Sauran labarai a cikin jerin:
- Tarihin relay
- Tarihin kwamfutocin lantarki
- Tarihin transistor
- Tarihin Intanet
- Zamanin Rarrabawa
A cikin takarda na 1968 "Kwamfuta a matsayin Na'urar Sadarwa," da aka rubuta yayin ci gaban ARPANET, и ya bayyana cewa hada kan kwamfutoci ba zai takaitu ga samar da hanyoyin sadarwa daban-daban ba. Sun yi hasashen cewa irin waɗannan cibiyoyin sadarwa za su haɗa kai cikin “cibiyar sadarwar da ba ta dawwama ba” wacce za ta haɗa “kayan aikin sarrafa bayanai iri-iri da na ajiya” zuwa gabaɗayan haɗin kai. A cikin ƙasa da shekaru goma, irin waɗannan la'akari na farko sun jawo sha'awar aiki nan da nan. A tsakiyar shekarun 1970, hanyoyin sadarwar kwamfuta sun fara yaduwa cikin sauri.
Yaduwar hanyoyin sadarwa
Sun shiga kafafen yada labarai, cibiyoyi da wurare daban-daban. ALOHAnet ya kasance ɗaya daga cikin sabbin hanyoyin sadarwa na ilimi don karɓar tallafin ARPA a farkon 1970s. Sauran sun haɗa da PRNET, wanda ke haɗa manyan motoci da rediyo fakiti, da tauraron dan adam SATNET. Sauran ƙasashe sun haɓaka hanyoyin sadarwar nasu na bincike akan layi iri ɗaya, musamman Burtaniya da Faransa. Cibiyoyin sadarwa na gida, godiya ga ƙaramin sikelin su da ƙananan farashi, sun ninka har ma da sauri. Baya ga Ethernet daga Xerox PARC, wanda zai iya samun Octopus a Laboratory Lawrence Radiation Laboratory a Berkeley, California; Ring a Jami'ar Cambridge; Mark II a dakin gwaje-gwaje na Jiki na Biritaniya.
Kusan lokaci guda, kamfanonin kasuwanci sun fara ba da damar biyan kuɗi zuwa hanyoyin sadarwar fakiti masu zaman kansu. Wannan ya buɗe sabuwar kasuwa ta ƙasa don sabis na lissafin kan layi. A cikin 1960s, kamfanoni daban-daban sun ƙaddamar da kasuwancin da ke ba da damar yin amfani da bayanai na musamman (na shari'a da kudi), ko kwamfutoci na raba lokaci, ga duk wanda ke da tashar tashar. Duk da haka, yin amfani da su a duk faɗin ƙasar ta hanyar sadarwar tarho na yau da kullun yana da tsada mai tsada, wanda ke da wahala ga waɗannan hanyoyin sadarwa su haɓaka sama da kasuwannin cikin gida. Wasu ƙananan kamfanoni (Tymshare, alal misali) sun gina hanyoyin sadarwar su na ciki, amma hanyoyin sadarwar fakitin kasuwanci sun kawo farashin amfani da su zuwa matakan da suka dace.
Irin wannan hanyar sadarwa ta farko ta bayyana saboda tafiyar masana ARPANET. A cikin 1972, ma'aikata da yawa sun bar Bolt, Beranek da Newman (BBN), waɗanda ke da alhakin ƙirƙira da aiki na ARPANET, don samar da Packet Communications, Inc. Duk da cewa a karshe kamfanin ya gaza, amma abin mamaki ya zama sanadin samar da hanyar sadarwa ta BBN ta Telenet. Tare da ARPANET m Larry Roberts a helm, Telenet yayi aiki cikin nasara tsawon shekaru biyar kafin GTE ya same shi.
Idan aka yi la’akari da bullowar irin waɗannan cibiyoyin sadarwa daban-daban, ta yaya Licklider da Taylor za su iya hango fitowar tsari guda ɗaya? Ko da a mahangar kungiya za a iya hada dukkan wadannan tsare-tsare da ARPANET – wanda hakan bai yiwu ba – rashin jituwar ka’idojinsu ya sa hakan ba zai yiwu ba. Amma duk da haka, a ƙarshe, duk waɗannan cibiyoyin sadarwa daban-daban (da zuriyarsu) sun haɗu da juna zuwa tsarin sadarwa na duniya wanda muka sani da Intanet. Ba wai kawai an fara shi da wani tallafi ko shirin duniya ba, amma tare da aikin bincike da aka watsar wanda wani manajan tsakiya daga ARPA ke aiki a kai. .
