Tarihin Intanet: Gano Mu'amala

Sauran labarai a cikin jerin:

• Tarihin relay
  • Hanyar " watsa bayanai cikin sauri ", ko Haihuwar relay
  • Marubuci mai tsayi
  • Galvanism
  • 'Yan kasuwa
  • Kuma a nan, a ƙarshe, shine gudun ba da sanda
  • Mai magana da telegraph
  • Haɗa kawai
  • Zamanin Mantuwar Kwamfutocin Relay
  • Zamanin lantarki
• Tarihin kwamfutocin lantarki
  • Gabatarwa
  • Ruwan launi
  • ENIAC
  • juyin juya halin lantarki
• Tarihin transistor
  • Girman hanyar ku a cikin duhu
  • Daga gulmar yaƙi
  • Sabuntawa da yawa
• Tarihin Intanet
  • Cibiyar sadarwa ta kashin baya
  • Lalacewa, part 1
  • Lalacewa, part 2
  • Buɗe hulɗa
  • Fadada mu'amala
  • ARPANET - haihuwa
  • ARPANET - kunshin
  • ARPANET - subnet
  • Kwamfuta a matsayin na'urar sadarwa
  • Tarihin Intanet: Ayyukan Intanet

Kwamfutocin lantarki na farko sune na'urori na musamman da aka kirkira don dalilai na bincike. Amma da zarar sun samu, ƙungiyoyi sun shigar da su cikin sauri cikin al'adun bayanan da suke da su - wanda a ciki ake wakilta duk bayanai da matakai a cikin tari. katunan naushi.

Herman Hollerith ne adam wata ya haɓaka tabulator na farko mai ikon karantawa da kirga bayanai daga ramuka a cikin katunan takarda don ƙidayar Amurka a ƙarshen karni na 0. A tsakiyar karni na gaba, ’yan uwa na zuriyar wannan injin sun shiga manyan kamfanoni da kungiyoyin gwamnati a duniya. Harshensu na gama-gari shi ne kati wanda ya ƙunshi ginshiƙai da yawa, inda kowane ginshiƙi (yawanci) yana wakiltar lamba ɗaya, wanda za'a iya buga shi a ɗaya cikin matsayi goma wanda ke wakiltar lambobi 9 zuwa XNUMX.

Ba a buƙatar na'urori masu rikitarwa don buga bayanan shigarwa cikin katunan, kuma ana iya rarraba tsarin a cikin ofisoshi da yawa a cikin ƙungiyar da ta samar da bayanan. Lokacin da ake buƙatar sarrafa bayanai-alal misali, don ƙididdige kudaden shiga don rahoton tallace-tallace kwata-kwata-ana iya shigar da katunan da suka dace a cikin cibiyar bayanai kuma a yi layi don sarrafawa ta injunan da suka dace waɗanda ke samar da saitin bayanan fitarwa akan katunan ko buga shi akan takarda. . A kewayen injunan sarrafawa na tsakiya-tabulators da kalkuleta-an haɗa na'urori na gefe don naushi, kwafi, rarrabawa, da katunan fassarar.

IBM 285 Tabulator, sanannen na'urar katin naushi a cikin 1930s da 40s.

Zuwa rabin na biyu na shekarun 1950, kusan dukkan kwamfutoci sun yi aiki ta amfani da wannan tsari na “batch processing”. Daga hangen nesa na masu amfani da ƙarshen tallace-tallace na yau da kullun, ba abin da ya canza ba. Kun kawo tarin katunan naushi don sarrafawa kuma kun karɓi bugu ko wani tarin katunan naushi sakamakon aikin. Kuma a cikin tsari, katunan sun juya daga ramuka a cikin takarda zuwa siginar lantarki da sake dawowa, amma ba ku damu da wannan ba. IBM ta mamaye fannin na'urorin sarrafa katin naushi, kuma ta kasance daya daga cikin manya-manyan karfi a fannin na'urorin kwamfutoci, a babban bangare saboda kafuwar dangantakar da ke tsakaninta da na'urori masu yawa. Kawai sun maye gurbin na'urorin injiniyoyi na abokan ciniki da na'urori masu ƙididdigewa tare da sauri, injunan sarrafa bayanai masu sassauƙa.

