Tarihin Intanet: ARPANET - Subnet

Sauran labarai a cikin jerin:

• Tarihin relay
  • Hanyar " watsa bayanai cikin sauri ", ko Haihuwar relay
  • Marubuci mai tsayi
  • Galvanism
  • 'Yan kasuwa
  • Kuma a nan, a ƙarshe, shine gudun ba da sanda
  • Mai magana da telegraph
  • Haɗa kawai
  • Zamanin Mantuwar Kwamfutocin Relay
  • Zamanin lantarki
• Tarihin kwamfutocin lantarki
  • Gabatarwa
  • Ruwan launi
  • ENIAC
  • juyin juya halin lantarki
• Tarihin transistor
  • Girman hanyar ku a cikin duhu
  • Daga gulmar yaƙi
  • Sabuntawa da yawa
• Tarihin Intanet
  • Cibiyar sadarwa ta kashin baya
  • Lalacewa, part 1
  • Lalacewa, part 2
  • Buɗe hulɗa
  • Fadada mu'amala
  • ARPANET - haihuwa
  • ARPANET - kunshin
  • ARPANET - subnet
  • Kwamfuta a matsayin na'urar sadarwa
  • Tarihin Intanet: Ayyukan Intanet

Amfani da ARPANET Robert Taylor da Larry Roberts za su haɗu cibiyoyin bincike daban-daban, kowannensu yana da kwamfutarsa, don software da masarrafar da ke da cikakken alhakinsu. Duk da haka, software da hardware na cibiyar sadarwa kanta suna cikin tsakiyar tsakiyar hazo, kuma ba su cikin kowane ɗayan waɗannan wurare. A lokacin daga 1967 zuwa 1968, Roberts, shugaban cibiyar sadarwa na ofishin fasahar sadarwa (IPTO), dole ne ya tantance wanda ya kamata gina da kuma kula da cibiyar sadarwa, da kuma inda ya kamata a kan iyakoki tsakanin cibiyar sadarwa da cibiyoyi.

Masu shakka

Matsalar tsara hanyar sadarwa ta kasance aƙalla a matsayin siyasa kamar yadda yake da fasaha. Daraktocin bincike na ARPA gabaɗaya sun ƙi yarda da ra'ayin ARPANET. Wasu sun nuna a fili ba su da sha'awar shiga cibiyar sadarwa a kowane lokaci; kadan daga cikinsu sun kasance masu kishi. Kowace cibiya za ta yi ƙoƙari sosai don ƙyale wasu su yi amfani da kwamfutocinsu masu tsada da tsada. Wannan tanadin samun damar ya nuna asara bayyananne (asarar albarkatu mai mahimmanci), yayin da yuwuwar fa'idodinsa ya kasance a bayyane da fayyace.

Irin wannan shakku game da samun damar raba albarkatu ya ruguza aikin sadarwar UCLA a 'yan shekarun da suka gabata. Duk da haka, a cikin wannan yanayin, ARPA tana da ƙarin ƙarfin aiki, tun da ta biya kai tsaye ga duk waɗannan albarkatun kwamfuta masu mahimmanci, kuma ta ci gaba da samun hannun hannu a cikin duk kudaden kuɗi na shirye-shiryen bincike masu alaƙa. Kuma ko da yake ba a yi barazanar kai tsaye ba, ba a bayyana “ko wani” ba, lamarin ya fito fili sosai - wata hanya ko wata, ARPA za ta gina hanyar sadarwarta don haɗa injinan da, a aikace, har yanzu mallakarta ne.