Bob Kahn matsala
Kahn ya kammala digirinsa na digiri na uku a fannin sarrafa siginar lantarki a Princeton a shekarar 1964 yayin da yake wasan golf a kan kwasa-kwasan da ke kusa da makarantarsa. Bayan ya yi aiki a matsayin farfesa a MIT na ɗan gajeren lokaci, ya ɗauki aiki a BBN, da farko yana da sha'awar ɗaukar lokaci don nutsar da kansa a cikin masana'antar don sanin yadda mutane masu aiki suka yanke shawarar matsalolin da suka cancanci bincike. Kwatsam, aikinsa a BBN yana da alaƙa da bincike kan yiwuwar halayen sadarwar kwamfuta - jim kaɗan bayan haka BBN ya sami odar ARPANET. An jawo Kahn cikin wannan aikin kuma ya ba da mafi yawan ci gaba game da gine-ginen cibiyar sadarwa.
Hoton Kahn daga jaridar 1974
“karamin hutunsa” ya koma aiki na shekara shida inda Kahn ya kasance kwararre a harkar sadarwa a BBN yayin da ya kawo ARPANET gaba daya. A shekarar 1972, ya gaji da batun, kuma mafi mahimmanci, ya gaji da magance siyasa da fada da shugabannin sassan BBN. Don haka ya yarda da tayin daga Larry Roberts (kafin Roberts da kansa ya bar shi don samar da Telenet) kuma ya zama manajan shirye-shirye a ARPA don jagorantar haɓaka fasahar masana'anta ta atomatik, tare da yuwuwar sarrafa miliyoyin daloli a cikin saka hannun jari. Ya watsar da aiki akan ARPANET kuma ya yanke shawarar farawa daga karce a wani sabon yanki.
Amma a cikin watanni da zuwansa Washington, D.C., Majalisa ta kashe aikin samar da atomatik. Kahn ya so ya tattara kayan nan da nan ya koma Cambridge, amma Roberts ya rinjaye shi ya zauna kuma ya taimaka wajen haɓaka sabbin ayyukan sadarwar ARPA. Kahn, ya kasa tserewa kangin iliminsa, ya sami kansa yana gudanar da PRNET, cibiyar sadarwar rediyon fakiti da za ta samar da ayyukan soja tare da fa'idodin hanyoyin sadarwa na fakiti.
Aikin PRNET, wanda aka ƙaddamar a ƙarƙashin kulawar Stanford Research Institute (SRI), an yi shi ne don ƙaddamar da ainihin fakitin jigilar kayayyaki na ALOHANET don tallafawa masu maimaitawa da ayyukan tashoshi da yawa, gami da motocin motsa jiki. Duk da haka, nan da nan ya bayyana wa Kahn cewa irin wannan hanyar sadarwa ba za ta yi amfani ba, tun da ita ce hanyar sadarwa ta kwamfuta wanda kusan babu kwamfutoci a cikinta. Lokacin da ta fara aiki a cikin 1975, tana da kwamfutar SRI guda ɗaya da masu maimaitawa huɗu waɗanda ke gefen San Francisco Bay. Tashoshin filayen tafi da gidanka ba su iya daidaita girman girman da amfani da wutar lantarki na manyan kwamfutoci na shekarun 1970. Duk mahimman albarkatun sarrafa kwamfuta suna zaune a cikin ARPANET, waɗanda suka yi amfani da tsari daban-daban kuma sun kasa fassara saƙon da aka karɓa daga PRNET. Ya yi mamakin ta yaya zai yiwu a haɗa wannan hanyar sadarwa ta amfrayo tare da ɗan uwanta mafi girma?
Kahn ya juya ga wani tsohon masani tun farkon ARPANET don taimaka masa da amsar. ya zama mai sha'awar kwamfuta a matsayin dalibin lissafi a Stanford kuma ya yanke shawarar komawa makarantar digiri na biyu a kimiyyar kwamfuta a Jami'ar California, Los Angeles (UCLA), bayan ya yi aiki na shekaru da yawa a ofishin IBM. Ya isa a 1967 kuma, tare da abokinsa na makarantar sakandare Steve Crocker, sun shiga Cibiyar Ma'aunin Sadarwar Sadarwar Len Kleinrock, wanda ke cikin sashin ARPANET a UCLA. A can, shi da Crocker sun zama ƙwararru a cikin ƙirar ƙa'idar, kuma manyan membobin ƙungiyar sadarwar sadarwar, waɗanda suka haɓaka ainihin Tsarin Kula da hanyar sadarwa (NCP) don aika saƙonni akan ARPANET da canja wurin fayil mai girma da ka'idojin shiga nesa.
