{"id":55071,"date":"2020-01-11T00:00:00","date_gmt":"2020-01-10T21:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/blog\/blog_prohoster\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote"},"modified":"2020-02-18T14:03:09","modified_gmt":"2020-02-18T11:03:09","slug":"istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/et\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote","title":{"rendered":"Transistori ajalugu: pimeduses katsudes","gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"text"}]},"content":{"rendered":"<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Transistori ajalugu: pimeduses katsudes\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/16ad3c6eaa7f0e32992939696172bd90.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<br \/>\n<b class=\"spoiler_title\">Teised ts\u00fckli artiklid:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Rela ajalugu\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404373\/\">Kiire teabe edastamise meetod ehk relee tekkimine<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404475\/\">Kaugr\u00e9le<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/370545\/\">Galvanism<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404657\/\">Ettev\u00f5tjad<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404723\/\">Ja l\u00f5puks, relee<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404889\/\">R\u00e4\u00e4kiv telegraaf<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405025\/\">Lihtsalt \u00fchendamine<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/company\/mailru\/blog\/370471\/\">Unustatud r\u00e4litsid kompuutritest<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">Elektriaeg<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Elektriliste kompuutrite ajalugu\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408611\/\">Proloog<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/374043\/\">Kolloss<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408597\/\">ENIAC <\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Elektriline revolutsioon<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Transistori ajalugu\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">K\u00e4ies pimeduses tunde j\u00e4rgi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">S\u00f5jakooretest<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\"><\/a><\/noindex><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/449760\/\">Korduv leiutamine<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Interneti ajalugu\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450168\/\">Tugiv\u00f5rk<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450522\/\">Lagunemine, osa 1<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/451606\/\">Lagunemine, osa 2<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/452030\/\">Interaktiivsuse avamine<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/453154\/\">Interaktiivsuse laiendamine<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">ARPANET \u2014 algus<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">ARPANET \u2014 pakett<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/461177\/\">ARPANET \u2014 alamv\u00f5rk<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/472582\/\">Arvuti kui sidevahend<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/483366\/\">Interneti ajalugu: v\u00f5rgu\u00fchendus<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\nTee tahkete l\u00fclitite juurde oli pikk ja keeruline. See algas avastusest, et teatud materjalid k\u00e4ituvad elektri kohalolekul kummaliselt \u2013 mitte nii, nagu tollased teooriad ette n\u00e4gid. Sellele j\u00e4rgnes lugu sellest, kuidas XX sajandi jooksul muutus tehnoloogia \u00fcha rohkem teaduslikuks ja institutsionaalseteks distsipliinideks. Hobi- ja algajad leiutajad, kellel oli peaaegu puudulik teaduslik haridus, tegid t\u00e4htsaid panuseid telegraafi, telefonitehnoloogia ja raadioside kujunemisse. Kuid nagu me n\u00e4eme, toimusid peaaegu k\u00f5ik edusammud tahkete elektroonikate ajaloos t\u00e4nu teadlastele, kes olid \u00f5ppinud \u00fclikoolides (ja kellel oli tavaliselt doktorikraad f\u00fc\u00fcsikas) ning t\u00f6\u00f6tasid \u00fclikoolide v\u00f5i ettev\u00f5tete teaduslaborites.<br \/>\n<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" name=\"habracut\"><\/a><\/noindex><br \/>\nIga inimene, kellel on juurdep\u00e4\u00e4s t\u00f6\u00f6kohale ja p\u00f5hioskused materjalide t\u00f6\u00f6tlemises, suudab kokkupanekuks relee juhtmetest, metallist ja puidust. Elektriliste lampide valmistamiseks on vajalikud spetsiifilisemad t\u00f6\u00f6riistad, mis suudavad luua klaaskupli ja v\u00e4lja t\u00f5mmata sellest \u00f5hu. Tahked seadmed on kadunud k\u00fc\u00fclikuaugusse, kust digitaalne l\u00fcliti enam tagasi ei tulnud, ning nad s\u00fcvenesid s\u00fcgavamale maailmadesse, mis on arusaadavad vaid abstraktsele matemaatikale ja millele p\u00e4\u00e4seb ligi vaid uskumatult kallite seadmete abil.<\/p>\n<h2>Galeniit<\/h2>\n<p>\nAastal 1874 <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD,_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4\">Ferdinand Braun<\/a><\/noindex>, 24-aastane f\u00fc\u00fcsik p\u00fchap\u00e4eva koolist Leipzigi P\u00fchast Toomasest, avaldas oma pika karj\u00e4\u00e4ri jooksul esimese paljude oluliste teadust\u00f6\u00f6de seast. T\u00f6\u00f6 \"Elektrivoolude l\u00e4bimine metallide sulfiidide kaudu\" v\u00f5eti vastu Pogendorffi Annalenis, prestii\u017eikas ajakirjas, mis oli p\u00fchendatud f\u00fc\u00fcsikateadustele. Hoolimata igavast pealkirjast, kirjeldas Braun oma t\u00f6\u00f6s mitmeid h\u00e4mmastavaid ja salap\u00e4raseid katsetulemusi.