Lokaci ya zo a wani taro na darektocin kimiyya a Att Arbor, Michigan, a cikin bazara na 1967. Roberts ya gabatar da shirinsa na ƙirƙirar hanyar sadarwa da ke haɗa nau'o'in kwamfutoci a kowace cibiyar. Ya sanar da cewa kowane jami'in gudanarwa zai samar wa kwamfutarsa ​​ta gida software na sadarwa na musamman, wanda zai yi amfani da shi don kiran wasu kwamfutoci ta hanyar sadarwar tarho (wannan ya kasance kafin Roberts ya san game da ra'ayin. sauya fakiti). Amsar ita ce rigima da tsoro. Daga cikin wadanda ba su da sha'awar aiwatar da wannan ra'ayi sun hada da manyan cibiyoyi da suka riga sun fara aiwatar da manyan ayyuka da IPTO ke daukar nauyinsu, wanda MIT ta kasance babba. Masu binciken na MIT, sun yi amfani da kuɗi daga tsarin raba lokaci na MAC na su da kuma ɗakin binciken sirri na wucin gadi, ba su ga wani fa'ida ba wajen raba albarkatun da suke da wahala tare da riffraff na Yamma.

Kuma, ba tare da la'akari da matsayinta ba, kowace cibiya tana kula da ra'ayoyinta. Kowannensu yana da nasa software da kayan aiki na musamman, kuma yana da wuya a fahimci yadda za su iya kafa hanyar sadarwa ta asali da juna, balle a yi aiki tare. Kawai rubutawa da gudanar da shirye-shiryen cibiyar sadarwa don injin su zai ɗauki adadi mai yawa na lokacinsu da albarkatun lissafi.

Abin ban mamaki ne amma kuma abin mamaki ya dace cewa maganin Roberts ga waɗannan matsalolin zamantakewa da fasaha ya fito ne daga Wes Clark, mutumin da ba ya son raba lokaci da hanyoyin sadarwa. Clark, mai goyon bayan ra'ayin quixotic na ba kowa da kowa kwamfuta na sirri, ba shi da niyyar raba kayan aikin kwamfuta tare da kowa, kuma ya kiyaye nasa harabar, Jami'ar Washington a St. Louis, daga ARPANET shekaru masu zuwa. Don haka, ba abin mamaki ba ne cewa shi ne ya ɓullo da ƙirar hanyar sadarwa, wanda ba ya ƙara nauyi ga kayan aikin kwamfuta na kowace cibiyoyi, kuma ba ya buƙatar kowane ɗayansu ya yi ƙoƙari don ƙirƙirar software na musamman.

Clark ya ba da shawarar sanya ƙaramin kwamfuta a cikin kowace cibiyoyi don gudanar da duk ayyukan da suka shafi hanyar sadarwa kai tsaye. Kowace cibiya sai kawai ta gano yadda ake haɗawa da mataimaki na gida (waɗanda daga baya aka kira masu sarrafa saƙon sadarwa, ko IMP), wanda sannan ya aika da sakon tare da madaidaiciyar hanya ta yadda ya isa IMP da ya dace a wurin karba. Mahimmanci, ya ba da shawarar cewa ARPA ta rarraba ƙarin kwamfutoci kyauta ga kowace cibiya, waɗanda za su karɓi yawancin albarkatun hanyar sadarwa. A lokacin da kwamfutoci har yanzu suna da wuya kuma suna da tsada sosai, wannan shawara ta kasance mai jajircewa. Koyaya, a lokacin, ƙananan kwamfutoci sun fara bayyana waɗanda kuɗinsu kaɗan ne kawai dubun dubunnan daloli, maimakon ɗaruruwan ɗari, kuma a ƙarshe shawarar ta zama mai yuwuwa bisa ƙa'ida (kowace IMP ta ƙare $ 45, ko kuma kusan $ 000 a ciki). kudin yau).

Hanyar IMP, yayin da take rage damuwar shugabannin kimiyya game da nauyin hanyar sadarwa a kan ikon sarrafa su, ya kuma magance wata matsalar siyasa ga ARPA. Ba kamar sauran ayyukan hukumar a wancan lokaci ba, cibiyar sadarwa ba ta tsaya a kan cibiya daya tak ba, inda shugaba daya zai gudanar da ita. Kuma ita kanta ARPA ba ta da damar yin ƙirƙira da sarrafa babban aikin fasaha kai tsaye. Dole ne ta dauki hayar kamfanoni a waje don yin hakan. Kasancewar IMP ya haifar da bayyanannen rarrabuwar alhaki tsakanin hanyar sadarwar da wakili na waje ke gudanarwa da kuma kwamfutar da ke cikin gida. Dan kwangilar zai sarrafa IMPs da duk abin da ke tsakanin, kuma cibiyoyin za su kasance da alhakin kayan aiki da software akan kwamfutocin nasu.