IBM 704 Punch Card Processing Kit. A gaba, wata yarinya tana aiki tare da mai karatu.

Wannan tsarin sarrafa katin naushi yayi aiki daidai shekaru da yawa kuma bai ƙi ba - akasin haka. Kuma duk da haka, a ƙarshen 1950s, wani yanki na yanki na masu bincike na kwamfuta sun fara jayayya cewa duk wannan aikin yana buƙatar canzawa - sun yi iƙirarin cewa an fi amfani da kwamfutar ta hanyar sadarwa. Maimakon barin shi tare da aiki sannan ya dawo don samun sakamako, mai amfani dole ne ya sadarwa kai tsaye tare da na'ura kuma yayi amfani da damarsa akan buƙata. A cikin Capital, Marx ya bayyana yadda injunan masana'antu-wanda mutane ke sarrafa su kawai-suke maye gurbin kayan aikin da mutane ke sarrafa kai tsaye. Duk da haka, kwamfutoci sun fara wanzuwa a cikin nau'in inji. Daga baya ne wasu masu amfani da su suka mayar da su kayan aiki.

Kuma wannan sauyi bai faru ba a cibiyoyin bayanai kamar Ofishin Kidayar Amurka, Kamfanin Inshorar MetLife, ko Kamfanin Karfe na Amurka (dukkan su na cikin wadanda suka fara sayen UNIVAC, daya daga cikin kwamfutoci na farko da ake samun ciniki). Yana da wuya ƙungiyar da ta ɗauki albashin mako-mako mafi inganci kuma amintacce hanya za ta so wani ya tarwatsa wannan aiki ta hanyar wasa da kwamfuta. Kimar zama a na'ura mai kwakwalwa, kawai gwada wani abu a cikin kwamfuta ya fi dacewa ga masana kimiyya da injiniyoyi, masu son yin nazarin matsala, tunkarar ta ta kusurwoyi daban-daban har sai da aka gano rauninta, da sauri canza tsakanin. tunani da aikatawa.

Saboda haka, irin waɗannan ra'ayoyin sun taso a tsakanin masu bincike. Duk da haka, kudaden da za a biya don yin amfani da kwamfutar ba tare da izini ba sun fito daga shugabannin sassansu. Wani sabon al'adu (wanda ma yana iya faɗin al'ada) na aikin kwamfuta mai mu'amala ya taso ne daga haɗin gwiwa mai inganci tsakanin sojoji da manyan jami'o'i a Amurka. An fara wannan haɗin gwiwa mai cin moriyar juna a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu. Makaman nukiliya, radar, da sauran makaman sihiri sun koya wa shugabannin sojoji cewa ayyukan masana kimiyya da ba za a iya fahimta ba na iya zama da mahimmanci ga sojoji. Wannan kyakkyawar alakar ta dau tsawon kusan tsara guda sannan ta wargaje a fagen siyasar wani yaki, Vietnam. Amma a wannan lokacin, masana kimiyya na Amurka sun sami damar samun makudan kudade, kusan ba su da damuwa, kuma suna iya yin kusan duk wani abu da za a iya danganta shi da tsaro na kasa.

Tabbatar da kwamfutoci masu mu'amala sun fara ne da bam.

Guguwar iska da SAGE

A ranar 29 ga Agusta, 1949, ƙungiyar binciken Soviet ta yi nasara gwajin makamin nukiliya na farko a kan Cibiyar gwajin Semipalatinsk. Bayan kwanaki uku, wani jirgin leken asiri na Amurka da ke shawagi a arewacin tekun Pacific ya gano alamun kayan aikin rediyo a cikin sararin da ya rage daga gwajin. USSR tana da bam, kuma abokan hamayyarsu na Amurka sun gano hakan. An dai shafe sama da shekara guda ana takun saka tsakanin manyan kasashen biyu, tun bayan da Tarayyar Soviet ta katse hanyoyin kasa zuwa yankunan da yammacin Jamus ke iko da birnin Berlin a matsayin martani ga shirin maido da kasar Jamus ga tsohon matsayinta na tattalin arziki.