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Transistori ajalugu: pimeduses katsudes\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/dba4a5648572427d3c139ff9560f92f9.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Ferdinand Braun<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Brauni paelusid sulfiidid \u2013 mineraalikristallid, mis koosnevad v\u00e4\u00e4vli ja metallide \u00fchenditest \u2013 t\u00e4nu uuringutele <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%93%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC\">\u0418\u043e\u0433\u0430\u043d\u043d\u0430 \u0412\u0438\u043b\u044c\u0433\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043c\u0430 \u0413\u0438\u0442\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0444\u0430<\/a><\/noindex>. \u0415\u0449\u0451 \u0432 1833 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u041c\u0430\u0439\u043a\u043b \u0424\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0439 \u043e\u0442\u043c\u0435\u0442\u0438\u043b, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0441\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0444\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0430 \u0443\u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0441 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0430\u0442\u0443\u0440\u043e\u0439, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c\u044e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0442\u0438\u0432\u043e\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432. \u0413\u0438\u0442\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0444 \u0441\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u0438\u043b \u0442\u0449\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043e\u0442\u0447\u0451\u0442 \u043e\u0431 \u0438\u0437\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u0445 \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u044d\u0444\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0430 \u0432 1850-\u0445, \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0441\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0444\u0438\u0434\u043e\u0432 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0431\u0440\u0430, \u0442\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0434\u0438. \u0422\u0435\u043f\u0435\u0440\u044c \u0411\u0440\u0430\u0443\u043d, \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u0443\u044f \u0445\u0438\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0443\u043c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0443, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0436\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0443\u044e \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434 \u043a \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0443 \u0441\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0444\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0439, \u0447\u0442\u043e\u0431\u044b \u043e\u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0447\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043a\u0442, \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0438\u043b \u043d\u0435\u0447\u0442\u043e \u0435\u0449\u0451 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0435. \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043c\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0435\u043b\u0430 \u043e\u0442 \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u2013 \u043a \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u0440\u0443, \u0442\u043e\u043a \u043c\u043e\u0433 \u0445\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0448\u043e \u0442\u0435\u0447\u044c \u0432 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438, \u043d\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438 \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044f\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0430\u043a\u043a\u0443\u043c\u0443\u043b\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u043a \u043c\u043e\u0433 \u0432\u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u043f\u043d\u043e \u0440\u0435\u0437\u043a\u043e \u0443\u043f\u0430\u0441\u0442\u044c. \u041a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u044b \u0432 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0430\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0436\u0435 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0438 (\u043a\u0430\u043a \u043d\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u044b), \u0430 \u0432 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u043c \u2013 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0435 \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0438\u0437\u043e\u043b\u044f\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b (\u043a\u0430\u043a \u0441\u0442\u0435\u043a\u043b\u043e \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0438\u043d\u0430). \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e, \u043a\u0430\u043a \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0440\u044f\u043c\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435, \u0438\u0437-\u0437\u0430 \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0440\u044f\u043c\u043b\u044f\u0442\u044c \u00ab\u0438\u0437\u0432\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0441\u0442\u044b\u0439\u00bb \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u043c\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u043a, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u044f \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0432 \u00ab\u043f\u043b\u043e\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439\u00bb \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439.