IMP

Roberts sai ya buƙaci ya zaɓi ɗan kwangilar. Tsohuwar hanyar Licklider na tattara shawara daga mai binciken da ya fi so kai tsaye bai yi amfani da shi ba a wannan yanayin. Dole ne a sanya aikin don gwanjon jama'a kamar kowace kwangilar gwamnati.

Sai a watan Yulin 1968 ne Roberts ya iya fitar da cikakkun bayanai na ƙarshe na tayin. Kimanin watanni shida sun shude tun lokacin da na'urar fasaha ta ƙarshe ta faɗo a wurin lokacin da aka sanar da tsarin sauya fakiti a wani taro a Gatlinburg. Biyu daga cikin manyan masana'antun kwamfuta, Control Data Corporation (CDC) da Injin Kasuwanci na Duniya (IBM), nan da nan sun ƙi shiga saboda ba su da ƙananan kwamfutoci masu tsada da suka dace da aikin IMP.

Honeywell DDP-516

Daga cikin sauran mahalarta taron, yawancin sun zaɓi sabuwar kwamfuta DDP-516 daga Honeywell, kodayake wasu sun karkata zuwa ga yarda Dijital PDP-8. Zaɓin na Honeywell ya kasance mai ban sha'awa musamman saboda yana da ƙa'idar I/O da aka kera musamman don tsarin lokaci na ainihi don aikace-aikace kamar sarrafa masana'antu. Sadarwa, ba shakka, yana buƙatar daidaiton da ya dace - idan kwamfutar ta rasa saƙo mai shigowa yayin da take cike da sauran aiki, babu wata dama ta biyu ta kama shi.

A ƙarshen shekara, bayan da ya yi la'akari sosai da Raytheon, Roberts ya ba da aikin ga kamfani mai girma na Cambridge wanda Bolt, Beranek da Newman suka kafa. Bishiyar iyali ta kwamfuta mai mu'amala ta kasance a wannan lokacin sosai, kuma ana iya tuhumar Roberts cikin sauƙi da son zuciya don zaɓar BBN. Licklider ya kawo fasahar sadarwa ga BBN kafin ya zama darakta na farko na IPTO, ya shuka tsaba na cibiyar sadarwarsa tare da horar da mutane irin su Roberts. Idan ba tare da tasirin Leake ba, ARPA da BBN ba su da sha'awar ko kuma ba su da ikon yin hidimar aikin ARPANET. Haka kuma, wani muhimmin bangare na tawagar da BBN ta tara don gina hanyar sadarwa ta IMP ta zo kai tsaye ko a kaikaice daga Lincoln Labs: Frank Hart (shugaban kungiyar), Dave Walden, Yadda za a furta Crowther da kuma North Ornstein. A cikin dakunan gwaje-gwaje ne Roberts da kansa ya halarci makarantar digiri, kuma a can ne damar Leake ya samu da Wes Clark ya haifar da sha'awar kwamfutoci masu mu'amala.

