\u00e9 nebyly dostupn\u00e9 p\u0159edchoz\u00edmu generaci mechanick\u00fdch a elektromechanick\u00fdch komponent\u016f. Ale hodn\u011b se p\u0159eh\u0159\u00edvaly, pravideln\u011b doch\u00e1zelo k p\u0159eh\u0159\u00e1t\u00ed, spot\u0159ebov\u00e1valy hodn\u011b energie a byly slo\u017eit\u00e9 na \u00fadr\u017ebu. Kelly pl\u00e1noval p\u0159estav\u011bt syst\u00e9m Bellu na z\u00e1klad\u011b spolehliv\u011bj\u0161\u00edch a odoln\u011bj\u0161\u00edch pevnostn\u00edch elektronick\u00fdch komponent\u016f, jako je varistor, kter\u00fd nevy\u017eadoval ani hermetick\u00e9, plynem pln\u011bn\u00e9 ani pr\u00e1zdn\u00e9 pouzdra, ani \u017ehav\u00e9 vl\u00e1kna. V roce 1936 se stal vedouc\u00edm v\u00fdzkumn\u00e9ho odd\u011blen\u00ed Laborato\u0159\u00ed Bell a za\u010dal organizaci sm\u011b\u0159ovat na novou cestu.<\/p>\n<p>Kdy\u017e z\u00edskali polovodi\u010dov\u00fd usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d, dal\u0161\u00edm o\u010dividn\u00fdm krokem bylo vytvo\u0159en\u00ed polovodi\u010dov\u00e9ho zesilova\u010de. Je p\u0159irozen\u00e9, \u017ee by toto za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed mohlo fungovat jako digit\u00e1ln\u00ed sp\u00edna\u010d, stejn\u011b jako lampov\u00fd zesilova\u010d. To Bellovu firmu obzvl\u00e1\u0161\u0165 zaj\u00edmalo, proto\u017ee st\u00e1le fungovalo obrovsk\u00e9 mno\u017estv\u00ed elektromechanick\u00fdch digit\u00e1ln\u00edch sp\u00edna\u010d\u016f v telefonn\u00edch \u00fast\u0159edn\u00e1ch. Spole\u010dnost hledala spolehliv\u011bj\u0161\u00ed, kompaktn\u011bj\u0161\u00ed, energeticky efektivn\u011bj\u0161\u00ed a chladn\u011bj\u0161\u00ed n\u00e1hradu elektronick\u00e9 lampy v telefonn\u00edch syst\u00e9mech, r\u00e1diov\u00fdch p\u0159ij\u00edma\u010d\u00edch, radarech a jin\u00e9m analogov\u00e9m vybaven\u00ed, kde byly pou\u017eity k zes\u00edlen\u00ed slab\u00fdch sign\u00e1l\u016f na \u00farove\u0148 dostupnou lidsk\u00e9mu uchu.<\/p>\n<p>V roce 1936 Laborato\u0159e Bell kone\u010dn\u011b zru\u0161ily z\u00e1kaz naj\u00edm\u00e1n\u00ed zam\u011bstnanc\u016f, kter\u00fd byl zaveden b\u011bhem <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F\">Velk\u00e9 hospod\u00e1\u0159sk\u00e9 krize<\/a><\/noindex>. Kelly okam\u017eit\u011b za\u010dal naj\u00edmat odborn\u00edky na kvantovou mechaniku, aby mu pomohli spustit jeho program v\u00fdzkumu polovodi\u010dov\u00fdch za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed, mezi nimi byl i <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8,_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%91%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4\">William Shockley<\/a><\/noindex>, dal\u0161\u00ed rod\u00e1k ze z\u00e1padn\u00edho pob\u0159e\u017e\u00ed, z Palo Alta (Kalifornie). Tema jeho ned\u00e1vno vypracovan\u00e9 disertace na MIT se jak nejl\u00e9pe hodila k pot\u0159eb\u00e1m Kellyho: \u201eElektronov\u00e9 z\u00f3ny v chloridu sodn\u00e9m\u201c.<\/p>\n<p>Brachtin a Becker v t\u00e9 dob\u011b pokra\u010dovali ve sv\u00fdch v\u00fdzkumech usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010de na oxidu m\u011bdi, sna\u017e\u00edc se vytvo\u0159it vylep\u0161en\u00fd polovodi\u010dov\u00fd zesilova\u010d. Nejjasn\u011bj\u0161\u00ed zp\u016fsob, jak ho vyrobit, byla analogie s elektronkovou lampou. P\u0159esn\u011b tak, jak Lee de Forest vzal lampov\u00fd zesilova\u010d a <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">um\u00edstil elektrickou m\u0159\u00ed\u017eku<\/a><\/noindex> mezi katodou a anodou, tak Brachtin s Beckerem p\u0159edstavili, jak by bylo mo\u017en\u00e9 vlo\u017eit m\u0159\u00ed\u017eku na m\u00edsto kontaktu m\u011bdi a oxidu m\u011bdi, kde se podle p\u0159edpoklad\u016f m\u011blo doch\u00e1zet k usm\u011brn\u011bn\u00ed. Kv\u016fli mal\u00e9 tlou\u0161\u0165ce vrstvy v\u0161ak pova\u017eovali tento postup za nemo\u017en\u00fd a v tomto ohledu neusp\u011bli.