Sauran labarai a cikin jerin:
- Tarihin relay
- Tarihin kwamfutocin lantarki
- Tarihin transistor
- Tarihin Intanet
Ya zuwa yanzu, mun waiwaya baya ga kowane yunƙuri uku na farko na gina kwamfuta ta dijital: kwamfutar Atanasoff-Berry ABC, wanda John Atanasoff ya ɗauka; aikin Colossus na Burtaniya, wanda Tommy Flowers ke jagoranta, da ENIAC, wanda aka kirkira a Makarantar Moore na Jami'ar Pennsylvania. Duk waɗannan ayyukan sun kasance, a gaskiya, masu zaman kansu. Ko da yake John Mauchly, babban mai tuƙi a bayan aikin ENIAC, ya san aikin Atanasov, ƙirar ENIAC bai yi kama da ABC ta kowace hanya ba. Idan akwai kakannin kakanni na na'urar lissafin lantarki, ita ce Wynne-Williams counter, na'urar ta farko da ta yi amfani da bututu don ajiyar dijital kuma ta saita Atanasoff, Flowers, da Mauchly akan hanyar ƙirƙirar kwamfutocin lantarki.
Ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan inji guda uku, duk da haka, ya taka rawa a cikin abubuwan da suka biyo baya. ABC bai taba samar da wani aiki mai amfani ba kuma, gabaɗaya, ƴan mutanen da suka san game da shi sun manta da shi. Na'urorin yaki guda biyu sun tabbatar da cewa sun fi kowace kwamfutoci da suke wanzuwa, amma Colossus ya kasance a asirce ko da ya ci Jamus da Japan. ENIAC ne kawai ya zama sananne sosai don haka ya zama mai riƙe da ƙa'idar lissafin lantarki. Kuma a yanzu duk wanda ke son ƙirƙirar na'urar sarrafa kwamfuta bisa ga bututun ruwa zai iya nuna nasarar makarantar Moore don tabbatarwa. Shakku mai zurfi daga al'ummar injiniya da suka gai da duk irin waɗannan ayyuka kafin 1945 ya ɓace; masu shakka ko dai sun canza ra'ayi ko kuma suyi shiru.
Rahoton da aka ƙayyade na EDVAC
An sake shi a cikin 1945, daftarin, dangane da ƙwarewar ƙirƙira da amfani da ENIAC, ya saita sautin don jagorancin fasahar kwamfuta a cikin duniyar bayan yakin duniya na biyu. An kira shi " rahoton farko akan EDVAC" [Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer], kuma ya ba da samfuri don gine-ginen kwamfutoci na farko waɗanda aka tsara su a ma'anar zamani - wato, aiwatar da umarnin da aka dawo da su daga ma'adana mai sauri. Kuma ko da yake ainihin asalin ra'ayoyin da aka jera a ciki ya kasance batun muhawara, an sanya hannu da sunan masanin lissafi. (an haifi Janos Lajos Neumann). Misalin tunanin masanin lissafi, takardar ta kuma yi yunƙurin farko na zayyana ƙirar kwamfuta daga ƙayyadaddun na'ura; ya yi ƙoƙari ya ware ainihin ainihin tsarin kwamfutar daga nau'o'in abubuwan da za su iya yiwuwa da kuma bazuwar jiki.
Von Neumann, haifaffen Hungary, ya zo ENIAC ta hanyar Princeton (New Jersey) da Los Alamos (New Mexico). A cikin 1929, a matsayinsa na ƙwararren matashin masanin lissafi tare da fitattun gudummawa don saita ka'idar, injiniyoyi, da ka'idar wasa, ya bar Turai don samun matsayi a Jami'ar Princeton. Shekaru hudu bayan haka, Cibiyar Nazarin Ci gaba (IAS) da ke kusa ta ba shi matsayin aiki. Saboda hawan Naziism a Turai, von Neumann cikin farin ciki ya yi tsalle don samun damar ci gaba da kasancewa a wancan gefen Tekun Atlantika - kuma ya zama, bayan gaskiya, ɗaya daga cikin 'yan gudun hijirar Yahudawa masu tunani na farko daga Hitler ta Turai. Bayan yaƙin, ya yi baƙin ciki: “Ina jin ƙaiƙayi ga Turai akasin son zuciya ne, tun da kowane lungu da na sani yana tuna mini da duniyar da ba ta da kyau da kuma kango da ba sa samun kwanciyar hankali,” kuma ya tuna da “bacin raina ga ’yan Adam a cikin ’yan Adam. tsakanin 1933 zuwa 1938."
