Tarihin Intanet: Fadada Haɗin kai

Sauran labarai a cikin jerin:

• Tarihin relay
  • Hanyar " watsa bayanai cikin sauri ", ko Haihuwar relay
  • Marubuci mai tsayi
  • Galvanism
  • 'Yan kasuwa
  • Kuma a nan, a ƙarshe, shine gudun ba da sanda
  • Mai magana da telegraph
  • Haɗa kawai
  • Zamanin Mantuwar Kwamfutocin Relay
  • Zamanin lantarki
• Tarihin kwamfutocin lantarki
  • Gabatarwa
  • Ruwan launi
  • ENIAC
  • juyin juya halin lantarki
• Tarihin transistor
  • Girman hanyar ku a cikin duhu
  • Daga gulmar yaƙi
  • Sabuntawa da yawa
• Tarihin Intanet
  • Cibiyar sadarwa ta kashin baya
  • Lalacewa, part 1
  • Lalacewa, part 2
  • Buɗe hulɗa
  • Fadada mu'amala

A farkon shekarun 1960, injunan kwamfuta masu mu'amala, daga tsaba masu taushi da aka reno a dakin gwaje-gwaje na Lincoln da MIT, a hankali sun fara yaduwa a ko'ina, ta hanyoyi guda biyu. Na farko, kwamfutocin da kansu sun faɗaɗa ginshiƙai waɗanda suka isa cikin gine-ginen da ke kusa, wuraren harabar karatu, da birane, suna ba masu amfani damar yin hulɗa da su daga nesa, tare da masu amfani da yawa a lokaci guda. Waɗannan sabbin tsarin raba lokaci sun bunƙasa zuwa dandamali don kama-da-wane na farko, al'ummomin kan layi. Na biyu, tsaba na mu'amala sun bazu ko'ina cikin jihohi kuma sun sami tushe a California. Kuma mutum daya ne ke da alhakin wannan na farko seedling, a psychologist mai suna Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider.

Yusufu "Apple iri"*

*Kwarai ga wani hali na tarihin tarihin Amurka mai laƙabi Johnny Appleseed, ko “Johnny Apple Seed,” wanda ya shahara saboda dashen itatuwan apple da yake aiki a tsakiyar yammacin Amurka (tsarin apple – irin apple) / kimanin. fassarar

Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider - "Lasa" ga abokansa - ya kware a cikin psychoacoustics, filin da ya danganta yanayin tunani na tunani, auna ma'auni, da ilimin lissafi na sauti. Mun ambace shi a takaice a baya - shi mai ba da shawara ne a sauraron karar FCC akan Hush-a-Phone a cikin 1950s. Ya inganta fasaharsa a dakin gwaje-gwajen ilimin halin dan Adam na Harvard a lokacin yakin, yana bunkasa fasahohin da ke inganta sautin watsa rediyo a cikin masu tayar da bama-bamai.

Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider, aka Lick

Kamar yawancin masana kimiyya na Amurka na zamaninsa, ya gano hanyoyin da zai hada bukatunsa da bukatun soja bayan yakin, amma ba don yana da sha'awar makamai ko tsaron kasa ba. Akwai manyan hanyoyin samar da kudade na farar hula guda biyu kawai don binciken kimiyya - waɗannan cibiyoyi ne masu zaman kansu waɗanda manyan masana'antu suka kafa a farkon karni: Gidauniyar Rockefeller da Cibiyar Carnegie. Cibiyoyin Kiwon Lafiyar Jama'a na da dala miliyan kaɗan kawai, kuma Cibiyar Kimiyya ta ƙasa an kafa ta ne kawai a cikin 1950, tare da daidaitaccen kasafin kuɗi. A cikin 1950s, wuri mafi kyau don neman kudade don ayyukan kimiyya da fasaha masu ban sha'awa shine Ma'aikatar Tsaro.