<\/p>\n<p>Mezit\u00edm jin\u00e9 v\u00fdzkumy uk\u00e1zaly, \u017ee Bell Laboratories nebyly jedinou spole\u010dnost\u00ed, kter\u00e1 se zaj\u00edmala o polovodi\u010dovou elektroniku. V roce 1938 Rudolf Hilsh a Robert Paul publikovali v\u00fdsledky experiment\u016f prov\u00e1d\u011bn\u00fdch na Univerzit\u011b v G\u00f6ttingenu nad funk\u010dn\u00edm polovodi\u010dov\u00fdm zesilova\u010dem, vytvo\u0159en\u00fdm pomoc\u00ed vlo\u017een\u00ed m\u0159\u00ed\u017eky do krystalu bromidu draseln\u00e9ho. Praktick\u00e1 hodnota tohoto laboratorn\u00edho za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed byla minim\u00e1ln\u00ed \u2013 p\u0159edev\u0161\u00edm proto\u017ee pracovalo na frekvenci ne vy\u0161\u0161\u00ed ne\u017e 1 Hz. A p\u0159esto toto dosa\u017een\u00ed pot\u011b\u0161ilo v\u0161echny, kte\u0159\u00ed se zaj\u00edmali o polovodi\u010dovou elektroniku. T\u00e9ho\u017e roku Kelle uv\u011b\u0159il Shockleyho do nov\u00e9 nez\u00e1visl\u00e9 skupiny v\u00fdzkumu polovodi\u010dov\u00fdch za\u0159\u00edzen\u00ed a dal mu s kolegy \u2013 Fosterem Nixem a Deanem Woolridgeem \u2013 volnou ruku pro zkoum\u00e1n\u00ed jejich mo\u017enost\u00ed.<\/p>\n<p>Nejm\u00e9n\u011b dva dal\u0161\u00ed vyn\u00e1lezci dok\u00e1zali vytvo\u0159it polovodi\u010dov\u00e9 zesilova\u010de p\u0159ed druhou sv\u011btovou v\u00e1lkou. V roce 1922 rusk\u00fd fyzik a vyn\u00e1lezce <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2,_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87\">Oleg Vladimirovi\u010d Losev<\/a><\/noindex> publikoval v\u00fdsledky \u00fasp\u011b\u0161n\u00fdch experiment\u016f se zinkov\u00fdmi polovodi\u010di, ale jeho pr\u00e1ce z\u016fstaly nepov\u0161imnuty z\u00e1padn\u00edm spole\u010denstv\u00edm; v roce 1926 americk\u00fd vyn\u00e1lezce Julius Lilienfeld podal \u017e\u00e1dost o patent na polovodi\u010dov\u00fd zesilova\u010d, ale neexistuj\u00ed \u017e\u00e1dn\u00e9 d\u016fkazy o funk\u010dnosti jeho vyn\u00e1lezu.<\/p>\n<p>Prvn\u00ed d\u016fle\u017eit\u00e9 osv\u011btlen\u00ed pro Shockleyho na nov\u00e9 pozici nastalo b\u011bhem \u010dten\u00ed pr\u00e1ce britsk\u00e9ho fyzika Neville Motta \u201eTeorie krystalick\u00fdch usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010d\u016f\u201c z roku 1938, kde byl kone\u010dn\u011b vysv\u011btlen princip fungov\u00e1n\u00ed Grondalova usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010de na oxid\u011b m\u011bdi. Mott pou\u017eil matematiku kvantov\u00e9 mechaniky k popisu vytv\u00e1\u0159en\u00ed elektrick\u00e9ho pole na rozhran\u00ed vodiv\u00e9ho kovu a polovodi\u010dov\u00e9ho oxidu a toho, jak elektrony \u201ep\u0159esko\u010d\u00ed\u201c p\u0159es tuto elektrickou bari\u00e9ru, m\u00edsto aby tunelovaly, jak p\u0159edpokl\u00e1dal Wilson. Proud te\u010de snadn\u011bji od kovu k polovodi\u010di ne\u017e naopak, proto\u017ee kov m\u00e1 mnohem v\u00edce voln\u00fdch elektron\u016f.