von Neumann ya ɓata daga ƙasashen Turai da suka ɓace a lokacin ƙuruciyarsa, ya umurci dukan masu hankalinsa su taimaka wa injin yaƙin da ke ƙasar da ta ba shi mafaka. A cikin shekaru biyar masu zuwa, ya zagaya kasar, yana ba da shawarwari da tuntubar juna kan sabbin ayyukan makamai da dama, yayin da ko ta yaya ya gudanar da hada-hadar rubuta wani babban littafi kan ka'idar wasa. Babban sirrinsa da muhimmin aikinsa na mai ba da shawara shi ne matsayinsa a kan aikin Manhattan - yunƙurin ƙirƙirar bam ɗin atomic - ƙungiyar binciken da ke Los Alamos (New Mexico). Robert Oppenheimer ya ɗauke shi aiki a lokacin rani na 1943 don taimakawa tare da ƙirar lissafi na aikin, kuma lissafinsa ya shawo kan sauran ƙungiyar don matsawa zuwa wani bam na ciki. Irin wannan fashewar, godiya ga abubuwan fashewar da ke motsa kayan da aka fissionable a ciki, zai ba da damar ci gaba da ci gaba da sarkar sarkar. Sakamakon haka, an buƙaci adadi mai yawa na ƙididdiga don cimma cikakkiyar fashewar sifa da aka nufa a ciki bisa matsi da ake so - kuma duk wani kuskure zai haifar da katsewar sarkar da bam ɗin fiasco.
Von Neumann yayin aiki a Los Alamos
A Los Alamos, akwai gungun na'urori masu ƙididdiga na ɗan adam ashirin waɗanda ke da ƙididdiga na tebur a wurinsu, amma ba za su iya jure wa nauyin kwamfuta ba. Masana kimiyya sun ba su kayan aiki daga IBM don yin aiki da katunan naushi, amma har yanzu sun kasa ci gaba. Sun bukaci ingantattun kayan aiki daga IBM, sun karba a 1944, amma har yanzu sun kasa ci gaba.
A lokacin, von Neumann ya ƙara wasu rukunin rukunin yanar gizon zuwa balaguron balaguro na yau da kullun: ya ziyarci kowane wuri na kayan aikin kwamfuta waɗanda za su iya amfani a Los Alamos. Ya rubuta wasiƙa zuwa Warren Weaver, shugaban sashen lissafi na kwamitin bincike na tsaro na ƙasa (NDRC), kuma ya sami jagorori masu kyau da yawa. Ya tafi Harvard don duba Mark I, amma an riga an ɗora shi da aikin sojan ruwa. Ya yi magana da George Stibitz kuma ya yi la'akari da yin odar na'urar relay na Bell don Los Alamos, amma ya watsar da ra'ayin bayan ya koyi tsawon lokacin da zai ɗauka. Ya ziyarci wata ƙungiya daga Jami'ar Columbia waɗanda suka haɗa kwamfutocin IBM da yawa a cikin babban tsarin sarrafa kansa a ƙarƙashin jagorancin Wallace Eckert, amma babu wani ci gaba mai kyau akan kwamfutocin IBM da suka rigaya a Los Alamos.
Duk da haka, Weaver bai haɗa da aiki ɗaya a cikin jerin da ya ba von Neumann: ENIAC ba. Tabbas ya sani game da haka: a matsayinsa na daraktan ilimin lissafi, shi ne ke da alhakin lura da ci gaban dukkan ayyukan kwamfuta na kasar. Weaver da NDRC tabbas suna da shakku game da yuwuwar da lokacin ENIAC, amma abin mamaki ne cewa bai ma ambaci wanzuwar sa ba.