Amma yayin da lamarin ya yi kama da haɗin kai, a gaskiya ƙungiyar BBN ta dace da aiki na ainihi kamar Honeywell 516. A Lincoln, suna aiki akan kwamfutoci masu alaƙa da tsarin radar - wani misali na aikace-aikacen da a ciki. bayanan ba za su jira har sai kwamfutar ta shirya ba. Hart, alal misali, ya yi aiki a kan kwamfutar Whirlwind a matsayin ɗalibi a cikin 1950s, ya shiga aikin SAGE, kuma ya shafe shekaru 15 a cikin Lincoln Laboratories. Ornstein ya yi aiki a kan tsarin SAGE cross-protocol, wanda ke tura bayanan bin diddigin radar daga wannan kwamfuta zuwa wata, kuma daga baya a kan Wes Clark's LINC, kwamfutar da aka tsara don taimakawa masana kimiyya suyi aiki kai tsaye a cikin lab tare da bayanai akan layi. Crowther, wanda yanzu aka fi sani da marubucin wasan rubutu Balaguron Kayan Kasada, ya shafe shekaru goma yana gina na'urori na ainihi, ciki har da Lincoln Terminal Experiment, tashar sadarwar tauraron dan adam ta hannu tare da karamar kwamfutar da ke sarrafa eriya da sarrafa sakonni masu shigowa.

Kungiyar IMP a BBN. Frank Hart shine mutumin da ke babban cibiyar. Ornstein yana tsaye a gefen dama, kusa da Crowther.

IMP ita ce ke da alhakin fahimta da sarrafa sarrafawa da isar da saƙonni daga wannan kwamfuta zuwa waccan. Kwamfuta na iya aika har zuwa bytes 8000 a lokaci guda zuwa IMP na gida, tare da adireshin wurin da za a nufa. IMP sannan ta yanki saƙon cikin ƙananan fakiti waɗanda aka aika da kansu zuwa ga manufa IMP akan layin 50-kbps da aka yi hayar daga AT&T. IMP mai karɓa ya raba saƙon tare kuma ya isar da shi zuwa kwamfutarsa. Kowane IMP yana adana tebur wanda ke lura da wane ne na makwabta yake da hanya mafi sauri don cimma kowane buri mai yuwuwa. An sabunta shi da ƙarfi bisa bayanan da aka karɓa daga waɗannan maƙwabta, gami da bayanan da ba a iya kaiwa ga maƙwabcin (wanda a halin da ake ciki jinkirin aikawa a waccan hanyar an ɗauka mara iyaka). Don saduwa da saurin Roberts da buƙatun kayan aiki don duk wannan aiki, ƙungiyar Hart ta ƙirƙiri lambar matakin fasaha. Gabaɗayan shirin sarrafawa na IMP sun mamaye bytes 12 kawai; Bangaren da ya yi magana game da tebur na tuƙi ya ɗauki 000 ne kawai.

Kungiyar ta kuma yi taka-tsantsan da yawa, ganin cewa ba shi da amfani a sadaukar da ƙungiyar tallafi ga kowane IMP a fagen.

Da farko, sun sanya wa kowace kwamfuta kayan aikin sa ido da sarrafa nesa. Baya ga sake kunnawa ta atomatik wanda ya fara bayan kowace ƙarewar wutar lantarki, IMPs an tsara su don su iya sake kunna maƙwabta ta hanyar aika musu da sabbin nau'ikan software na aiki. Don taimakawa tare da gyara kurakurai da bincike, IMP na iya, bisa umarni, fara ɗaukar hotunan halin da take ciki a tazara na yau da kullun. Hakanan, kowane fakitin IMP ya haɗa wani sashi don bin sa, wanda ya ba da damar rubuta ƙarin cikakkun bayanai na aiki. Tare da duk wannan damar, za a iya magance matsaloli da yawa kai tsaye daga ofishin BBN, wanda ya kasance cibiyar kula da shi daga inda za a iya ganin matsayin duk hanyar sadarwa.

Na biyu, sun nemi samfurin soja na 516 daga Honeywell, sanye da wani akwati mai kauri don kare shi daga girgiza da sauran barazana. BBN dai ya so ya zama alamar “Stay away” ga dalibai masu sha’awar karatun grad, amma babu abin da ya kayyade iyaka tsakanin kwamfutoci na gida da na BBN da ke karkashin kasa kamar wannan harsashi mai sulke.