<\/p>\n<p>Umbes samal ajal avastasid teadlased ka muid kummalisi omadusi selliste materjalide nagu n\u00e4iteks seleeni puhul, mida sai sulatada teatud metallide sulfiidsetest maardlatest. Valguse m\u00f5jul suurendas seleen oma juhtivust ning hakkas isegi elektrit genereerima ja seda sai kasutada ka sirgestamiseks. Kas siin oli mingisugune seos sulfiidkristallidega? Ilma teoreetiliste mudeliteta, mis suudaksid seletada toimuvat, valitses selles valdkonnas segadus.<\/p>\n<p>Kuid teooria puudumine ei takistanud praktiliste rakenduste katsetamist. 1890. aastate l\u00f5pus sai Braun Strasbourg'i \u00fclikooli professoriks \u2013 Prantsusmaalt hiljuti annekteeritud. <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0\">Prantsus-Preisi s\u00f5da<\/a><\/noindex> ja muudeti Wilhelm Kaiseri \u00dclikooliks. Seal t\u00f5i teda maagiline uus raadiotelegraafia maailm. Ta n\u00f5ustus ettev\u00f5tjate r\u00fchmaga koost\u00f6\u00f6d tegema, et luua traadita side s\u00fcsteem, mis p\u00f5hines raadiolainete \u00fclekandel vee kaudu. Kuid koos kaasosalistega loobusid nad peagi algsest ideest signaalide \u00f5hust edastamise kasuks, mida kasutasid Marconi ja teised.<\/p>\n<p>Brawni grupi p\u00fc\u00fcdlemise seas raadiovaldkonnas oli standardne tol ajal vastuv\u00f5tja, <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%80\">koherer<\/a><\/noindex>. \u041e\u043d \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u043e\u043c \u0444\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0435, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u044b \u0437\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u043b\u0438 \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043e\u043f\u0438\u043b\u043a\u0438 \u0441\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0447\u0435\u043a, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044f\u043b\u043e \u0442\u043e\u043a\u0443 \u043e\u0442 \u0431\u0430\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0435\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043a \u0441\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e, \u043d\u043e \u0441\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u043e\u0442\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044c \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0441\u0438\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0441\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u043b\u044b, \u0430 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0431\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0430 \u043e\u043f\u0438\u043b\u043e\u043a \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u043d\u043e \u0443\u0434\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0442\u044c \u043f\u043e \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0443. \u0411\u0440\u0430\u0443\u043d \u0432\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0438\u043b \u0441\u0432\u043e\u0438 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u044b\u0435 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u044b \u0441 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u0441\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0444\u0438\u0434\u0430, \u0438 \u0432 1899 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443 \u0432\u043e\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043b \u0441\u0432\u043e\u044e \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0443\u044e \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0443\u044e \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0443 \u0441 \u043d\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0439 \u0446\u0435\u043b\u044c\u044e \u2013 \u0441\u043b\u0443\u0436\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u043c \u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432. \u042d\u0444\u0444\u0435\u043a\u0442 \u0432\u044b\u043f\u0440\u044f\u043c\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043e\u043d \u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0435\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u043a\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0431\u043b\u044e\u0449\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0441\u044f \u0442\u043e\u043a\u0430, \u043f\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0430\u0435\u043c\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0449\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0438\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438, \u0432 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u044f\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u043a, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u0433 \u043f\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0435\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0439 \u0434\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043c\u0438\u043a, \u0432\u044b\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u0432\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u0441\u043b\u044b\u0448\u0438\u043c\u044b\u0435 \u0449\u0435\u043b\u0447\u043a\u0438 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043a\u0430\u0436\u0434\u043e\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0438 \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0442\u0438\u0440\u0435. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0436\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0434 \u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0435\u043c &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80\">kassi vurru detektor<\/a><\/noindex>&#187; \u0438\u0437-\u0437\u0430 \u0432\u043d\u0435\u0448\u043d\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0447\u043a\u0430, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u043b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0441\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043a \u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u0435\u0439 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430. \u0412 \u0411\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0439 \u0418\u043d\u0434\u0438\u0438 (\u0433\u0434\u0435 \u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044f \u043d\u0430\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0411\u0430\u043d\u0433\u043b\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0448) \u0443\u0447\u0451\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u0438\u0437\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c \u0414\u0436\u0430\u0433\u0430\u0434\u0438\u0448 \u0411\u043e\u0437\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0438\u043b \u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e, \u0432\u043e\u0437\u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0434\u0430\u0436\u0435 \u0432 1894 \u0433\u043e\u0434\u0443. \u041e\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0440\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0434\u0435\u043b\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043f\u043e\u0434\u043e\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0434\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0435 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0438 \u043a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u043e\u0440\u0443\u043d\u0434\u0430 (\u043a\u0430\u0440\u0431\u0438\u0434\u0430 \u043a\u0440\u0435\u043c\u043d\u0438\u044f).<\/p>\n<p>Kuid just <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82\">galeniit<\/a><\/noindex>, plii sulfiid, mida on sulatatud plii saamiseks juba iidsetest aegadest, sai eelistatud materjaliks kristalliliste detektorite jaoks. Nad olid lihtsad toota ja odavad ning seet\u00f5ttu said nad ennekuulmatu populaarsuse varaste raadiohuviliste seas. Veelgi enam, erinevalt binaarsest kogereerist (puuseente, mis kas klumpsasid kokku v\u00f5i mitte), suutis kristalliline sirgesti edastada pidevat signaali. Seet\u00f5ttu v\u00f5is ta edastada inimese kuulmisele sagedusi h\u00e4\u00e4le ja muusika, mitte ainult morse koodi koos punktide ja kriipsudega.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Transistori ajalugu: pimeduses katsudes\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/b43382b70622d1171b8d3e65e5927526.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Galeniidist valmistatud \u00abkassitundlik\u00bb detektor. Vasakul olev v\u00e4ike kaabel on tundlik, all olev h\u00f5bedane materjal on galeniidi kristall.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Kuid nagu varsti selgus nurisevatelt raadiohuvilistelt, v\u00f5is maagilise punkti leidmine kristalli pinnal, mis annaks hea sirgendamise, v\u00f5tta minuteid v\u00f5i isegi tunde. Ja signaalid ilma v\u00f5imenduseta olid n\u00f5rgad ja neil oli metalliline k\u00f5la. 1920. aastateks olid elektronlampidega triode v\u00f5imenditega vastuv\u00f5tjad praktiliselt kristallidetektoreid peaaegu igalt poolt v\u00e4lja t\u00f5rjunud. Nende atraktiivne omadus oli ainult odavus.<\/p>\n<p>See l\u00fchike ilmumine raadiosagedusese tundus olevat eraklike elektriliste omaduste praktilise rakenduse piir, mille avastas Brown ja teised.<\/p>\n<h2>Vaskoksiid<\/h2>\n<p>\nKuid 1920. aastatel avastas teine f\u00fc\u00fcsik nimega Lars Grondahl oma katse seadme abil midagi kummalist. Grondahl, esimene nutikate ja rahutute meeste jada, kes on teada Ameerika l\u00e4\u00e4ne ajaloos, oli ehitusinseneri poeg. Tema isa, kes emigreerus Norrast 1880. aastal, t\u00f6\u00f6tas paar aastak\u00fcmmet raudteedel Californias, Oregoni osariigis ja Washingtonis. Alguses n\u00e4is Grondahl otsustanud j\u00e4tta oma isa insenerimaailma seljataha ning asus Johns Hopkinsi \u00fclikooli f\u00fc\u00fcsika doktorikraadi nimel, et astuda akadeemilisele teele. Kuid seej\u00e4rel t\u00f5mbas ta end ka raudteetegevusse sisse ja sai Union Switch and Signal'i, t\u00f6\u00f6stusgigandi divisjoni, teadusuuringute juhiks. <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Westinghouse_Electric\">Westinghouse<\/a><\/noindex>, mis tarnis seadmeid raudtee t\u00f6\u00f6stusele.