Ko menene dalili, sakamakon shine von Neumann ya koyi game da ENIAC ne kawai ta hanyar taron damammaki akan dandalin layin dogo. Herman Goldstein, mai haɗin gwiwa a dakin gwajin Makaranta na Moore ne ya ba da wannan labarin, inda aka gina ENIAC. Goldstein ya ci karo da von Neumann a tashar jirgin kasa ta Aberdeen a watan Yuni 1944 - von Neumann yana barin ɗaya daga cikin shawarwarinsa, wanda yake bayarwa a matsayin memba na kwamitin ba da shawara na kimiyya a dakin gwaje-gwaje na Aberdeen Ballistic Research. Goldstein ya san sunan von Neumann a matsayin babban mutum kuma ya fara tattaunawa da shi. Yana son yin tasiri, ba zai iya taimakawa ba sai dai ya ambaci wani sabon aiki mai ban sha'awa da ke tasowa a Philadelphia. Hanyar Von Neumann ta sauya nan take daga na abokin aikinta na rashin gamsuwa zuwa na tauraro mai tauri, kuma ya yi wa Goldstein barkono da tambayoyi masu alaƙa da cikakkun bayanai na sabuwar kwamfutar. Ya samo sabon tushe mai ban sha'awa na yuwuwar ikon kwamfuta don Los Alamos.
Von Neumann ya fara ziyartar Presper Eckert, John Mauchly da sauran membobin ƙungiyar ENIAC a watan Satumba na 1944. Nan da nan ya ƙaunaci aikin kuma ya ƙara wani abu a cikin jerin ƙungiyoyin da ya yi tuntuba. Dukkan bangarorin biyu sun amfana da hakan. Yana da sauƙi a ga dalilin da ya sa von Neumann ya sha'awar yuwuwar na'urar kwamfuta mai sauri. ENIAC, ko na'ura mai kama da ita, yana da ikon shawo kan duk iyakokin lissafin da ya kawo cikas ga ci gaban aikin Manhattan da sauran ayyuka da yawa da ake da su ko masu yuwuwa (duk da haka, Dokar Say, har yanzu tana aiki a yau, ta tabbatar da cewa zuwan iyawar kwamfuta ba da jimawa ba zai haifar da buƙatu daidai gwargwado a gare su). Ga makarantar Moore, albarkar irin wannan sanannen ƙwararren kamar von Neumann yana nufin ƙarshen shakku a kansu. Haka kuma, idan aka yi la’akari da irin hazakar da yake da shi da kuma gogewar da yake da ita a duk fadin kasar, zurfin iliminsa da zurfin iliminsa a fannin sarrafa kwamfuta ta atomatik bai yi kama da haka ba.
Wannan shine yadda von Neumann ya shiga cikin shirin Eckert da Mauchly na ƙirƙirar magajin ENIAC. Tare da Herman Goldstein da wani masanin lissafi na ENIAC, Arthur Burks, sun fara zana sigogi na ƙarni na biyu na kwamfutar lantarki, kuma ra'ayoyin wannan rukuni ne von Neumann ya taƙaita a cikin rahoton "nau'i na farko". Sabuwar injin dole ne ya kasance mai ƙarfi, yana da layin santsi, kuma, mafi mahimmanci, shawo kan babban shingen amfani da ENIAC - yawancin sa'o'i na saitin kowane sabon ɗawainiya, lokacin da wannan kwamfutar mai ƙarfi da tsadar gaske ta zauna a banza. Masu kera sabbin injinan lantarki, Harvard Mark I da kuma Bell Relay Computer, sun guje wa hakan ta hanyar shigar da umarni a cikin kwamfutar ta hanyar amfani da kaset ɗin takarda da ramuka a ciki ta yadda ma’aikacin zai iya shirya takardar yayin da injin ɗin ke yin wasu ayyuka. . Duk da haka, irin wannan shigar da bayanai zai yi watsi da saurin amfani da kayan lantarki; babu wata takarda da za ta iya samar da bayanai da sauri kamar yadda ENIAC za ta iya karba. ("Colossus" yayi aiki tare da takarda ta amfani da na'urori masu auna firikwensin hoto kuma kowane ɗayan na'urori masu sarrafa kwamfuta guda biyar suna ɗaukar bayanai a cikin saurin haruffa 5000 a sakan daya, amma hakan ya yiwu ne kawai saboda gungurawa mafi sauri na tef ɗin takarda. tef ya buƙaci jinkiri na 0,5. 5000 s ga kowane layi na XNUMX).