A ranar 30 ga Agusta, 1969, a ranar 8 ga Agusta, XNUMX, wata XNUMX da BBN ya karbi kwangilar, ya isa wurin a Jami'ar California, Los Angeles (UCLA).

Runduna

Roberts ya yanke shawarar fara hanyar sadarwa tare da runduna hudu - ban da UCLA, za a shigar da IMP a bakin tekun a Jami'ar California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), wani a Cibiyar Nazarin Stanford (SRI) a arewacin California, kuma na karshe a Jami'ar Utah. Waɗannan duk cibiyoyi ne masu daraja na biyu daga Yammacin Tekun Yamma, suna ƙoƙarin tabbatar da kansu ko ta yaya a fagen lissafin kimiyya. Dangantakar iyali ta ci gaba da aiki a matsayin biyu na masu kula da kimiyya, Len Kleinrock ne adam wata daga UCLA Ivan Sutherland daga Jami'ar Utah, kuma tsoffin abokan aikin Roberts ne a dakin gwaje-gwaje na Lincoln.

Roberts ya ba runduna biyu ƙarin ayyuka masu alaƙa da hanyar sadarwa. A baya a cikin 1967, Doug Englebart daga SRI ya ba da kansa don kafa cibiyar sadarwar bayanai a taron jagoranci. Yin amfani da nagartaccen tsarin dawo da bayanai na SRI, ya tashi ya ƙirƙiro littafin adireshi na ARPANET: tarin bayanai da aka tsara akan duk albarkatun da ke kan nodes daban-daban, kuma ya ba da shi ga kowa da kowa a kan hanyar sadarwa. Ganin ƙwarewar Kleinrock a cikin nazarin zirga-zirgar hanyar sadarwa, Roberts ya sanya UCLA a matsayin cibiyar auna cibiyar sadarwa (NMC). Ga Kleinrock da UCLA, ARPANET an yi niyya ne ba kawai kayan aiki mai amfani ba, har ma da gwajin da za a iya fitar da bayanan da kuma tattara su ta yadda za a iya amfani da ilimin da aka samu don inganta ƙirar hanyar sadarwa da magadansa.

Amma mafi mahimmanci ga ci gaban ARPANET fiye da waɗannan alƙawura biyu shine mafi ƙarancin al'umma kuma sako-sako da al'ummar ɗaliban da suka kammala karatun digiri da ake kira Network Working Group (NWG). Subnet daga IMP ya ƙyale kowane mai watsa shiri a kan hanyar sadarwa don isar da saƙo ga kowane ɗayan; Manufar NWG ita ce haɓaka harshe gama gari ko saitin yarukan da runduna za su iya amfani da su don sadarwa. Sun kira su "host protocols." Sunan "ka'ida," aro daga jami'an diflomasiyya, Roberts da Tom Marill sun fara amfani da su zuwa cibiyoyin sadarwa a cikin 1965 ta hanyar Roberts da Tom Marill don bayyana duka tsarin bayanai da matakan algorithmic waɗanda ke ƙayyade yadda kwamfutoci biyu ke hulɗa da juna.

NWG, ƙarƙashin jagorancin na yau da kullun amma ingantaccen jagoranci na Steve Crocker na UCLA, ya fara haɗuwa akai-akai a cikin bazara na 1969, kusan watanni shida kafin IMP na farko. An haife shi kuma ya girma a yankin Los Angeles, Crocker ya halarci makarantar sakandare ta Van Nuys kuma yana da shekaru ɗaya da biyu daga cikin abokan wasan sa na NWG na gaba, Vint Cerf da Jon Postel. Don yin rikodin sakamakon wasu tarurrukan ƙungiyar, Crocker ya haɓaka ɗayan ginshiƙan ginshiƙan al'adun ARPANET (da Intanet na gaba), neman sharhi [shawarar aiki] (RFC). RFC 1 nasa, wanda aka buga a ranar 7 ga Afrilu, 1969, kuma aka rarraba shi zuwa duk nodes na ARPANET na gaba ta hanyar wasiku na yau da kullun, ya tattara tattaunawar farkon rukunin game da ƙirar software mai masaukin baki. A cikin RFC 3, Crocker ya ci gaba da bayanin, yana bayyana tsarin ƙira don duk RFCs na gaba:

Yana da kyau a aika da sharhi akan lokaci fiye da sanya su cikakke. Ra'ayoyin falsafa ba tare da misalai ko wasu takamaiman ba, takamaiman shawarwari ko fasahar aiwatarwa ba tare da bayanin gabatarwa ko bayanin mahallin ba, takamaiman tambayoyi ba tare da ƙoƙarin amsa su ana karɓa ba. Matsakaicin tsayin rubutu daga NWG jumla ɗaya ce. Muna fatan sauƙaƙe musanyawa da tattaunawa akan ra'ayoyin da ba na yau da kullun ba.

Kamar neman zance (RFQ), daidaitaccen hanyar neman tayin kwangilar gwamnati, RFC ta yi maraba da martani, amma sabanin RFQ, ta kuma gayyaci tattaunawa. Kowa a cikin al'ummar NWG da aka rarraba zai iya ƙaddamar da RFC, kuma yayi amfani da wannan damar don muhawara, tambaya, ko sukar shawarar da ta gabata. Tabbas, kamar yadda a kowace al'umma, wasu ra'ayoyin suna da daraja fiye da wasu, kuma a farkon zamanin ra'ayoyin Crocker da ainihin rukunin abokansa suna da iko mai girma. A cikin Yuli 1971, Crocker ya bar UCLA yayin da yake karatun digiri don ɗaukar matsayi a matsayin manajan shirye-shirye a IPTO. Tare da tallafin bincike mai mahimmanci daga ARPA a hannun sa, da gangan ko kuma ba da gangan ba, yana da tasiri wanda ba za a iya musantawa ba.

Jon Postel, Steve Crocker da Vint Cerf abokan aiki ne kuma abokan aiki a NWG; bayan shekaru

Asalin shirin NWG ya kira yarjejeniya guda biyu. Shigar da nisa (telnet) ya ƙyale wata kwamfuta ta yi aiki a matsayin tashar tashar da ke da alaƙa da tsarin aiki na wani, yana faɗaɗa yanayin hulɗar kowane tsarin da ke da alaƙa da ARPANET tare da raba dubban kilomita ga kowane mai amfani da hanyar sadarwar. Ka'idar canja wurin fayil ta FTP ta ba da damar kwamfuta ɗaya don canja wurin fayil, kamar shirin mai amfani ko saitin bayanai, zuwa ko daga ajiyar wani tsarin. Koyaya, a nacewar Roberts, NWG ya ƙara ƙa'idar ƙa'ida ta uku don ƙarfafa waɗannan biyun, kafa tushen alaƙa tsakanin runduna biyu. An kira shi Network Control Programme (NCP). Cibiyar sadarwa a yanzu tana da yadudduka uku na abstraction - fakiti subnet wanda IMP ke sarrafawa a ƙasan ƙasa, sadarwar mai masaukin baki da NCP ke bayarwa a tsakiya, da ka'idojin aikace-aikacen (FTP da telnet) a saman.

Kasawa?

Sai a watan Agustan 1971 NCP ya kasance cikakke kuma an aiwatar da shi a cikin hanyar sadarwa, wanda a lokacin ya ƙunshi nodes goma sha biyar. Aiwatar da ka'idar telnet ba da daɗewa ba ya biyo baya, kuma tabbataccen ma'anar FTP ta farko ta bayyana bayan shekara guda, a lokacin rani na 1972. Idan muka kimanta yanayin ARPANET a wancan lokacin, ƴan shekaru bayan ƙaddamar da shi, yana iya zama. ya yi la'akari da gazawar idan aka kwatanta da mafarkin albarkatun rabuwa da Licklider ya zayyana kuma ya aiwatar da shi ta hanyar saƙon sa, Robert Taylor.