An kawo karshen katangar a cikin bazara na shekara ta 1949, sakamakon wani gagarumin aiki da kasashen Yamma suka kaddamar domin tallafa wa birnin daga iska. Tashin hankali ya dan lafa. Duk da haka, janar-janar na Amurka ba za su iya yin watsi da wanzuwar wata runduna mai iya adawa da samun damar mallakar makaman nukiliya ba, musamman idan aka yi la'akari da yawan girma da kuma yawan hare-haren bama-bamai. Amurka tana da jerin tashoshin gano jiragen sama da aka kafa a gabar tekun Atlantika da Pasifik a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu. Duk da haka, sun yi amfani da fasahar zamani, ba su rufe hanyoyin arewa ta hanyar Kanada ba, kuma ba a haɗa su da tsarin tsakiya don daidaita matakan tsaro na iska.

Don gyara halin da ake ciki, Rundunar Sojan Sama (reshen sojan Amurka mai zaman kansa tun 1947) ya kira Kwamitin Injiniya na Tsaron Sama (ADSEC). Ana tunawa da shi a cikin tarihi a matsayin "Kwamitin Walley", mai suna bayan shugabansa, George Whalley. Ya kasance masanin kimiyyar lissafi na MIT kuma tsohon soja ne na kungiyar binciken radar soja Rad Lab, wanda ya zama Laboratory Research of Electronics (RLE) bayan yakin. Kwamitin ya yi nazarin matsalar tsawon shekara guda, kuma an fitar da rahoton ƙarshe na Valli a watan Oktoba na shekara ta 1950.

Mutum zai yi tsammanin cewa irin wannan rahoton zai zama jajayen tef mai ban sha'awa, yana ƙarewa da tsari cikin taka tsantsan da shawarwari masu ra'ayin mazan jiya. Maimakon haka, rahoton ya zama wani yanki mai ban sha'awa na muhawarar ƙirƙira, kuma ya ƙunshi tsarin aiki mai tsattsauran ra'ayi da haɗari. Wannan shine tabbataccen cancantar wani farfesa daga MIT, Norbert Wiener ne adam wata, wanda ya bayar da hujjar cewa nazarin halittu da inji za a iya hade su zuwa wani fanni guda cybernetics. Valli da mawallafinsa sun fara da zaton cewa tsarin tsaro na iska rayayye ne, ba a kwatanta ba, amma a gaskiya. Tashoshin Radar suna aiki a matsayin gabobin hankali, masu shiga tsakani da makamai masu linzami su ne masu tasiri ta hanyar da suke mu'amala da duniya. Suna aiki a ƙarƙashin ikon darekta, wanda ke amfani da bayanai daga hankula don yanke shawara game da ayyukan da suka dace. Sun kuma kara da cewa, wani darakta na dan Adam ba zai iya hana daruruwan jiragen da ke shigowa cikin milyoyin kilomita a cikin mintuna kadan ba, don haka ya kamata a rika sarrafa yawancin ayyukan daraktan yadda ya kamata.

Mafi sabani na binciken su shine, hanya mafi kyau don sarrafa sarrafa darektan shine ta hanyar kwamfutocin lantarki na dijital waɗanda za su iya ɗaukar wasu yanke shawara na ɗan adam: nazarin barazanar da ke shigowa, niyya makamai a kan waɗannan barazanar (ƙididdigar darussan shiga da watsa su zuwa ga mayaka), da , watakila ma haɓaka dabara don mafi kyawun nau'ikan amsawa. Ba a bayyane yake ba a lokacin cewa kwamfutoci sun dace da irin wannan manufa. Akwai kwamfutoci guda uku da ke aiki da lantarki a duk faɗin Amurka a lokacin, kuma babu ɗaya daga cikinsu da ya kusa cika ƙaƙƙarfan tsarin soja wanda miliyoyin rayuka suka dogara da shi. Sun kasance masu saurin gaske kuma masu saurin ƙirƙira lamba.