<\/p>\n<p>To vedlo Shockleyho k zcela stejn\u00e9 my\u0161lence, kterou Brattain a Becker zam\u00edtli p\u0159ed mnoha lety \u2013 vyrobit polovodi\u010dov\u00fd zesilova\u010d vlo\u017een\u00edm m\u0159\u00ed\u017eky z oxidu m\u011bdi do mezery mezi m\u011bd\u00ed a oxidy m\u011bdi. Doufal, \u017ee proud tekouc\u00ed m\u0159\u00ed\u017ekou zv\u00fd\u0161\u00ed barieru br\u00e1n\u00edc\u00ed proudu proch\u00e1zej\u00edc\u00edmu od m\u011bdi k oxidu, a vytvo\u0159\u00ed inverzn\u00ed, zes\u00edlenou verzi sign\u00e1lu na m\u0159\u00ed\u017ece. Jeho prvn\u00ed hrub\u00fd pokus zcela selhal, proto se obr\u00e1til na \u010dlov\u011bka s rafinovan\u011bj\u0161\u00edmi laboratorn\u00edmi dovednostmi a dob\u0159e obezn\u00e1men\u00e9ho s usm\u011br\u0148ova\u010di \u2013 Waltera Brattaina. A i kdy\u017e nem\u011bl \u017e\u00e1dn\u00e9 pochybnosti o v\u00fdsledku, Brattain souhlasil, \u017ee uspokoj\u00ed Shockleyho zv\u011bdavost, a vytvo\u0159il slo\u017eit\u011bj\u0161\u00ed verzi \u201em\u0159\u00ed\u017ekov\u00e9ho\u201c zesilova\u010de. Ta tak\u00e9 odm\u00edtla fungovat.<\/p>\n<p>Pak zas\u00e1hla v\u00e1lka, kter\u00e1 zanechala novou v\u00fdzkumnou program Kellyho v chaosu. Kelly se stal vedouc\u00edm pracovn\u00ed skupiny pro radary v Bellov\u00fdch laborato\u0159\u00edch, kter\u00e1 pracovala za podpory hlavn\u00edho radarov\u00e9ho v\u00fdzkumn\u00e9ho centra USA na MIT. Brattain u n\u011bj pracoval kr\u00e1tce, pak p\u0159e\u0161el na v\u00fdzkum magnetick\u00e9ho detekov\u00e1n\u00ed ponorek na zak\u00e1zku vojensk\u00e9ho n\u00e1mo\u0159nictva. Woolridge pracoval na syst\u00e9mech \u0159\u00edzen\u00ed palby, Nix na difuzi plyn\u016f pro Manhattan Project a Shockley ode\u0161el do opera\u010dn\u00edho v\u00fdzkumu, kde se nejprve zab\u00fdval bojem proti ponork\u00e1m v Atlantiku a pot\u00e9 strategick\u00fdmi bombardov\u00e1n\u00edmi v Tich\u00e9m oce\u00e1nu.<\/p>\n<p>Ale i p\u0159es tento z\u00e1sah v\u00e1lka nezastavila rozvoj polovodi\u010dov\u00e9 elektroniky. Naopak, vedla k masivn\u00edmu proud\u011bn\u00ed zdroj\u016f do t\u00e9to oblasti a ke koncentraci v\u00fdzkumu na dvou materi\u00e1lech: germanium a k\u0159em\u00edk.<\/p>\n<h2>Co si je\u0161t\u011b p\u0159e\u010d\u00edst<\/h2>\n<p>\nErnest Bruan a Stuart MacDonald, Revoluce v miniatu\u0159e (1978)<\/p>\n<p>Friedrich Kurylo a Charles Susskind, Ferdinand Braun (1981)<\/p>\n<p>G. L. Pearson a W. H. Brattain, \u201cHistorie v\u00fdzkumu polovodi\u010d\u016f,\u201d Proceedings of the IRE (prosinec 1955).<\/p>\n<p>Michael Riordan a Lillian Hoddeson, Krystalov\u00fd ohe\u0148 (1997)<br \/>\n<br \/>Zdroj: <a content=\"nofollow\" rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">habr.com<\/a><\/p>","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430: \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u041c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434 \u00ab\u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439\u00bb, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0417\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0414\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0446 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\u041a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u0441 ENIAC \u042d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0437\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u044f\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0449\u0443\u043f\u044c \u0432 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0442\u0435 \u0418\u0437 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b \u041c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u041e\u043f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u0442\u044c \u0420\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0434, 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