<\/p>\n<p>Erinevates allikates tuuakse v\u00e4lja vastuolulisi p\u00f5hjuseid, miks Grondal oma uuringutega alustas, kuid igal juhul alustas ta katsetamist \u00fchek\u00fclgselt kuumutatud vaskdiskidega, et luua oks\u00fcdatsiooni kiht. T\u00f6\u00f6tades nendega, m\u00e4rkis ta voolu asymmeetriat \u2013 takistus \u00fches suunas oli kolm korda suurem kui teises. Vask- ja vaseoksiidist disk sirutas voolu, nagu kristall sulfiidi.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Transistori ajalugu: pimeduses katsudes\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/5ea17aa0272848adb9fdb122b650dc19.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Vaseoksiidi dioodiskeem<\/i><\/p>\n<p>J\u00e4rgmise kuue aasta jooksul arendas Grondal selle n\u00e4htuse p\u00f5hjal v\u00e4lja kaubanduslikult kasutusvalmis sirgestaja, saanud abi USA teadlaselt Paul Geigerilt. Seej\u00e4rel esitas ta patenditaotluse ja kuulutas oma leidmist 1926. aastal Ameerika F\u00fc\u00fcsika Seltsi koosolekul. Seade sai kohe kaubanduslikuks hittiks. T\u00e4nu haprate kiudude puudumisele oli see palju usaldusv\u00e4\u00e4rsem kui elektronlampidel p\u00f5hinev Fleming'i klapi p\u00f5him\u00f5ttel t\u00f6\u00f6tav sirgestaja ning seda oli odav toota. Erinevalt Brauni kristallidest, mis olid sirgestajad, t\u00f6\u00f6tas see esimesel katsel ning suurema metall- ja oks\u00fcdikontakti pinna t\u00f5ttu t\u00f6\u00f6tas see laiemas voolude ja pingete ulatuses. See suutis laadida akusid, tuvastada signaale erinevates elektrilistes s\u00fcsteemides ning t\u00f6\u00f6tada turvashuntina v\u00f5imsates generaatorites. Kasutades fotoelemendina, v\u00f5isid kettad t\u00f6\u00f6tada valguse m\u00f5\u00f5turitena ning nad olid eriti kasulikud fotograafias. Teised teadlased arendasid umbes sel ajal v\u00e4lja ka sulfiididel p\u00f5hinevaid sirgestajaid, mida kasutati sarnastes rakendustes.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Transistori ajalugu: pimeduses katsudes\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/61c76a25b892e1064316faf461bd3da1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Vaskoksiidist valmistatud sirgestajate partii. Mitme ketta kokkupanek suurendas tagasivoolutakistust, mis v\u00f5imaldas neid kasutada k\u00f5rge pingega.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>M\u00f5ne aasta p\u00e4rast otsustasid kaks f\u00fc\u00fcsikut Bell Labs'ist, Joseph Becker ja <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD,_%D0%A3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80\">Walter Brattain<\/a><\/noindex>, uurida vasksirgestaja t\u00f6\u00f6p\u00f5him\u00f5tteid \u2013 neid huvitas, kuidas see t\u00f6\u00f6tab ja kuidas seda Bell Systemis kasutada saab.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Transistori ajalugu: pimeduses katsudes\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/a670707a5c9ee86ae7b7f129fd8fdee1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Brattain vanemas eas \u2013 u. 1950<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Brattain oli p\u00e4rit samadest kohtadest nagu Grondahl, Vaikse ookeani loodeosast, kus ta kasvas \u00fcles farmis, mis asus paarik\u00fcmne kilomeetri kaugusel Kanada piirist. Keskkoolis hakkas teda huvitama f\u00fc\u00fcsika, ta n\u00e4itas selles valdkonnas andeid ning l\u00f5puks sai 1920-ndate l\u00f5pus Minnesotast doktorikraadi ja alustas t\u00f6\u00f6d Bell Labs'is 1929. Samuti \u00f5ppis ta \u00fclikoolis uusimat teoreetilist f\u00fc\u00fcsikat, mis oli Euroopas populaarsust kogumas, ja mida tuntakse kvantmehaanika nime all (tema juhendajaks oli <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA\">John Hasbrouck Van Vleck<\/a><\/noindex>, kes juhendas ka John Atanasovi).<\/p>\n<h2>Kvantrevolutsioon<\/h2>\n<p>\nUus teoreetiline platvorm on viimase kolme aastak\u00fcmne jooksul aeglaselt v\u00e4lja arenenud ning suudab oma aja jooksul selgitada k\u00f5iki kummalisi n\u00e4htusi, mida on aastaid t\u00e4heldatud sellistes materjalides nagu galenit, seleen ja vaseoksiid. Terve nooremate f\u00fc\u00fcsikute grupp, peamiselt Saksamaalt ja naaberriikidest, on t\u00f5ukunud kvanta revolutsioonini f\u00fc\u00fcsikas. Iga\u00fcks, kes on uurinud, on leidnud mitte sujuva ja pideva maailma, mida neile \u00f5petati, vaid kummalised eraldatud t\u00fckid.<\/p>\n<p>\u0412\u0441\u0451 \u043d\u0430\u0447\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u0432 1890-\u0445. \u041c\u0430\u043a\u0441 \u041f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u043a, \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u0435\u0439\u0448\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0444\u0435\u0441\u0441\u043e\u0440 \u0411\u0435\u0440\u043b\u0438\u043d\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430, \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0438\u043b \u043f\u043e\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0441 \u0438\u0437\u0432\u0435\u0441\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043d\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0448\u0451\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0435\u0439: \u043a\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043c \u043e\u0431\u0440\u0430\u0437\u043e\u043c &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%87%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE\">absoluutselt must