Duk da haka, Valli yana da dalilin yin imani da yiwuwar ƙirƙirar kwamfuta na dijital na ainihi, tun da ya san game da aikin Jirgin iska ["Vortex"]. Ya fara a lokacin yakin a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje na MIT servomechanism karkashin jagorancin wani matashin dalibin digiri, Jay Forrester. Burinsa na farko shine ya ƙirƙiri na'urar na'urar na'urar na'urar na'ura ta jirgin sama ta gabaɗaya wacce za'a iya sake saita ta don tallafawa sabbin samfuran jirgin sama ba tare da sake ginawa daga karce kowane lokaci ba. Abokin aiki ya shawo kan Forrester cewa ya kamata na'urar na'urarsa ta yi amfani da na'urar lantarki na dijital don aiwatar da sigogin shigarwa daga matukin jirgin da kuma samar da jihohin fitarwa don kayan aikin. Sannu a hankali, ƙoƙarin ƙirƙirar kwamfuta mai sauri na dijital ya ƙaru kuma ya mamaye ainihin manufar. An manta da na'urar kwaikwayo ta jirgin kuma yakin da ya haifar da ci gabansa ya dade, kuma kwamitin masu bincike daga ofishin binciken jiragen ruwa (ONR) ya kasance a hankali game da aikin saboda karuwar kasafin kuɗi da kuma wani lokaci. - tura ranar kammalawa. A cikin 1950, ONR ta yanke kasafin kuɗin Forrester na shekara mai zuwa, da niyyar rufe aikin gaba ɗaya bayan haka.

Ga George Valley, duk da haka, Whirlwind wahayi ne. Haƙiƙanin kwamfutar iska mai nisa har yanzu ba ta aiki. Duk da haka, bayan wannan, kwamfutar ya kamata ta bayyana, wanda ba kawai hankali ba ne marar jiki. Kwamfuta ce da ke da gabobin hankali da masu tasiri. Kwayoyin halitta. Forrester ya riga ya yi la'akari da shirye-shiryen fadada aikin zuwa babban tsarin bayar da umarni da cibiyar kula da sojoji na kasar. Ga ƙwararrun kwamfutoci a ONR, waɗanda suka yi imanin cewa kwamfutoci sun dace da magance matsalolin lissafi kawai, wannan hanyar ta zama kamar babba da wauta. Koyaya, wannan shine ainihin ra'ayin Valli yake nema, kuma ya bayyana a daidai lokacin don ceton guguwa daga mantuwa.

Duk da (ko watakila saboda) babban burinsa, rahoton Valli ya gamsar da Rundunar Sojan Sama, kuma sun kaddamar da wani katafaren sabon shirin bincike da ci gaba don fara fahimtar yadda ake samar da tsarin tsaron iska wanda ya dogara da kwamfutoci na dijital, sannan a zahiri gina shi. Rundunar Sojan Sama ta fara haɗin gwiwa tare da MIT don gudanar da bincike mai mahimmanci - zaɓin yanayi da aka ba wa cibiyar ta Whirlwind da RLE baya, da kuma tarihin nasarar haɗin gwiwar tsaron iska tun daga Rad Lab da yakin duniya na biyu. Sun kira sabon shirin "Project Lincoln", kuma sun gina sabon dakin bincike na Lincoln a Hanscom Field, kilomita 25 arewa maso yammacin Cambridge.

Rundunar Sojan Sama ta sanya sunan aikin tsaron iska na kwamfuta SAGE - wani baƙon aikin soja na al'ada a gajarce ma'ana "yanayin ƙasa na atomatik-sau-kai". Ya kamata a ce Whirlwind ta zama kwamfuta ta gwaji don tabbatar da yuwuwar ra'ayi kafin a aiwatar da cikakken samar da kayan aikin da tura shi - an ba da wannan alhakin ga IBM. Sigar aiki na kwamfuta na Whirlwind, wanda za a yi a IBM, an ba shi sunan da ba a mantawa da shi ba AN/FSQ-7 ("Sojoji-Navy Fixed Special Purpose Equipment" - wanda ya sa SAGE ya zama kyakkyawa daidai ta kwatanta).