Don farawa, yana da wahala kawai a gano abubuwan da ke wanzu akan layi waɗanda za mu iya amfani da su. Cibiyar ba da labari ta hanyar sadarwa ta yi amfani da tsarin sa hannu na son rai - kowane kumburi dole ne ya samar da sabbin bayanai game da samuwar bayanai da shirye-shirye. Yayin da kowa zai amfana da irin wannan aikin, babu wani abin ƙarfafawa ga kowane kulli don tallata ko samar da damar amfani da albarkatunsa, ballantana ya samar da bayanai ko shawarwari na zamani. Don haka, NIC ta kasa zama jagorar kan layi. Wataƙila mafi mahimmancin aikinsa a farkon shekarun shi ne samar da jigilar lantarki na haɓakar saitin RFCs.

Ko da, a ce, Alice daga UCLA ta san game da wanzuwar albarkatu mai amfani a MIT, wani babban cikas ya bayyana. Telnet ya ba Alice damar zuwa allon shiga na MIT, amma ba ƙari ba. Domin Alice ta sami damar shiga shirin a zahiri a MIT, da farko za ta fara tattaunawa ta layi tare da MIT don saita mata asusu akan kwamfutarsu, wanda yawanci yana buƙatar cike fom ɗin takarda a duka cibiyoyin biyu da yarjejeniyar kuɗi don biyan ta. Amfani da albarkatun kwamfuta na MIT. Kuma saboda rashin jituwa tsakanin hardware da software na tsarin tsakanin nodes, canja wurin fayiloli sau da yawa ba su da ma'ana sosai tunda ba za ku iya gudanar da shirye-shirye daga kwamfutoci masu nisa akan naku ba.

Abin ban mamaki, babban nasarar raba albarkatu ba ta kasance a fannin musayar lokaci ba wanda aka ƙirƙiri ARPANET, amma a fagen sarrafa bayanan da ba na zamani ba. UCLA ta ƙara injin sarrafa batch ɗin ta na IBM 360/91 zuwa cibiyar sadarwar kuma ta ba da shawarwari ta wayar tarho don tallafawa masu amfani da nesa, yana samar da manyan kudaden shiga ga cibiyar kwamfuta. Babban kwamfuta na ILLIAC IV da ARPA ke ɗaukar nauyi a Jami'ar Illinois da Datacomputer a Kamfanin Kwamfuta na Amurka a Cambridge kuma sun sami abokan ciniki na nesa ta hanyar ARPANET.

Amma duk waɗannan ayyukan ba su zo kusa da cikakken amfani da hanyar sadarwa ba. A cikin faɗuwar 1971, tare da runduna 15 akan layi, hanyar sadarwar gaba ɗaya tana watsa matsakaicin rago miliyan 45 a kowane kumburi, ko 520 bps akan hanyar sadarwar 50 bps hayar layi daga AT&T. Bugu da ƙari, yawancin wannan zirga-zirgar zirga-zirgar zirga-zirgar gwaji ne, wanda cibiyar ma'aunin cibiyar sadarwa ta UCLA ta samar. Baya ga sha'awar wasu masu amfani da farko (kamar Steve Cara, mai amfani da PDP-000 a kullum a Jami'ar Utah a Palo Alto), kadan ya faru akan ARPANET. Daga hangen nesa na zamani, watakila ci gaba mafi ban sha'awa shine ƙaddamar da ɗakin karatu na dijital na Project Guttenberg a cikin Disamba 10, wanda Michael Hart, dalibi a Jami'ar Illinois ya shirya.

Amma ba da daɗewa ba ARPANET ya sami ceto daga zarge-zargen lalacewa ta hanyar ka'idar aikace-aikacen uku - ƙaramin abu da ake kira imel.

Me kuma za a karanta

• Janet Abbate, Ƙirƙirar Intanet (1999)
• Katie Hafner da Matthew Lyon, Inda Wizards suka tsaya Late: Asalin Intanet (1996)

source: www.habr.com