Hoton Cerf daga jaridar 1974
Cerf ya sadu da Kahn a farkon shekarun 1970 lokacin da ya isa UCLA daga BBN don gwada hanyar sadarwar da ke cikin kaya. Ya haifar da cunkoson hanyoyin sadarwa ta hanyar amfani da software da Cerf ya kirkira, wanda ya haifar da zirga-zirgar ababen hawa. Kamar yadda Kahn ya yi tsammani, hanyar sadarwar ba za ta iya jurewa da nauyin ba, kuma ya ba da shawarar canje-canje don inganta sarrafa cunkoso. A cikin shekaru masu zuwa, Cerf ya ci gaba da abin da ya yi kama da kyakkyawan aiki na ilimi. A daidai lokacin da Kahn ya bar BBN zuwa Washington, Cerf ya yi tafiya zuwa wata gabar teku don daukar matsayin Farfesa a Stanford.
Kahn ya san abubuwa da yawa game da hanyoyin sadarwa na kwamfuta, amma ba shi da gogewa a cikin ƙirƙira yarjejeniya — asalinsa yana cikin sarrafa sigina, ba kimiyyar kwamfuta ba. Ya san cewa Cerf zai kasance mai dacewa don haɓaka ƙwarewarsa kuma zai kasance mai mahimmanci a kowane yunƙurin danganta ARPANET zuwa PRNET. Kahn ya tuntube shi game da aikin intanet, kuma sun sadu da yawa a cikin 1973 kafin su je wani otal a Palo Alto don samar da aikinsu na seminal, "A Protocol for Internetwork Packet Communications," wanda aka buga a watan Mayu 1974 a IEEE Ma'amaloli akan Sadarwa. A can, an gabatar da wani aiki don Shirin Gudanar da Watsa Labarai (TCP) (nan da nan zai zama "la'auni") - ginshiƙi na software na Intanet na zamani.
Tasirin waje
Babu wani mutum ɗaya ko lokacin da ya fi kusanci da ƙirƙirar Intanet fiye da Cerf da Kahn da aikinsu na 1974. Amma duk da haka ƙirƙirar Intanet ba wani lamari ne da ya faru a wani lokaci na musamman ba - tsari ne wanda ya bayyana tsawon shekaru masu yawa na ci gaba. Asalin ƙa'idar da Cerf da Kahn suka bayyana a cikin 1974 an sake bita kuma an canza su sau da yawa a cikin shekaru masu zuwa. An gwada haɗin farko tsakanin cibiyoyin sadarwa ne kawai a cikin 1977; An raba ka'idar zuwa matakai biyu - TCP na ko'ina da IP a yau - kawai a cikin 1978; ARPANET ya fara amfani da shi don dalilai na kansa kawai a cikin 1982 (wannan tsarin lokacin bullowar Intanet za a iya tsawaita shi zuwa 1995, lokacin da gwamnatin Amurka ta cire bangon wuta tsakanin Intanet na ilimi da ke tallafawa jama'a da Intanet na kasuwanci). Jerin mahalarta wannan tsari na ƙirƙira ya faɗaɗa sama da waɗannan sunaye biyu. A cikin shekarun farko, wata ƙungiya mai suna International Network Working Group (INWG) ta kasance babbar ƙungiya don haɗin gwiwa.
ARPANET ya shiga cikin duniyar fasaha mafi fadi a cikin Oktoba 1972 a taron kasa da kasa na farko kan sadarwar kwamfuta, wanda aka gudanar a Washington Hilton tare da karkatar da tsarin zamani. Baya ga Amurkawa irin su Cerf da Kahn, ya samu halartar fitattun kwararu na hanyar sadarwa daga Turai, musamman daga Faransa da Donald Davies daga Birtaniya. A yunƙurin Larry Roberts, sun yanke shawarar kafa ƙungiyar aiki ta ƙasa da ƙasa don tattauna tsarin canza fakiti da ka'idoji, kama da ƙungiyar sadarwar sadarwar da ta kafa ka'idoji don ARPANET. Cerf, wanda kwanan nan ya zama farfesa a Stanford, ya amince ya zama shugaba. Ɗaya daga cikin batutuwa na farko shine matsalar aikin intanet.