Maganin matsalar, wanda aka bayyana a cikin "daftarin farko", shine matsar da ajiyar umarni daga "matsakaici na rikodi na waje" zuwa "ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya" - an yi amfani da wannan kalmar a karon farko dangane da ajiyar bayanan kwamfuta (von Neumann). musamman ya yi amfani da wannan da sauran kalmomin ilimin halitta a cikin aikin - yana da sha'awar aikin kwakwalwa da kuma hanyoyin da ke faruwa a cikin neurons). An kira wannan ra'ayin daga baya "ajiya na shirin." Duk da haka, nan da nan wannan ya haifar da wata matsala - wanda har ma ya ba da mamaki Atanasov - yawan tsadar bututun lantarki. "Daftarin farko" ya kiyasta cewa kwamfutar da ke iya aiwatar da ayyuka masu yawa na kwamfuta za ta buƙaci ƙwaƙwalwar ajiyar lambobi 250 don adana umarni da bayanan wucin gadi. Ƙwaƙwalwar Tube na wannan girman zai kashe miliyoyin daloli kuma ya zama marar aminci.
Eckert, wanda ya yi aiki a kan binciken radar a farkon shekarun 1940, ya ba da shawarar warware matsalar, a ƙarƙashin wata yarjejeniya tsakanin Makarantar Moore da Rad Lab na MIT, cibiyar bincike ta tsakiya don fasahar radar a Amurka. Musamman, Eckert yana aiki akan tsarin radar da ake kira "Moving Target Indicator" (MTI), wanda ya warware matsalar "flare ƙasa": duk wani hayaniya akan allon radar da gine-gine, tuddai da sauran abubuwan da ke tsaye suka haifar da wahala. mai aiki don ware mahimman bayanai - girman, wuri da saurin motsin jirgin sama.
MTI ta warware matsalar flare ta amfani da na'urar da ake kira . Ya mayar da bugun wutar lantarki na radar zuwa igiyoyin sauti, sannan ya aika waɗancan raƙuman raƙuman ruwa zuwa bututun mercury don sautin ya zo a ɗayan ƙarshen kuma a mayar da shi zuwa bugun wutar lantarki yayin da radar ya sake duba wannan batu a sararin sama (layin jinkiri. don yaduwa Sauti kuma za a iya amfani da shi ta wasu kafofin watsa labarai: sauran ruwaye, lu'ulu'u masu ƙarfi har ma da iska (bisa ga wasu kafofin, masanin kimiyyar lissafi na Bell Labs William Shockley ne ya ƙirƙira ra'ayinsu, wanda daga baya). Duk wani sigina da ya zo daga radar a lokaci guda da siginar da ke kan bututu ana ɗaukar sigina daga wani abu a tsaye kuma an cire shi.
Eckert ya gane cewa sautin sauti a cikin layin jinkiri za a iya la'akari da lambobi biyu - 1 yana nuna kasancewar sauti, 0 yana nuna rashinsa. Bututun mercury guda ɗaya na iya ƙunsar ɗaruruwan waɗannan lambobi, kowanne yana wucewa ta layin sau da yawa a kowane millisecond, ma'ana kwamfuta za ta jira kamar mitoci ɗari biyu don samun damar lambobi. A wannan yanayin, samun damar yin lambobi a jere a cikin wayar hannu zai yi sauri, tunda an raba lambobi da ƴan daƙiƙa kaɗan kawai.