Don haka a cikin shekarun 1950, Lick ya shiga dakin gwaje-gwaje na MIT Acoustics, wanda masana kimiyyar lissafi Leo Beranek da Richard Bolt ke gudanarwa kuma ya karbi kusan dukkanin kudadensa daga rundunar sojojin ruwan Amurka. Bayan haka, kwarewarsa ta haɗa hankalin ɗan adam zuwa kayan lantarki ya sa ya zama ɗan takara don sabon aikin tsaron iska na MIT. Shiga cikin rukunin ci gaba"Project Charles", wanda ke da hannu wajen aiwatar da rahoton tsaron iska na kwamitin kwarin, Leake ya dage kan hada da binciken abubuwan dan Adam a cikin aikin, wanda ya sa aka nada shi daya daga cikin daraktocin ci gaban nunin radar a dakin gwaje-gwaje na Lincoln.

A can, a wani lokaci a tsakiyar shekarun 1950, ya ketare hanya tare da Wes Clark da TX-2, kuma nan da nan ya kamu da mu'amalar kwamfuta. Tunanin cikakken iko akan na'ura mai ƙarfi ya burge shi, wanda zai iya magance duk wani aiki da aka ba shi nan take. Ya fara haɓaka ra'ayin ƙirƙirar "alama na mutum da na'ura", haɗin gwiwa tsakanin mutum da kwamfuta, mai iya haɓaka ikon tunani na mutum kamar yadda na'urorin masana'antu ke haɓaka ƙarfinsa na zahiri (shi). Ya kamata a lura cewa Leake ya ɗauki wannan matakin matsakaici, kuma daga baya kwamfutoci za su koyi yin tunani da kansu). Ya lura cewa 85% na lokacin aiki

... an sadaukar da shi da farko ga ayyukan limamai ko na injiniya: bincike, ƙididdigewa, zane, canzawa, ƙayyadaddun ma'ana ko sakamako mai ƙarfi na saitin zato ko hasashe, shirya yanke shawara. Bugu da ƙari, zaɓi na game da abin da yake da bai cancanci gwadawa ba, a cikin abin kunya, an ƙaddara ta hanyar muhawarar damar malamai maimakon basira. Ayyukan da ke ɗaukar mafi yawan lokutan da ake zaton sun sadaukar da tunanin fasaha na iya yin su da kyau ta inji fiye da ta mutane.

Babban ra'ayi bai yi nisa da abin da Vannevar Bush ya bayyana ba ".Memex“Amplifier mai hankali, wanda ya zana kewayensa a shekarar 1945 a cikin littafin “As We May Think”, ko da yake a maimakon cakude na’urorin lantarki da na lantarki, kamar Bush, mun zo ne ga kwamfutoci na dijital zalla. Irin wannan kwamfutar za ta yi amfani da saurinta mai ban mamaki don taimakawa a aikin limaman da ke da alaƙa da kowane aikin kimiyya ko fasaha. Mutane za su iya 'yantar da kansu daga wannan aiki mai kauri kuma su kashe dukkan hankalinsu wajen samar da hasashe, gina ƙira da sanya maƙasudi ga kwamfuta. Irin wannan haɗin gwiwar zai ba da fa'idodi masu ban sha'awa ga duka bincike da tsaron ƙasa, kuma zai taimaka wa masana kimiyyar Amurkawa fiye da na Soviet.

Vannevar Bush's Memex, farkon ra'ayi don tsarin dawo da bayanai ta atomatik don haɓaka hankali