Daga cikin mahimman masu ba da gudummawa na farko ga wannan tattaunawa shine Robert Metcalfe, wanda muka riga mun sadu da shi a matsayin maginin Ethernet a Xerox PARC. Ko da yake Metcalfe bai iya gaya wa abokan aikinsa ba, a lokacin da aka buga aikin Cerf da Kahn, ya daɗe yana haɓaka ka'idojin Intanet na kansa, PARC Universal Packet, ko PUP.
Bukatar Intanet a Xerox ya karu da zaran hanyar sadarwar Ethernet a Alto ta yi nasara. PARC tana da wata cibiyar sadarwa ta gida ta Data General Nova minicomputers, kuma ba shakka, akwai kuma ARPANET. Shugabannin PARC sun duba gaba kuma sun gane cewa kowane tushe na Xerox zai sami nasa Ethernet, kuma ko ta yaya za a haɗa su da juna (watakila ta hanyar Xerox na ciki ARPANET daidai). Don samun damar yin kamar saƙon al'ada, an adana fakitin PUP a cikin wasu fakiti na kowace hanyar sadarwa da take tafiya a kai-ce, PARC Ethernet. Lokacin da fakitin ya isa kwamfutar ƙofa tsakanin Ethernet da wata hanyar sadarwa (kamar ARPANET), wannan kwamfutar za ta buɗe fakitin PUP, ta karanta adireshinta, sannan ta sake naɗe ta cikin fakitin ARPANET tare da masu kai masu dacewa, ta aika zuwa adireshin adireshin. .
Kodayake Metcalf ba zai iya yin magana kai tsaye ga abin da ya yi a Xerox ba, ƙwarewar da ya samu ba makawa ya shiga cikin tattaunawa a INWG. Ana ganin shaidar tasirinsa a cikin gaskiyar cewa a cikin aikin 1974, Cerf da Kahn sun yarda da gudunmawarsa, kuma daga bisani Metcalfe ya ɗauki wani laifi don kada ya nace a kan haɗin gwiwar. Wataƙila PUP ta sake yin tasiri akan ƙirar Intanet ta zamani a cikin 1970s lokacin tura ta hanyar yanke shawarar raba yarjejeniya zuwa TCP da IP, don kada a aiwatar da hadadden yarjejeniya ta TCP akan ƙofofin tsakanin cibiyoyin sadarwa. IP (Internet Protocol) sauƙaƙan sigar ka'idar adireshi ce, ba tare da wani hadadden dabaru na TCP ba don tabbatar da cewa an isar da kowane abu. Yarjejeniyar hanyar sadarwa ta Xerox - wacce aka fi sani da Xerox Network Systems (XNS) - ta riga ta sami irin wannan rabuwa.
Wani tushen tasiri kan ka'idojin Intanet na farko ya fito ne daga Turai, musamman hanyar sadarwar da aka kirkira a farkon shekarun 1970 ta Plan Calcul, shirin da ya kaddamar. don raya masana'antar sarrafa kwamfuta ta Faransa. De Gaulle ya dade yana damuwa game da ci gaban siyasa, kasuwanci, kudi da al'adu na Amurka a Yammacin Turai. Ya yanke shawarar sake mayar da Faransa ta zama jagorar duniya mai cin gashin kanta, maimakon wani dan amshin shatan yakin cacar baka tsakanin Amurka da USSR. Dangane da masana'antar kwamfuta, barazana biyu musamman ga wannan 'yancin kai sun bayyana a cikin shekarun 1960. Da farko dai, Amurka ta ki ba da lasisin fitar da kwamfutocinta masu karfin gaske, wadanda Faransa ke son yin amfani da su wajen kera bama-baman nata. Na biyu, kamfanin General Electric na Amurka ya zama babban mai kamfanin kera kwamfutoci na Faransa ɗaya tilo, Compagnie des Machines Bull - kuma jim kaɗan bayan haka ya rufe da yawa daga cikin manyan layukan samfuran Bull (aka kafa kamfanin a shekara ta 1919 ta wani ɗan Norwegian mai suna Bull, don samar da injunan da ke da alaƙa). yayi aiki tare da katunan naushi - kai tsaye kamar IBM. Ya koma Faransa a cikin 1930s, bayan mutuwar wanda ya kafa). Ta haka ne aka haife Plan Calcul, wanda aka ƙera don tabbatar da ikon Faransa don samar da ikon sarrafa kwamfuta.