A lokacin da Sojan Sama suka zana cikakkun tsare-tsare na tsarin SAGE a cikin 1954, ya ƙunshi na'urori daban-daban na radar, sansanonin iska, makaman tsaro na iska - duk ana sarrafa su daga cibiyoyin sarrafawa ashirin da uku, manyan bunkers waɗanda aka ƙera don jurewa bamabamai. Don cike wadannan cibiyoyi, IBM na bukatar samar da kwamfutoci arba’in da shida, maimakon ashirin da uku da za su kashe sojoji biliyoyin daloli. Wannan shi ne saboda har yanzu kamfanin yana amfani da bututun ruwa a cikin da'irar dabaru, kuma sun ƙone kamar fitilu masu haske. Kowane ɗayan dubun dubatar fitilu a cikin kwamfutar da ke aiki zai iya yin kasawa a kowane lokaci. Babu shakka ba za a amince da shi ba a bar dukkan sassan sararin samaniyar kasar ba tare da kariya ba yayin da masu fasaha ke gudanar da gyare-gyare, don haka dole ne a ajiye wani jirgin sama a hannu.

Cibiyar kula da SAGE a Grand Forks Air Force Base a Arewacin Dakota, inda aka samo kwamfutocin AN/FSQ-7 guda biyu.

Kowace cibiyar sarrafawa tana da ma'aikata da yawa da ke zaune a gaban allo na cathode-ray, kowannensu yana lura da wani yanki na sararin samaniya.

Kwamfutar ta bin diddigin duk wata barazanar iska kuma ta zana su azaman hanyoyi akan allon. Mai aiki na iya amfani da bindigar haske don nuna ƙarin bayani akan hanyar da kuma ba da umarni ga tsarin tsaro, kuma kwamfutar za ta juya su zuwa saƙon da aka buga don samun baturin makami mai linzami ko sansanin Sojojin Sama.

Virus na mu'amala

Idan aka ba da yanayin tsarin SAGE-kai tsaye, hulɗar lokaci-lokaci tsakanin masu aiki na ɗan adam da na'urar CRT na dijital ta hanyar bindigogi masu haske da na'ura mai kwakwalwa-ba abin mamaki ba ne cewa Lincoln Laboratory ya haɓaka rukunin farko na zakarun hulɗar hulɗa tare da kwamfutoci. Dukkan al'adun kwamfuta na dakin gwaje-gwaje sun kasance a cikin wani kumfa mai keɓe, wanda aka yanke daga ƙa'idodin sarrafa batch da ke tasowa a cikin duniyar kasuwanci. Masu bincike sun yi amfani da Whirlwind da zuriyarsa wajen tanadin wasu lokuta lokacin da suke da damar yin amfani da kwamfuta ta musamman. Sun saba da yin amfani da hannayensu, idanuwa, da kunnuwansu don yin mu’amala kai tsaye ta hanyar maɓalli, madanni, allon haske, har ma da lasifika, ba tare da masu shiga takarda ba.

Wannan baƙon al'ada kuma ƙarami ya bazu zuwa duniyar waje kamar ƙwayar cuta, ta hanyar saduwa ta jiki kai tsaye. Kuma idan muka dauke shi a matsayin kwayar cuta, to, haƙuri zero ya kamata a kira wani saurayi mai suna Wesley Clark. Clark ya bar makarantar digiri na biyu a fannin kimiyyar lissafi a Berkeley a cikin 1949 don zama masani a masana'antar makaman nukiliya. Duk da haka, bai ji daɗin aikin ba. Bayan ya karanta labarai da yawa daga mujallun kwamfuta, sai ya fara neman wata dama don zurfafa cikin abin da ya zama kamar wani sabon fanni mai ban sha’awa mai cike da damar da ba a iya amfani da shi ba. Ya koyi game da daukar ƙwararrun ƙwararrun kwamfuta a dakin gwaje-gwaje na Lincoln daga wani talla, kuma a cikin 1951 ya koma Gabas Coast don yin aiki a karkashin Forrester, wanda ya riga ya zama shugaban dakin gwaje-gwajen kwamfuta na dijital.