kehake<\/a><\/noindex>&#187; (\u0438\u0434\u0435\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0443\u0431\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0446\u0438\u044f, \u043f\u043e\u0433\u043b\u043e\u0449\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0430\u044f \u0432\u0441\u044e \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u044e \u0438 \u043d\u0435 \u043e\u0442\u0440\u0430\u0436\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0430\u044f \u0435\u0451) \u0438\u0441\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u0438\u0437\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0432 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0433\u043d\u0438\u0442\u043d\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0435? \u0411\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u0438\u0441\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043d\u044b \u0440\u0430\u0437\u043b\u0438\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0438, \u043d\u0438 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430 \u0438\u0437 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u043d\u0435 \u0441\u043e\u0432\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u043b\u0430 \u0441 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438 \u2013 \u043e\u043d\u0438 \u043d\u0435 \u0441\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u044f\u043b\u0438\u0441\u044c \u043b\u0438\u0431\u043e \u0432 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u043c, \u043b\u0438\u0431\u043e \u0432 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u043e\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0446\u0435 \u0441\u043f\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0430. \u041f\u043b\u0430\u043d\u043a \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0438\u043b, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0435\u0441\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0442\u044c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u044f \u0438\u0441\u043f\u0443\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0442\u0435\u043b\u043e\u043c \u043d\u0435\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u00ab\u043f\u0430\u043a\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00bb \u0434\u0438\u0441\u043a\u0440\u0435\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0432\u0435\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0438\u043d\u044b, \u0442\u043e \u043c\u043e\u0436\u043d\u043e \u0437\u0430\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u0437\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d \u0432\u0437\u0430\u0438\u043c\u043e\u043e\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0448\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u044b \u0438 \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0438\u0438, \u0438\u0434\u0435\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0432\u043f\u0430\u0434\u0430\u044e\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0441 \u044d\u043c\u043f\u0438\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0440\u0435\u0437\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0430\u0442\u0430\u043c\u0438.<\/p>\n<p>Peagi p\u00e4rast seda avastas Einstein, et sama toimub ka valguse neeldumise puhul (esimene vihje fotonite olemasolule), ja J.J. Thomson n\u00e4itas, et elektrit ei kanna edasi pidev vedelik v\u00f5i laine, vaid eraldi osakesed \u2013 elektronid. Seej\u00e4rel l\u00f5i Niels Bohr mudeli, mis selgitas, kuidas erutatud aatomid kiirgavad kiirgust, m\u00e4\u00e4rates elektronidele aatomis eraldi orbiidid, millest iga\u00fchel on oma energia. Kuid see nimetus v\u00f5ib olla eksitav, kuna nad ei k\u00e4itu sugugi nagu planeetide orbiidid \u2013 Bohr\u2019i mudelis elektronid h\u00fcppasid kohe \u00fchest orbiidist, v\u00f5i energiatasemest, teise, l\u00e4bides vahepealset seisundit. L\u00f5puks, 1920. aastatel, l\u00f5id Erwin Schr\u00f6dinger, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born ja teised \u00fcldise matemaatilise platvormi, mida tuntakse kvantmehaanika nime all, mis h\u00f5lmas k\u00f5iki konkreetseid kvantmudeleid, mis loodi eelneva kahek\u00fcmne aasta jooksul.<\/p>\n<p>Kellest alates olid f\u00fc\u00fcsikud kindlad, et sellised materjalid nagu seleen ja galena, millel on fotogalvaanilised ja sirgendavad omadused, kuuluvad eraldi materjalide klassi, mida nad nimetasid pooljuhtideks. Klassifitseerimine v\u00f5ttis aega mitmel p\u00f5hjusel. Esiteks olid ise kategooriad \"juhtivad\" ja \"isolaatorid\" \u00fcsna laiad. Nii-\u00f6elda \"juhtide\" vahel olid ulatuslikud erinevused juhtivuses, samuti oli see (v\u00e4hemal m\u00e4\u00e4ral) isoleerijate puhul ja ei olnud selge, kuidas mingit kindlat juhti v\u00f5ib seostada nende klassidega. Veelgi enam, kuni XX sajandi keskpaigani ei olnud v\u00f5imalik saada v\u00f5i luua v\u00e4ga puhtaid aineid, ning k\u00f5ik looduslike materjalide juhtivuse kummalised omadused v\u00f5is alati seostada rikutusega.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00fc\u00fcd olid f\u00fc\u00fcsikutel olemas nii kvantmehhaanika matemaatilised t\u00f6\u00f6riistad kui ka uus materjalide klass, millele neid rakendada. Briti teoreetik <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Herries_Wilson\">Alan Wilson<\/a><\/noindex> oli esimene, kes selle k\u00f5ik kokku kogus ja konstrueeris 1931. aastal pooljuhtide \u00fcldise mudeli ja nende t\u00f6\u00f6p\u00f5him\u00f5tte.