Don sa ido kan aiwatar da Calcul Plan, de Gaulle ya ƙirƙiri delégation à l'informatique (wani abu kamar "tawagar masu ba da labari"), yana ba da rahoto kai tsaye ga firaministan sa. A farkon 1971, wannan tawaga ta sa injiniya Louis Pouzin ya kula da samar da sigar Faransa ta ARPANET. Tawagar ta yi imanin cewa hanyoyin sadarwar fakiti za su taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen yin lissafi a cikin shekaru masu zuwa, kuma ƙwarewar fasaha a wannan yanki zai zama dole don Lissafin Tsari ya zama nasara.
Pouzin a wani taro a 1976
Pouzin, wanda ya kammala karatun digiri na École Polytechnique na Paris, makarantar injiniya ta farko ta Faransa, ya yi aiki a matsayin matashi ga wani kamfanin kera kayan wayar tarho na Faransa kafin ya koma Bull. A can ya gamsar da ma'aikata cewa suna buƙatar ƙarin sani game da ci gaban Amurka. Don haka a matsayinsa na ma'aikacin Bull, ya taimaka ƙirƙirar Tsarin Raba Lokaci Mai Kyau (CTSS) a MIT na tsawon shekaru biyu da rabi, daga 1963 zuwa 1965. Wannan gogewa ta sa ya zama ƙwararren ƙwararren ƙwararren masani kan hada-hadar musayar lokaci a duk faɗin Faransa - kuma mai yiwuwa a duk faɗin Turai.
Cyclades Network Architecture
Pouzin ya sanya sunan cibiyar sadarwar da aka tambaye shi don ƙirƙirar Cyclades, bayan ƙungiyar Cyclades na tsibiran Girka a cikin Tekun Aegean. Kamar yadda sunan ke nunawa, kowace kwamfuta a wannan hanyar sadarwa ta kasance ainihin tsibirinta. Babban gudunmawar Cyclades ga fasahar sadarwar shine manufar – mafi sauƙin sigar sadarwar fakiti. Tunanin ya ƙunshi sassa guda biyu masu dacewa:
- Datagrams masu zaman kansu ne: Ba kamar bayanan da ke cikin kiran waya ko saƙon ARPANET ba, kowane datagram na iya sarrafa kansa. Ba ya dogara ga saƙonnin da suka gabata, ko kan odarsu, ko kan ka'idar kafa haɗin gwiwa (kamar buga lambar waya).
- Ana watsa bayanai daga mai watsa shiri zuwa mai masaukin baki - duk alhakin dogara da aika saƙo zuwa adireshin yana kan mai aikawa da mai karɓa, kuma ba tare da hanyar sadarwa ba, wanda a wannan yanayin shine kawai "bututu".
Tunanin datagram ya zama kamar bidi'a ga abokan aikin Pouzin a kungiyar ta Faransa Post, Telephone and Telegraph (PTT), wacce a cikin shekarun 1970s ke gina nata hanyar sadarwar ta dangane da haɗin kai-kamar tarho da tasha-zuwa kwamfuta (maimakon kwamfuta-zuwa-kwamfuta. kwamfuta) haɗin gwiwa. Wannan ya faru ne a ƙarƙashin kulawar wani wanda ya kammala karatun digiri na Ecole Polytechnique, Remy Despres. Tunanin ba da amincin watsawa a cikin hanyar sadarwa ya kasance abin ƙyama ga PTT, tun shekarun da suka gabata na gwaninta ya tilasta shi yin tarho da telegraph a matsayin abin dogara kamar yadda zai yiwu. A lokaci guda, daga ra'ayi na tattalin arziki da siyasa, canja wurin iko a kan duk aikace-aikace da ayyuka don daukar nauyin kwamfutoci da ke kan gefen hanyar sadarwa sun yi barazanar juya PTT zuwa wani abu da ba na musamman ba kuma wanda za'a iya maye gurbinsa. Duk da haka, babu wani abu da ke ƙarfafa ra'ayi fiye da tsayayya da shi, don haka ra'ayi daga PTT kawai ya taimaka wajen shawo kan Pouzin na daidaitattun bayanan nasa - hanya don ƙirƙirar ka'idojin da ke aiki don sadarwa daga wannan rundunar zuwa wani.