Wesley Clark yana nuna kwamfutar ilimin halittarsa ​​ta LINC, 1962

Clark ya shiga Rukunin Ci Gaban Ci Gaba, wani sashe na dakin gwaje-gwaje wanda ya kwatanta yanayin kwanciyar hankali na haɗin gwiwar jami'ar soja da na lokacin. Kodayake sashen ya kasance wani ɓangare na fasaha na Lincoln Laboratory universe, ƙungiyar ta kasance a cikin kumfa a cikin wani kumfa, keɓe daga bukatun yau da kullum na aikin SAGE kuma kyauta don biyan duk wani filin kwamfuta da za a iya ɗaure ta wata hanya zuwa. tsaron iska. Babban burinsu a farkon shekarun 1950 shine ƙirƙirar Kwamfuta na Gwajin Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwararren Ƙwaƙwalwa na Ƙwaƙwalwa na Ƙwaƙwalwa na Ƙwaƙwalwa na Ƙwaƙwalwa na Ƙwaƙwalwa na Ƙwaƙwalwa na Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwar Ƙwaƙwalwa ) da aka ƙera don nuna yiwuwar sabuwar hanya mai inganci da aminci ta adana bayanan dijital. Magnetic core memory, wanda zai maye gurbin ƙaƙƙarfan ƙwaƙwalwar tushen CRT da aka yi amfani da shi a cikin Whirlwind.

Tun da MTC ba shi da masu amfani da shi sai mahaliccinsa, Clark yana da cikakkiyar damar shiga kwamfutar na tsawon sa'o'i da yawa kowace rana. Clark ya zama mai sha'awar gaurayawar cybernetic na zamani na kimiyyar lissafi, ilimin halittar jiki da ka'idar bayanai godiya ga abokin aikin sa Belmont Farley, wanda ke sadarwa tare da ƙungiyar masana kimiyyar halittu daga RLE a Cambridge. Clark da Farley sun shafe tsawon sa'o'i a MTC, suna ƙirƙirar samfuran software na hanyoyin sadarwar jijiyoyi don nazarin kaddarorin tsarin tsara kai. Daga waɗannan gwaje-gwajen Clark ya fara samun wasu ƙa'idodin axiomatic na kwamfuta, waɗanda bai taɓa karkata ba. Musamman ma, ya zo ga imani cewa "damar mai amfani shine mafi mahimmancin ƙirar ƙira."

A cikin 1955, Clark ya haɗu tare da Ken Olsen, ɗaya daga cikin masu haɓaka MTC, don tsara wani shiri don ƙirƙirar sabuwar kwamfuta wanda zai iya ba da hanya ga tsarin kula da sojoji na gaba. Yin amfani da manyan ƙwaƙƙwaran ƙwaƙwalwar maganadisu don ajiya, da transistor don dabaru, ana iya sanya shi ƙarami, abin dogaro da ƙarfi fiye da guguwar iska. Da farko, sun ba da shawarar wani ƙirar da suka kira TX-1 (Computer Transistorized and eExperimental, “Experimental transistor computer” – wanda ya fi AN/FSQ-7 bayyananne). Koyaya, gudanarwar dakin gwaje-gwaje na Lincoln sun ƙi aikin a matsayin mai tsada da haɗari. Transistor ya kasance a kasuwa a cikin ƴan shekarun baya, kuma ƙananan kwamfutoci kaɗan ne aka gina ta amfani da dabaru na transistor. Don haka Clark da Olsen sun dawo tare da ƙaramin sigar motar, TX-0, wanda aka yarda.