<\/p>\n<p>Esialgu v\u00e4itis Wilson, et juhtivad materjalid erinevad dielektrikutest energiaaluste seisundite poolest. Kvantmehaanika v\u00e4idab, et elektronid v\u00f5ivad eksisteerida piiratud arvu energia tasemetel, mis kuuluvad individuaalsete atomite kestadele v\u00f5i orbitaalidele. Kui need atomid kokku suruda mingi materjali struktuuris, on korrektsem kujutleda pidevaid energiaaluseid, mis l\u00e4bivad seda. Juhtivates materjalides on k\u00f5rgetes energia tasemetes vabad kohad ning elektriv\u00e4li saab sinna vabalt elektronid liigutada. Isolaatorites on alad t\u00e4idetud ja k\u00f5rgemale, juhtivale alale, mille kaudu elektril on kergem liikuda, on \u00fcsna kaugele ronida.<\/p>\n<p>See on viinud teda j\u00e4reldusele, et lisandid \u2013 v\u00e4lised atomid materjali struktuuris \u2013 peavad panustama selle pooljuhtlikele omadustele. Need v\u00f5ivad kas anda \u00fcleliigseid elektrone, mis liiguvad kergesti juhtivusv\u00f6\u00f6ndisse, v\u00f5i l\u00fcnki \u2013 elektronide puudumise v\u00f5rreldes \u00fclej\u00e4\u00e4nud materjaliga \u2013 mis loob t\u00fchjad energiakohtad, kuhu vabade elektronide liikuda. Esimese variandi nimetati hiljem n-t\u00fc\u00fcpi pooljuhtideks (v\u00f5i elektronideks) \u2013 \u00fcleliigse negatiivse laengu t\u00f5ttu, ja teised \u2013 p-t\u00fc\u00fcpi, v\u00f5i l\u00fckkes \u2013 \u00fcleliigse positiivse laengu t\u00f5ttu.<\/p>\n<p>L\u00f5puks oletab Wilson, et voolu suunamist pooljuhtide kaudu saab selgitada kvantpfenomeni <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%8D%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82\">tunneli efekti<\/a><\/noindex>, kus elektronid h\u00fcppavad ootamatult l\u00e4bi \u00f5hukese elektrilise t\u00f5kke materjalis. Teooria tundus usutav, kuid ennustas, et suunamisel peaks vool liikuma oksiidist vaske, kuigi tegelikkuses oli k\u00f5ik vastupidi.<\/p>\n<p>Nii et, hoolimata Wilsoni k\u00f5igist l\u00e4bimurretest, j\u00e4id pooljuhid keerulisteks selgitada. Aja jooksul sai selgeks, et mikroosakestega seotud muutused kristallstruktuuris ja lisandite kontsentratsioonis m\u00f5jutavad ebaproportsionaalselt nende makroskoopilist elektri k\u00e4itumist. Sellegipoolest, vaatamata arusaamatuse puudumisele \u2014 kuna keegi ei suutnud selgitada eksperimentaalseid vaatlust, mida Brown tegi 60 aastat enne seda \u2014 arendasid Brattain ja Becker v\u00e4lja t\u00f5husa tootmisprotsessi vaseoksiidist \u00f5igustite jaoks oma t\u00f6\u00f6andjale. Bell Systems hakkas kiiresti kogu s\u00fcsteemis elektronlampide \u00f5igustid asendama seadmega, mida nende insenerid nimetasid <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80\">varistoriks<\/a><\/noindex>, kuna selle takistus muutus s\u00f5ltuvalt suunast.<\/p>\n<h2>Kuldmedal<\/h2>\n<p>\nMervin Kelly, f\u00fc\u00fcsik ja endine Bell Laboratories'i elektronlampide osakonna juhataja, oli selle saavutusega v\u00e4ga huvitatud. Aastate jooksul olid elektronlambid Bellile osutatud hindamatut teenust, t\u00e4ites funktsioone, mis eelnenud mehaaniliste ja elektromehaaniliste komponentide jaoks polnud k\u00e4ttesaadavad. Kuid nad kuumenesid tugevalt, \u00fclek\u00fcpsesid regulaarselt, tarbisid palju energiat ja nende hooldamine oli keeruline. Kelly kavatseb Belli s\u00fcsteemi uuesti \u00fcles ehitada, kasutades usaldusv\u00e4\u00e4rsemaid ja vastupidavamaid tahkefaasilisi elektroonilisi komponente nagu varistorid, mis ei n\u00f5udnud ei hermeetiliselt suletud, gaasiga t\u00e4idetud ega t\u00fchje korpusi, ega kuumi kiu. 1936. aastal sai ta Bell Laboratories'i uurimisosakonna juhatajaks ning alustas organisatsiooni suunamist uuele teele.<\/p>\n<p>Saanud tahkis\u00fclearvuti, oli j\u00e4rgmine loogiline samm luua tahkisv\u00f5imendi. Loomulikult v\u00f5iks see seade t\u00f6\u00f6tada ka digitaalse l\u00fclitina, sarnaselt toru v\u00f5imendiga. See huvitas eriti Bell Labs'i, kuna telefonivahetustes t\u00f6\u00f6tas endiselt suur hulk elektromehaanilisi digitaalset l\u00fclitit. Ettev\u00f5te otsis usaldusv\u00e4\u00e4rsemat, kompaktsemat, energias\u00e4\u00e4stlikumat ja jahedamat asendust elektronlampidele telefonis\u00fcsteemides, raadiovastuv\u00f5tjates, radarites ja muudes analoogseadmetes, kus neid kasutati n\u00f5rkade signaalide tugevdamiseks tasemeni, mis on inimese k\u00f5rvale kuuldav.<\/p>\n<p>Aastal 1936 l\u00f5petas Bell Labs l\u00f5puks personali palgalepingu keelu, mis oli kehtestatud <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F\">Suure Depressiooni<\/a><\/noindex>. Kelly hakkas viivitamatult v\u00e4rbama kvantmehaanika eksperte, et aidata tal k\u00e4ivitada oma tahkisseadmete uurimisprogramm, mille hulka kuulus ka <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8,_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%91%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4\">William Shockley<\/a><\/noindex>, veel se alle v\u00e4lja West Coastist, Palo Alto (California). Teema tema hiljuti MIT-is kaitstud v\u00e4itest sobis Kelly vajadustele paremini kui h\u00e4sti: \u201eElektroonilised tsoonid naatriumkloriidis\u201d.