Pouzin da abokan aikinsa daga aikin Cyclades sun shiga cikin INWG da tarurruka daban-daban inda aka tattauna ra'ayoyin da ke bayan TCP, kuma ba su yi jinkirin bayyana ra'ayoyinsu game da yadda cibiyar sadarwa ko cibiyoyin sadarwa za su yi aiki ba. Kamar Melkaf, Pouzin da abokin aikinsa Hubert Zimmerman sun sami ambaton a cikin takardar TCP na 1974, kuma aƙalla wani abokin aiki, injiniya Gérard le Land, shi ma ya taimaka Cerf goge ka'idojin. Daga baya Cerf ya tuna cewa " Hanyar taga zamiya don TCP an ɗauke shi kai tsaye daga tattaunawa game da wannan batu tare da Pouzin da mutanensa ... Na tuna Bob Metcalfe, Le Lan da ni muna kwance a kan wata katuwar takarda ta Whatman a kasan falo na a Palo Alto. , ƙoƙarin zana zane-zane na jihohi don waɗannan ka'idoji."
“Tagar zamewa” tana nufin hanyar da TCP ke sarrafa kwararar bayanai tsakanin mai aikawa da mai karɓa. Tagan na yanzu ya ƙunshi duk fakiti a cikin rafin bayanai masu fita waɗanda mai aikawa zai iya aikawa da gaske. Gefen dama na taga yana motsawa zuwa dama lokacin da mai karɓa ya ba da rahoton yantar da sarari, kuma gefen hagu yana motsawa zuwa dama lokacin da mai karɓa ya ba da rahoton karɓar fakitin da suka gabata."
Manufar zanen ya dace daidai da halayen hanyoyin sadarwar watsa shirye-shirye kamar Ethernet da ALOHANET, waɗanda willy-nilly aika saƙon su cikin iska mai hayaniya da rashin ko in kula (saɓanin mafi yawan tarho kamar ARPANET, wanda ke buƙatar isar da saƙon jere tsakanin IMPs. akan amintaccen layin AT&T don yin aiki yadda yakamata). Yana da ma'ana don daidaita ka'idoji don watsa intranet zuwa mafi ƙarancin ingantattun hanyoyin sadarwa, maimakon ingantattun 'yan uwansu, kuma shine ainihin abin da Kahn da Cerf's TCP yarjejeniya suka yi.
Zan iya ci gaba da ci gaba game da rawar da Birtaniyya ke takawa wajen haɓaka matakan farko na ayyukan intanet, amma bai dace a yi cikakken bayani ba don tsoron rasa ma'anar - sunayen biyu da suka fi kusanci da ƙirƙirar intanet ba su kaɗai ba. al'amarin.
TCP yana cin nasara ga kowa
Menene ya faru da waɗannan ra'ayoyin farko game da haɗin gwiwar tsakanin nahiyoyi? Me yasa ake yabon Cerf da Kahn a ko'ina a matsayin uban Intanet, amma ba a jin komai game da Pouzin da Zimmerman? Don fahimtar wannan, da farko ya zama dole a zurfafa cikin cikakkun bayanai na tsari na farkon shekarun INWG.
Dangane da ruhin ƙungiyar aiki na cibiyar sadarwa ta ARPA da Buƙatunta na Sharhi (RFCs), INWG ta ƙirƙiri nata tsarin “shaɗin bayanin kula”. A matsayin wani ɓangare na wannan aikin, bayan kusan shekara guda na haɗin gwiwa, Kahn da Cerf sun ƙaddamar da sigar farko ta TCP zuwa INWG a matsayin bayanin kula #39 a cikin Satumba 1973. Wannan shine ainihin takaddar da suka buga a cikin IEEE Ma'amaloli a cikin bazara mai zuwa. A cikin Afrilu 1974, ƙungiyar Cyclades da Hubert Zimmermann da Michel Elie ke jagoranta sun buga wata ƙididdiga, INWG 61. Bambancin ya ƙunshi ra'ayoyi daban-daban game da cinikin injiniya daban-daban, galibi akan yadda fakiti masu ratsa hanyoyin sadarwa tare da ƙananan fakiti suna rarraba kuma an sake haɗa su.
Rarraba ya yi kadan, amma buƙatar ko ta yaya yarda ya ɗauki gaggawar da ba zato ba tsammani saboda shirye-shiryen sake duba ƙa'idodin hanyar sadarwa da Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique ta sanar () [Kwamitin Ba da Shawarar Waya da Watsa Labarai na Duniya]. CCITT, rarraba , wanda ke hulɗa da daidaitawa, ya yi aiki a kan tsawon shekaru hudu na tarurrukan taron. Dole ne a gabatar da shawarwarin da za a yi la'akari da su a taron na 1976 kafin faduwar 1975, kuma ba za a iya yin canje-canje tsakanin wannan kwanan wata zuwa 1980 ba. Zazzabi tarurruka a cikin INWG ya kai ga jefa kuri'a na karshe wanda sabuwar yarjejeniya, wanda wakilan manyan kungiyoyi masu mahimmanci don sadarwar kwamfuta a duniya suka bayyana - Cerf of ARPANET, Zimmerman na Cyclades, Roger Scantlebury na British National Physical Laboratory, da Alex Mackenzie na BBN, ya yi nasara. Sabuwar shawara, INWG 96, ta faɗi wani wuri tsakanin 39 da 61, kuma da alama tana saita alkiblar aikin intanet don nan gaba.