Layin jinkirin Mercury a cikin kwamfutar EDSAC ta Burtaniya
Bayan warware manyan matsaloli tare da ƙirar kwamfuta, von Neumann ya tattara dukkan ra'ayoyin ƙungiyar zuwa rahoton "daftarin farko" mai shafuka 101 a cikin bazara na 1945 kuma ya rarraba shi zuwa mahimman ƙididdiga a cikin aikin EDVAC na ƙarni na biyu. Ba da daɗewa ba ya shiga cikin wasu da'irori. Masanin lissafi Leslie Comrie, alal misali, ta ɗauki kwafin gida zuwa Biritaniya bayan ta ziyarci makarantar Moore a 1946 kuma ta raba wa abokan aiki. Yaduwar rahoton ya fusata Eckert da Mauchly saboda dalilai guda biyu: na farko, ya ba da babban yabo ga marubucin daftarin, von Neumann. Na biyu, dukkanin manyan ra'ayoyin da ke cikin tsarin, an buga su ne daga mahangar ofishin kula da haƙƙin mallaka, wanda ya tsoma baki tare da shirye-shiryensu na sayar da na'ura mai kwakwalwa.
Asalin bacin ran Eckert da Mauchly ya haifar, bi da bi, fushin masana lissafi: von Neumann, Goldstein da Burks. A nasu ra'ayi, rahoton ya kasance muhimmin sabon ilimi da ke buƙatar yaɗuwa gwargwadon iko a cikin ruhin ci gaban kimiyya. Bugu da kari, wannan kamfani gabaki daya gwamnati ce ta dauki nauyin wannan sana'ar, sabili da haka ta hanyar kudin masu biyan haraji na Amurka. Kasuwancin Eckert da yunƙurin Mauchly sun hana su samun kuɗi daga yaƙin. Von Neumann ya rubuta: "Ba zan taɓa karɓar matsayin tuntuɓar jami'a ba da sanin cewa ina ba da shawara ga ƙungiyar kasuwanci."
Ƙungiyoyin sun rabu a cikin 1946: Eckert da Mauchly sun buɗe nasu kamfani bisa ga alama mafi aminci dangane da fasahar ENIAC. Da farko sun sanya wa kamfaninsu suna Electronic Control Company, amma a shekarar da ta biyo baya suka sake masa suna Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation. Von Neumann ya koma IAS don gina kwamfuta bisa EDVAC, kuma Goldstein da Burks sun haɗa shi. Don hana maimaita halin Eckert da Mauchly, sun tabbatar da cewa duk mallakar fasaha na sabon aikin sun zama yanki na jama'a.
Von Neumann a gaban kwamfutar IAS, wanda aka gina a 1951.
An sadaukar da kai ga Alan Turing
Daga cikin mutanen da suka ga rahoton EDVAC ta hanyar zagayawa akwai masanin lissafi dan Burtaniya Alan Turing. Turing ba ya cikin masana kimiyya na farko da suka ƙirƙira ko tunanin kwamfuta mai sarrafa kansa, lantarki ko waninsa, kuma wasu marubutan sun yi karin gishiri game da rawar da ya taka a tarihin kwamfuta. Koyaya, dole ne mu ba shi yabo don kasancewa mutum na farko da ya fahimci cewa kwamfutoci za su iya yin fiye da “ƙididdige” wani abu ta hanyar sarrafa manyan lambobi kawai. Babban ra'ayinsa shi ne cewa bayanan da tunanin ɗan adam ke sarrafa yana iya wakiltar su ta hanyar lambobi, don haka duk wani tsari na tunani ana iya juya shi zuwa lissafi.
Alan Turing a 1951
A ƙarshen 1945, Turing ya buga nasa rahoton, wanda ya ambata von Neumann, mai suna "Proposal for an Electronic Calculator", kuma an yi nufin British National Physical Laboratory (NPL). Bai zurfafa zurfin bincike na musamman na ƙirar na'urar kwamfuta da aka tsara ba. Tsarinsa ya nuna tunanin mai hankali. Ba a yi nufin samun kayan aiki na musamman don ayyuka masu girma ba, tun da ana iya haɗa su daga ƙananan matakan farko; zai zama mummunan girma akan kyakkyawar siffa ta mota. Har ila yau, Turing bai keɓance kowane memori na layi ba ga shirin kwamfuta - bayanai da umarni na iya kasancewa tare a cikin ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya tunda lambobi ne kawai. Umarni ne kawai ya zama umarni lokacin da aka fassara shi kamar haka (Takardar Turing ta 1936 "akan lambobi masu ƙididdigewa" ta riga ta bincika alaƙar da ke tsakanin bayanan da ke tsakanin bayanai da umarni masu ƙarfi. Ya bayyana abin da daga baya aka kira "Turing machine" kuma ya nuna yadda yake. za a iya juya zuwa lamba kuma a ciyar da shi azaman shigarwa zuwa injin Turing na duniya wanda ke da ikon fassara da aiwatar da kowane injin Turing). Saboda Turing ya san cewa lambobi za su iya wakiltar kowane nau'i na ƙayyadaddun bayanai, ya haɗa da jerin matsalolin da za a warware akan wannan kwamfutar ba kawai gina teburin bindigogi da kuma maganin tsarin ma'auni na layi ba, har ma da maganin wasanin gwada ilimi. karatun dara.