<\/p>\n<p>Brattain ja Becker j\u00e4tkasid sel ajal oma uuringut vaseoksiidi sirgestaja kohta, p\u00fc\u00fcdes saada parendatud tahke oleku v\u00f5imendit. K\u00f5ige ilmsem viis selle valmistamiseks oli minna sarnaselt elektritorule. Nii nagu Lee de Forest v\u00f5ttis toru v\u00f5imendi ja <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">paigutas elektriv\u00f5rgu<\/a><\/noindex> katoodi ja anoodi vahele, nii esitasid Brattain ja Becker ideed, kuidas v\u00f5rku sisse panna vask- ja vaseoksiidi kontaktpunkti, kus, nagu arvati, toimub sirgestamine. Kuid nende arvates ei olnud v\u00f5imalik seda \u00f5hukese kihi t\u00f5ttu teostada ja nad ei \u00f5nnestunud sellega.<\/p>\n<p>Samas ajal on teised arendused n\u00e4idanud, et Bell Laboratories ei olnud ainus ettev\u00f5te, kes oli huvitatud tahke staatuse elektroonikast. 1938. aastal avaldasid Rudolf Hilsh ja Robert Paul G\u00f6ttingeni \u00fclikoolis l\u00e4biviidud katsete tulemused t\u00f6\u00f6tava tahke staatuse v\u00f5imendi kohta, mis oli loodud v\u00f5rgu sissetoomise kaudu kaaliumbromiidi kristallisse. Praktikas ei omanud see laboriseade mingisugust v\u00e4\u00e4rtust \u2013 peamiselt seet\u00f5ttu, et see t\u00f6\u00f6tas v\u00e4hem kui 1 Hz sagedusel. Siiski ei saanud see saavutus k\u00f5iki tahke staatuse elektroonikaga tegelevad entusiaste mitte r\u00f5\u00f5mustada. Samal aastal m\u00e4\u00e4ras Kelly Shockley uude iseseissevasse tahke seadme uurimisgruppi ning andis talle koos kolleegidega \u2013 Foster Nix ja Dean Woolridge \u2013 vabaduse uurida nende v\u00f5imalusi.<\/p>\n<p>T\u00f5en\u00e4oliselt suutsid veel kaks leiutajat enne Teist maailmas\u00f5da luua tahke staatuse v\u00f5imendeid. 1922. aastal suutis vene f\u00fc\u00fcsik ja leiutaja <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2,_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87\">Oleg Vladimirovich Losev<\/a><\/noindex> Avalikustas edukaid katsetusi tsinkite pooljuhtidega, kuid tema t\u00f6\u00f6d j\u00e4id l\u00e4\u00e4ne kogukonnale m\u00e4rkamata; 1926. aastal esitas Ameerika leiutaja Julius Lilienfeld patenteerimisavalduse tahkete v\u00f5imendite kohta, kuid t\u00f5endeid tema leiutise toimivuse kohta ei ole.<\/p>\n<p>Shokli esimene peamine arusaam uuel ametikohal juhtus briti f\u00fc\u00fcsiku Neville Motti 1938. aastal avaldatud t\u00f6\u00f6d lugedes \"Kristalsed sirgendite teooria\", kus l\u00f5puks selgitati Grondali sirgendite toimimise p\u00f5him\u00f5tet vasemedioksiidil. Mott kasutas kvantmehaanika matemaatikat, et kirjeldada elektriv\u00e4lja tekkimist juhtiva metalli ja pooljuhtoksiidi vahel, ja kuidas elektronid \"vahelt h\u00fcppavad\" selle elektrilise tasandi kaudu, mitte ei tunneli, nagu Wilson oli pakkunud. Praegune voolab kergemini metallist pooljuhtisse, mitte vastupidi, kuna metallil on palju rohkem vabu elektrone.<\/p>\n<p>See t\u00f5i Shokli kaasa t\u00e4pselt sama idee, mida Brattain ja Becker mitmeid aastaid varem kaalusid ja tagasi t\u00f5ukasid \u2013 valmistada tahke aine v\u00f5imendi, paigutades vaskoksiidi v\u00f5rku vase ja vaskoksiidi vahele. Ta lootis, et v\u00f5rgu kaudu voolav vool suurendab barj\u00e4\u00e4ri, mis piirab voolu vase jaoksiidi vahel, luues signaali v\u00f5imendatud, p\u00f6\u00f6rdversiooni v\u00f5rgu kaudu. Tema esimene j\u00e4me katse eba\u00f5nnestus t\u00e4ielikult, seega p\u00f6\u00f6rdus ta inimese poole, kellel olid paremad labori oskused ja kes tundis h\u00e4sti sirgeid \u2013 Walter Brattain. Ja kuigi tal ei olnud kahtlusi tulemuse osas, n\u00f5ustus Brattain rahuldama Shokli uudishimu ja l\u00f5i keerukama versiooni \u201ev\u00f5rgu\u201c v\u00f5imendist. See eba\u00f5nnestus samuti.<\/p>\n<p>Siis s\u00f5da sekkus, j\u00e4ttes Kelly uue teadusprogrammi segamini. Kelly juhtis radarigruppi Bell Labsis, t\u00f6\u00f6tades USA peamise radaritehnoloogia uurimiskeskuse toele MITis. Brattain t\u00f6\u00f6tas seal l\u00fchikest aega, enne kui l\u00e4ks uurima magnetilise allveelaevade avastamise projekte s\u00f5jav\u00e4e tellimusel. Wooldridge t\u00f6\u00f6tas tulejuhtimiss\u00fcsteemide kallal, Nix gaaside difusiooni Manhattani projekti jaoks, ja Shockley suundus operatsiooniteadustes, alustades allveelaevade vastaste operatsioonidega Atlandi ookeanis ja seej\u00e4rel strateegilistel pommitamis\u00fclesannetes Vaikse ookeani piirkonnas.<\/p>\n<p>Kuid vaatamata sellele sekkumisele ei peatunud s\u00f5da tahkete elektroonikate arendamine. Vastupidi, see organiseeris massilise ressursivoolu sellesse valdkonda ning t\u00f5i kaasa uurimist\u00f6\u00f6de koondumise kahele materjalile: saksa ja r\u00e4ni.<\/p>\n<h2>Mida veel lugeda<\/h2>\n<p>\nErnest Bruan ja Stuart MacDonald, Revolution in Miniature (1978)<\/p>\n<p>Friedrich Kurylo ja Charles Susskind, Ferdinand Braun (1981)<\/p>\n<p>G. L. Pearson ja W. H. Brattain, \u201cPooljuhtide teadusuuringute ajalugu,\u201d IRE toimetised (detsember 1955).<\/p>\n<p>Michael Riordan ja Lillian Hoddeson, Crystal Fire (1997)<br \/>\n<br \/>Allikas: <a content=\"nofollow\" rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">habr.com<\/a><\/p>","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430: \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u041c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434 \u00ab\u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439\u00bb, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0417\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0414\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0446 \u0413\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c 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