Amma a zahirin gaskiya, sulhun ya kasance wani buri na ƙarshe na haɗin gwiwar haɗin gwiwa tsakanin ƙasashen duniya, lamarin da ya kasance gabanin rashin amincewar Bob Kahn daga ƙuri'ar INWG kan sabuwar shawara. Sai dai kuma sakamakon zaben bai cika wa'adin da hukumar ta CCITT ta gindaya ba, haka zalika, Cerf ya kara dagula lamarin inda ya aike da wasika zuwa ga CCITT, inda ya bayyana yadda shawarwarin ba su da cikakkiyar fahimta a cikin INWG. Amma duk wata shawara daga INWG da wataƙila ba za a yarda da ita ba, tunda shuwagabannin sadarwar da suka mamaye CCITT ba su da sha'awar hanyoyin sadarwar datagram waɗanda masu binciken kwamfuta suka ƙirƙira. Suna son cikakken iko akan zirga-zirgar ababen hawa a kan hanyar sadarwar, maimakon ba da wannan ikon ga kwamfutocin gida waɗanda ba su da iko akan su. Sun yi watsi da batun aikin intanet gaba ɗaya, kuma sun yarda su ɗauki ka'idar haɗin kai don wata hanyar sadarwa ta daban, wanda ake kira. .
Abin ban mamaki shine cewa yarjejeniyar X.25 ta sami goyon bayan tsohon shugaban Kahn, Larry Roberts. Ya taba zama jagora a binciken cibiyar sadarwa, amma sabon sha'awarsa a matsayinsa na jagoran kasuwanci ya kai shi zuwa CCITT don sanya takunkumi ga ka'idojin da kamfaninsa, Telenet, ke amfani da shi.
Turawa, galibi a ƙarƙashin jagorancin Zimmerman, sun sake gwadawa, sun juya zuwa wata ƙungiyar ma'auni inda rinjayen gudanarwar sadarwa ba ta da ƙarfi - Ƙungiyar Ƙasa ta Duniya. . Sakamakon buɗaɗɗen tsarin sadarwar sadarwa () yana da wasu fa'idodi akan TCP/IP. Misali, ba shi da tsarin adireshi mai iyaka iri ɗaya kamar na IP, iyakokin da ke buƙatar gabatar da hacks masu arha da yawa don jure haɓakar haɓakar Intanet a cikin 1990s (a cikin 2010s, cibiyoyin sadarwa a ƙarshe sun fara canzawa zuwa… IP Protocol, wanda ke gyara matsalolin tare da iyakokin sararin samaniya). Koyaya, saboda dalilai da yawa, wannan tsari ya ja da ja akan ad infinitum, ba tare da haifar da ƙirƙirar software mai aiki ba. Musamman, hanyoyin ISO, yayin da suka dace da yarda da ayyukan fasaha da aka kafa, ba su dace da fasahohin da ke tasowa ba. Kuma lokacin da tushen Intanet na TCP/IP ya fara haɓaka a cikin 1990s, OSI ya zama mara amfani.
Bari mu matsa daga yaƙi akan ma'auni zuwa na yau da kullun, abubuwa masu amfani na gina hanyoyin sadarwa a ƙasa. Turawa sun dauki nauyin aiwatar da INWG 96 don haɗa Cyclades da dakin gwaje-gwaje na jiki na ƙasa a matsayin wani ɓangare na ƙirƙirar hanyar sadarwar bayanan Turai. Amma Kahn da sauran jagororin aikin Intanet na ARPA ba su da niyyar karkatar da jirgin TCP saboda hadin gwiwar kasa da kasa. Kahn ya riga ya ware kuɗi don aiwatar da TCP a cikin ARPANET da PRNET, kuma ba ya so ya sake farawa. Cerf ya yi ƙoƙarin inganta goyon bayan Amurka don sasantawa da ya yi wa INWG, amma a ƙarshe ya daina. Ya kuma yanke shawarar janyewa daga matsalolin rayuwa a matsayin farfesa na gaba kuma, bin misalin Kahn, ya zama manajan shirye-shirye a ARPA, ya yi ritaya daga shiga cikin INWG.