Injin Turing Atomatik (ACE) ba a taɓa gina shi ta asali ba. Ya kasance a hankali sosai kuma dole ne ya yi gasa tare da ƙarin himman ayyukan ƙididdiga na Biritaniya don mafi kyawun hazaka. Aikin ya tsaya na tsawon shekaru da yawa, sannan Turing ya rasa sha'awar sa. A cikin 1950, NPL ta yi Pilot ACE, ƙaramin injin da ke da ƙira daban-daban, da sauran ƙirar kwamfuta da yawa sun sami wahayi daga gine-ginen ACE a farkon shekarun 1950. Amma ta kasa faɗaɗa tasirinta, da sauri ta ɓalle har ta manta.
Amma duk wannan baya rage cancantar Turing, yana taimaka kawai sanya shi cikin mahallin da ya dace. Muhimmancin tasirinsa a tarihin kwamfutoci bai ta'allaka ne akan zane-zanen kwamfuta na shekarun 1950 ba, amma bisa ka'idar da ya tanadar da ilimin kwamfuta da ya fito a shekarun 1960. Ayyukansa na farko akan ilimin lissafi, waɗanda suka binciko iyakokin ƙididdiga da waɗanda ba a iya lissafin su ba, sun zama mahimman rubutun sabon horo.
Sannu a hankali juyin juya hali
Yayin da labarin ENIAC da rahoton EDVAC ke yaɗuwa, makarantar Moore ta zama wurin aikin hajji. Yawancin baƙi sun zo don koyo a ƙafafu na masters, musamman daga Amurka da Birtaniya. Don daidaita kwararar masu neman izini, shugaban makarantar a 1946 ya tsara makarantar bazara akan injinan kwamfuta ta atomatik, yana aiki ta hanyar gayyata. Masu haske sun ba da laccoci kamar Eckert, Mauchly, von Neumann, Burks, Goldstein, da Howard Aiken (mai haɓaka na'urar kwamfuta ta Harvard Mark I).
Yanzu kusan kowa yana so ya kera inji bisa ga umarnin da rahoton EDVAC ya bayar (abin ban mamaki shi ne na’ura ta farko da ta fara gudanar da wani shiri da aka adana a ma’adana, ita ce ENIAC da kanta, wadda a shekarar 1948 aka canza ta zuwa yin amfani da umarnin da aka adana a ma’adana). aiki cikin nasara a cikin sabon gidan sa, Aberdeen Proving Ground). Hatta sunayen sabbin ƙirar kwamfuta da aka ƙirƙira a cikin 1940s da 50s ENIAC da EDVAC suka yi tasiri. Ko da ba ku yi la'akari da UNIVAC da BINAC (wanda aka ƙirƙira a cikin sabon kamfani na Eckert da Mauchly) da EDVAC kanta (an gama a Makarantar Moore bayan waɗanda suka kafa ta sun bar shi), har yanzu akwai AVIDAC, CSIRAC, EDSAC, FLAC, ILLIAC, JOHNNIAC, ORDVAC, SEAC, SILLIAC, SWAC da WEIZAC. Yawancinsu sun kwafi ƙirar IAS da aka buga kai tsaye (tare da ƙananan canje-canje), suna cin gajiyar manufar buɗe ido ta von Neumann game da mallakar fasaha.