TX-0

Ayyukan kwamfutar TX-0 a matsayin kayan aiki don sarrafa sansanonin soja, ko da yake ginshiƙi don ƙirƙirar ta, ya kasance ƙasa da ban sha'awa ga Clark fiye da damar da ya dace don inganta ra'ayoyinsa akan ƙirar kwamfuta. A ra'ayinsa, hulɗar kwamfuta ta daina zama gaskiyar rayuwa a Lincoln Laboratories kuma ta zama sabuwar al'ada - hanyar da ta dace don ginawa da amfani da kwamfutoci, musamman don aikin kimiyya. Ya ba da damar yin amfani da TX-0 ga masana kimiyyar halittu a MIT, kodayake aikinsu ba shi da alaƙa da PVO, kuma ya ba su damar yin amfani da nunin gani na na'ura don nazarin electroencephalograms daga nazarin barci. Kuma babu wanda ya nuna adawa da hakan.

TX-0 ya yi nasara sosai cewa a cikin 1956 Lincoln Laboratories ya amince da cikakkiyar kwamfutar transistor, TX-2, tare da ƙaƙƙarfan ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya na miliyan biyu. Za a dauki shekaru biyu ana kammala aikin. Bayan wannan, kwayar cutar za ta tsere daga wajen dakin gwaje-gwaje. Da zarar an gama TX-2, dakunan gwaje-gwaje ba za su ƙara buƙatar yin amfani da samfurin farko ba, don haka sun amince su ba da lamuni TX-0 ga Cambridge zuwa RLE. An sanya shi a bene na biyu, sama da cibiyar sarrafa kwamfuta. Kuma nan take ta kamu da kwamfutoci da farfesoshi a harabar MIT, inda suka fara fafatawa na tsawon lokaci inda za su iya samun cikakken sarrafa kwamfutar.

Ya riga ya bayyana cewa kusan ba zai yiwu a rubuta shirin kwamfuta daidai a karon farko ba. Bugu da ƙari, masu binciken da ke nazarin sabon aiki sau da yawa ba su da masaniya da farko abin da ya kamata ya zama daidai hali. Kuma don samun sakamako daga cibiyar kwamfuta dole ne ku jira na sa'o'i, ko ma har zuwa washegari. Domin da yawa na sababbin masu shirye-shirye a harabar, samun damar hawan tsani, gano bug kuma gyara shi nan da nan, gwada sabuwar hanya kuma nan da nan ganin ingantaccen sakamako ya zama wahayi. Wasu sun yi amfani da lokacinsu akan TX-0 don yin aiki a kan manyan ayyukan kimiyya ko aikin injiniya, amma farin cikin hulɗar ya jawo hankalin rayuka masu wasa. Wani dalibi ya rubuta wani shiri na gyara rubutu wanda ya kira "marubuta mai tsada." Wani kuma ya bi sawu ya rubuta "kalkuleta mai tsadar tebur" wanda ya kasance yana yin aikin gida na lissafi.

Ivan Sutherland yana nuna shirinsa na Sketchpad akan TX-2

A halin yanzu, Ken Olsen da wani injiniya na TX-0, Harlan Anderson, sun yi takaici da jinkirin ci gaba da aikin TX-2, sun yanke shawarar tallata karamin kwamfuta mai mu'amala ga masana kimiyya da injiniyoyi. Sun bar dakin gwaje-gwaje don gano Kamfanin Kayan Aikin Dijital, wanda ya kafa ofis a wani tsohon masaku a kan kogin Assabet, mil goma yamma da Lincoln. Kwamfutar su ta farko, PDP-1 (wanda aka sake shi a cikin 1961), ita ce ainihin clone na TX-0.

TX-0 da Digital Equipment Corporation sun fara yada bisharar sabuwar hanyar amfani da kwamfutoci fiye da dakin gwaje-gwaje na Lincoln. Kuma duk da haka, ya zuwa yanzu, kwayar cutar ta mu'amala ta kasance a cikin yanki, a gabashin Massachusetts. Amma ba da daɗewa ba wannan ya canza.

Me kuma za a karanta:

• Lars Heide, Tsarin Katin Punched da Fashewar Bayanan Farko, 1880-1945 (2009)
• Joseph Nuwamba, Kwamfuta Kwamfuta (2012)
• Kent C. Redmond da Thomas M. Smith, Daga Whirlwind zuwa MITER (2000)
• M. Mitchell Waldrop, The Dream Machine (2001)

source: www.habr.com