Me yasa kadan ya fito daga sha'awar Turai na kafa haɗin kai da matsayi na kasa da kasa a hukumance? Ainihin, komai ya shafi mukamai daban-daban na shugabannin kamfanonin sadarwa na Amurka da na Turai. Dole ne Turawa su yi gwagwarmaya tare da matsa lamba akai-akai kan tsarin bayanai daga shugabannin gidan waya da na sadarwa (PTT), wadanda ke aiki a matsayin sassan gudanarwa na gwamnatocin kasashensu. Saboda wannan, sun kasance mafi ƙwarin gwiwa don samun ijma'i a cikin matakan kafa ma'auni. Saurin raguwar Cyclades, wanda ya rasa sha'awar siyasa a cikin 1975 da duk kudade a cikin 1978, yana ba da nazarin yanayin ikon PTT. Pouzin ta zargi gwamnatin da laifin mutuwar ta . d'Estaing ya hau kan karagar mulki a shekarar 1974 kuma ya kafa gwamnati daga wakilan Makarantar Gudanarwa ta Kasa (National School of Administration)), wanda Pouzin ya raina: idan za a iya kwatanta École Polytechnique da MIT, to ENA za a iya kwatanta da Harvard Business School. The d'Estaing gwamnatin gina ta bayanai fasahar manufofin a kusa da ra'ayin "kasa zakarun", da kuma irin wannan kwamfuta cibiyar sadarwa bukatar PTT goyon baya. Aikin Cyclades ba zai taɓa samun irin wannan tallafin ba; maimakon haka, abokin hamayyar Pouzin Despres ya lura da ƙirƙirar hanyar sadarwa ta hanyar sadarwa ta hanyar X.25 mai suna Transpac.
A Amurka komai ya bambanta. AT&T ba ta da tasirin siyasa iri ɗaya kamar takwarorinta na ketare kuma baya cikin gwamnatin Amurka. Akasin haka, a wannan lokacin ne gwamnati ta yi wa kamfanin takuri mai tsanani, ta kuma raunana shi, an hana shi yin katsalandan ga ci gaban hanyoyin sadarwa da na’urorin kwamfuta, nan da nan aka wargaje shi gaba daya. ARPA tana da 'yanci don haɓaka shirye-shiryenta na Intanet a ƙarƙashin inuwar kariya ta ma'aikatar tsaro mai ƙarfi, ba tare da matsin lamba na siyasa ba. Ta ba da kuɗin aiwatar da TCP a kan kwamfutoci daban-daban, kuma ta yi amfani da tasirinta wajen tilasta wa duk ma'aikatan ARPANET su canza zuwa sabuwar yarjejeniya a 1983. Don haka, cibiyar sadarwar kwamfuta mafi ƙarfi a duniya, yawancin kundishinsu sun kasance mafi ƙarfin kwamfuta. kungiyoyi a duniya, sun zama shafin ci gaban TCP / IP.
Don haka, TCP/IP ya zama ginshiƙin Intanet, kuma ba Intanet kaɗai ba, godiya ga ARPA na 'yancin siyasa da kuɗi na dangi idan aka kwatanta da kowace ƙungiyar sadarwar kwamfuta. Duk da OSI, ARPA ya zama kare yana waƙar wutsiya mai fushi na al'ummar bincike na cibiyar sadarwa. Tun daga lokacin 1974, mutum zai iya ganin layukan tasiri da yawa da ke haifar da aikin Cerf da Kahn akan TCP, da kuma haɗin gwiwa da yawa na ƙasa da ƙasa waɗanda zasu iya fitowa daga gare su. Koyaya, daga hangen nesa na 1995, duk hanyoyi suna kaiwa zuwa lokaci mai mahimmanci guda ɗaya, ƙungiyar Amurka guda ɗaya da manyan sunaye guda biyu.
Me kuma za a karanta
- Janet Abbate, Ƙirƙirar Intanet (1999)
- John Day, "The Clamor Outside as INWG Debated," IEEE Annals of the History of Computing (2016)
- Andrew L. Russell, Buɗaɗɗen Matsayi da Zaman Dijital (2014)
- Andrew L. Russell da Valérie Schafer, "A cikin Inuwar ARPANET da Intanet: Louis Pouzin da Cibiyar Sadarwar Cyclades a cikin 1970s," Fasaha da Al'adu (2014)
source: www.habr.com