Koyaya, juyin juya halin lantarki ya ci gaba a hankali, yana canza tsarin da ake da shi mataki-mataki. Na'ura irin ta EDVAC ta farko ba ta bayyana ba sai 1948, kuma ƙaramin aikin hujja ne kawai, "jaririn" Manchester da aka ƙera don tabbatar da yuwuwar ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya akan. (mafi yawan kwamfutoci sun sauya daga mercury tubes zuwa wani nau’in ma’adanin ma’adana, wanda kuma asalinsa ya samo asali ne daga fasahar radar. Sai dai a maimakon tube, sai ta yi amfani da allon CRT. Injiniya dan kasar Burtaniya Frederick Williams shi ne ya fara gano yadda za a magance matsalar tare da na’ura mai kwakwalwa. kwanciyar hankali na wannan ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya, sakamakon abin da direbobi suka karɓi sunansa). A cikin 1949, an ƙirƙiri ƙarin injuna huɗu: cikakken girman Manchester Mark I, EDSAC a Jami'ar Cambridge, CSIRAC a Sydney (Australia) da BINAC na Amurka - kodayake ƙarshen bai fara aiki ba. Ƙananan amma barga ya ci gaba har zuwa shekaru biyar masu zuwa.
Wasu marubutan sun bayyana ENIAC a matsayin wanda ya zana labule a baya kuma ya kawo mu nan take zuwa zamanin sarrafa kwamfuta. Saboda haka, shaidar gaske ta karkata sosai. Katherine Davis Fishman, The Computer Establishment (1982). Wannan magana a fili tana cin karo da kai har mutum zai yi tunanin cewa hannun hagu Miss Fishman bai san abin da hannun damanta ke yi ba. Kuna iya, ba shakka, dangana wannan ga bayanan ɗan jarida mai sauƙi. Koyaya, mun sami wasu ƴan tarihi na gaske sun sake zabar Mark I a matsayin ɗan bulala, suna rubuta: “Ba wai kawai Harvard Mark I ya zama ƙarshen fasaha ba, bai yi wani abu mai amfani ba kwata-kwata a cikin shekaru goma sha biyar na aiki. An yi amfani da shi a cikin ayyukan sojan ruwa da yawa, kuma a can injin ya zama mai amfani sosai ga Rundunar Sojan ruwa don yin odar ƙarin injunan kwamfuta don Aiken Lab." [Aspray da Campbell-Kelly]. Bugu da kari, bayyanannen sabani.
A haƙiƙa, kwamfutocin relay suna da fa'idarsu kuma sun ci gaba da aiki tare da ƴan uwansu na lantarki. An kirkiro wasu sabbin kwamfutocin lantarki da yawa bayan yakin duniya na biyu, har ma a farkon shekarun 1950 a Japan. Na'urorin watsa shirye-shiryen sun kasance mafi sauƙi don ƙira, ginawa, da kulawa, kuma ba sa buƙatar wutar lantarki da na'urar kwandishan mai yawa (don watsar da yawan zafin da dubban bututun iska ke fitarwa). ENIAC ta yi amfani da wutar lantarki mai karfin kilowatt 150, 20 daga ciki an yi amfani da ita wajen sanyaya.
Sojojin Amurka sun ci gaba da kasancewa babban mai amfani da wutar lantarki kuma ba su yi sakaci da “tsoffin” ƙirar lantarki ba. A ƙarshen 1940s, Sojoji suna da kwamfutoci guda huɗu kuma sojojin ruwa suna da biyar. Laboratory Research na Ballistics a Aberdeen yana da mafi girman taro na ikon sarrafa kwamfuta a duniya, tare da ENIAC, na'urori masu ƙididdigewa daga Bell da IBM, da kuma tsohon mai nazarin bambanci. A cikin rahoton Satumba na 1949, an ba kowannensu wurinsa: ENIAC yayi aiki mafi kyau tare da dogon ƙididdiga masu sauƙi; Kalkuleta na Model V na Bell ya fi kyau wajen sarrafa hadaddun lissafin godiya saboda kusan tsayinsa mara iyaka na tef ɗin koyarwa da kuma damar yin iyo, kuma IBM na iya sarrafa bayanai masu yawa da aka adana akan katunan da aka buga. A halin yanzu, wasu ayyuka, kamar ɗaukar tushen cube, har yanzu sun kasance da sauƙin yin da hannu (ta amfani da haɗin maƙunsar rubutu da ƙididdiga na tebur) da adana lokacin injin.