Ba da daɗewa ba bayan wannan taron na seminal, Leak ya kawo sha'awarsa ta kwamfutoci masu hulɗa tare da shi zuwa wani sabon aiki a wani kamfanin tuntuɓar da tsoffin abokan aikinsa, Bolt da Beranek ke gudanarwa. Sun shafe shekaru suna aikin tuntuba na ɗan lokaci tare da aikinsu na ilimi a fannin kimiyyar lissafi; misali, sun yi nazarin acoustics na wani gidan wasan kwaikwayo a Hoboken (New Jersey). Aikin nazartar acoustics na sabon ginin Majalisar Dinkin Duniya da ke New York ya ba su aiki da yawa, don haka suka yanke shawarar barin MIT da yin shawarwari na cikakken lokaci. Ba da daɗewa ba abokin tarayya na uku, Robert Newman ya haɗa su, kuma suka kira kansu Bolt, Beranek da Newman (BBN). A shekara ta 1957 sun girma zuwa matsakaicin matsakaici tare da ma'aikata dozin da yawa, kuma Beranek ya yanke shawarar cewa suna cikin haɗarin saturating kasuwar bincike na acoustic. Ya so ya faɗaɗa ƙwarewar kamfanin fiye da sauti, don rufe cikakken yanayin hulɗar ɗan adam tare da ginin da aka gina, daga wuraren wasan kwaikwayo zuwa motoci, da kuma duk hankula.

Kuma shi, ba shakka, ya bin diddigin tsohon abokin aikin Licklider kuma ya dauke shi aiki a matsayin sabon mataimakin shugaban psychoacoustics. Duk da haka, Beranek bai yi la'akari da sha'awar daji na Lik ba don sarrafa kwamfuta. Maimakon ƙwararren ƙwararren ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararrun ƙwararru, amma mai wa’azin kwamfuta mai sha’awar buɗe idanun wasu. A cikin shekara guda, ya shawo kan Beranek ya fitar da dubun dubatar daloli don siyan kwamfutar, karamar na'urar LGP-30 mai ƙarancin ƙarfi da ɗan kwangilar Ma'aikatar Tsaro ta Librascope ya yi. Ba tare da kwarewar injiniya ba, ya kawo wani tsohon soja na SAGE, Edward Fredkin, don taimakawa wajen kafa na'ura. Duk da cewa kwamfutar ta fi dauke hankalin Lik daga aikinsa na yau da kullun yayin da yake kokarin koyon programming, bayan shekara daya da rabi ya shawo kan abokan huldar sa su kashe karin kudi ($ 150, ko kuma kusan dala miliyan 000 a kudin yau) don siyan kwamfuta mai karfi. : sabuwar PDP-1,25 daga DEC. Leak ya tabbatar wa BBN cewa na’urar kwamfuta na zamani ita ce gaba, kuma ko ta yaya wata rana jarin da suka zuba na gwaninta a wannan fanni zai biya.

Ba da daɗewa ba, Leake, kusan ta hanyar haɗari, ya sami kansa a cikin wani matsayi da ya dace don yada al'adun mu'amala a duk faɗin ƙasar, ya zama shugaban sabuwar hukumar sarrafa kwamfuta ta gwamnati.

Harka

A lokacin yakin cacar baka, kowane mataki yana da nasa martani. Kamar yadda bam ɗin atomic na Soviet na farko ya haifar da ƙirƙirar SAGE, haka ma tauraron dan adam na farko na duniya, wanda USSR ta ƙaddamar a watan Oktoba 1957, ya haifar da ɗimbin ra'ayi a cikin gwamnatin Amurka. Lamarin dai ya kara tabarbare ne da cewa, duk da cewa Tarayyar Soviet ta yi shekaru hudu a baya Amurka kan batun tada bam din nukiliya, amma ta yi tsalle-tsalle a cikin makamin roka, gabanin Amurkawa a tseren zuwa kewayawa (ya zamana ya kasance. kamar wata hudu).

Ɗaya daga cikin martani ga bayyanar Sputnik 1 a cikin 1958 shine ƙirƙirar Hukumar Ayyukan Bincike na Tsaro (ARPA). Ya bambanta da matsakaicin adadin da aka ware don kimiyyar ɗan ƙasa, ARPA ta sami kasafin kuɗi na dala miliyan 520, sau uku tallafin gidauniyar Kimiyya ta ƙasa, wanda ita kanta ta ninka sau uku a matsayin martani ga Sputnik 1.