Mafi kyawun alamar ƙarshen juyin juya halin lantarki ba zai kasance 1945 ba, lokacin da aka haifi ENIAC, amma 1954, lokacin da kwamfutocin IBM 650 da 704 suka bayyana. Waɗannan ba su ne na farko na kwamfutocin lantarki na kasuwanci ba, amma sune na farko, waɗanda aka samar a cikin su. ɗaruruwan, kuma sun ƙaddara ikon IBM a cikin masana'antar kwamfuta, yana ɗaukar shekaru talatin. A cikin kalmomi , kwamfutoci na lantarki sun daina zama abin ban mamaki na 1940s, waɗanda ke wanzu kawai a cikin mafarkai na ɓatanci kamar Atanasov da Mauchly; sun zama kimiyyar al'ada.
Ɗaya daga cikin kwamfutoci da yawa IBM 650-a wannan yanayin, misalin Jami'ar Texas A&M. Ƙwaƙwalwar drum na maganadisu (ƙasa) ya sa ya ɗan yi jinkiri, amma kuma ba shi da tsada.
Barin gida
A tsakiyar 1950s, kewayawa da ƙira na kayan aikin kwamfuta na dijital sun zama waɗanda aka warware daga asalinsu a cikin na'urori na analog da amplifiers. Zane-zanen kwamfuta na shekarun 1930 da farkon 40s sun dogara kacokan akan ra'ayoyi daga dakunan gwaje-gwajen kimiyyar lissafi da na radar, musamman ra'ayoyi daga injiniyoyin sadarwa da sassan bincike. Yanzu kwamfutoci sun tsara nasu fannin, kuma kwararru a fannin suna samar da nasu tunani, kalmomi, da kayan aikinsu don magance matsalolinsu.
Kwamfuta ta bayyana a ma'anarta ta zamani, don haka mu yana zuwa ƙarshe. Koyaya, duniyar sadarwar tana da wani abin sha'awa mai ban sha'awa sama da hannun riga. Bututun injin ya zarce relay ba tare da wani sassa masu motsi ba. Kuma relay na ƙarshe a cikin tarihinmu yana da fa'idar rashin cikakkiyar rashi na kowane ɓangaren ciki. Kullun kwayoyin halitta marasa lahani tare da ƴan wayoyi da ke fita daga ciki ya fito albarkacin sabon reshe na kayan lantarki da aka sani da "ƙarfin hali."
Ko da yake bututun injin suna da sauri, har yanzu suna da tsada, babba, zafi, kuma ba abin dogaro ba ne. Ba shi yiwuwa a yi, in ji, kwamfutar tafi-da-gidanka tare da su. Von Neumann ya rubuta a cikin 1948 cewa "ba shi yiwuwa mu iya wuce adadin masu sauya sheka na 10 (ko watakila da dama dubbai) matukar an tilasta mana yin amfani da fasaha da falsafar yanzu)." Relay mai ƙarfi ya ba kwamfutoci ikon tura waɗannan iyakoki akai-akai, suna karya su akai-akai; ana amfani da su a cikin ƙananan kasuwanni, makarantu, gidaje, kayan aikin gida da shiga cikin aljihu; don ƙirƙirar ƙasar dijital ta sihiri wacce ta mamaye rayuwarmu a yau. Kuma don gano asalinsa, muna buƙatar sake dawo da agogo shekaru hamsin da suka gabata, kuma mu koma farkon zamanin fasahar mara waya mai ban sha'awa.
Me kuma za a karanta:
- David Anderson, "Shin an haifi jaririn Manchester a Bletchley Park?", British Computer Society (Yuni 4th, 2004)
- William Aspray, John von Neumann da Asalin Kwamfuta na Zamani (1990)
- Martin Campbell-Kelly da William Aspray, Kwamfuta: Tarihin Injin Bayani (1996)
- Thomas Haigh, et. al., Eniac a cikin Action (2016)
- John von Neumann, "Daftarin Farko na Rahoton kan EDVAC" (1945)
- Alan Turing, "Ƙararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwaƙwalwa" (1945)
source: www.habr.com