Duk da cewa Hukumar na iya yin aiki kan manyan ayyukan da Sakataren Tsaron ya ga ya dace, tun da farko an yi niyya ne don mayar da hankalinta ga roka da sararin samaniya - wannan ita ce mayar da martani ga Sputnik 1. ARPA ta ba da rahoto kai tsaye ga Sakataren Tsaro don haka ya sami damar tashi sama da gasa mara amfani da lalata masana'antu don samar da tsari guda, mai inganci don haɓaka shirin sararin samaniyar Amurka. Duk da haka, a gaskiya ma, duk ayyukan da ya yi a wannan yanki ba da daɗewa ba abokan hamayya suka karbe su: Rundunar Sojan Sama ba za ta daina sarrafa makaman roka na soja ba, kuma Dokar Harkokin Jirgin Sama da Sararin Samaniya, da aka sanya hannu a watan Yuli 1958, ta haifar da sabuwar hukumar farar hula. wanda ya karbe dukkan batutuwan da suka shafi sararin samaniya, ba tare da taba makamai ba. Duk da haka, bayan ƙirƙirarsa, ARPA ta sami dalilai na rayuwa yayin da ta sami manyan ayyukan bincike a fannonin kariyar makamai masu linzami da kuma gano gwajin makaman nukiliya. Duk da haka, ya zama dandalin aiki don ƙananan ayyuka waɗanda hukumomin soja daban-daban suke so su bincika. Don haka maimakon kare, sarrafawa ya zama wutsiya.

Aikin ƙarshe da aka zaɓa shine "Aikin Orion", jirgin sama mai na'urar bugun jini na nukiliya ("jirgin fashewa"). ARPA ta daina ba ta kudade a cikin 1959 saboda ba ta iya ganinsa a matsayin wani abu face wani aikin farar hula kawai da ya fado karkashin NASA. Hakanan, NASA ba ta son bata sunan ta mai tsabta ta hanyar shiga cikin makaman nukiliya. Rundunar sojin sama ta yi jinkirin jefa wasu kudade don ci gaba da aikin, amma a ƙarshe ya mutu bayan yarjejeniyar 1963 da ta haramta gwajin makaman nukiliya a sararin samaniya ko sararin samaniya. Kuma yayin da ra'ayin ya kasance mai ban sha'awa a fasaha, yana da wuya a yi tunanin kowace gwamnati ta ba da haske mai haske don harba roka mai cike da dubban bama-bamai na nukiliya.

Farkon ARPA a cikin kwamfutoci ya zo ne kawai saboda buƙatar wani abu da za a sarrafa. A cikin 1961, Rundunar Sojan Sama tana da kadarori biyu marasa aiki a hannunta waɗanda ke buƙatar lodi da wani abu. Yayin da cibiyoyin gano SAGE na farko suka kusa kai farmaki, Rundunar Sojan Sama ta hayar da Kamfanin RAND na Santa Monica, California, don horar da ma'aikata da samar da cibiyoyin tsaron iska na kwamfuta ashirin da ashirin da shirye-shiryen sarrafawa. Don yin wannan aikin, RAND ya haifar da sabon mahalli, Kamfanin Haɓaka Tsarin (SDC). Kwarewar software na SDC da aka samu yana da mahimmanci ga Sojan Sama, amma aikin SAGE yana ƙarewa kuma ba su da wani abu mafi kyau da za su yi. Kadara ta biyu maras amfani ita ce ragi mai tsadar gaske AN/FSQ-32 kwamfuta wacce aka buƙata daga IBM don aikin SAGE amma daga baya aka ga ba lallai ba ne. DoD ta warware matsalolin biyu ta hanyar ba ARPA sabon aikin bincike mai alaka da cibiyoyin umarni da kyautar $ 6 miliyan don SDC don nazarin matsalolin cibiyar umarni ta amfani da Q-32.

Ba da daɗewa ba ARPA ta yanke shawarar tsara wannan shirin na bincike a zaman wani ɓangare na sabon Sashen Binciken Sarrafa Bayanai. Kusan lokaci guda, sashen ya sami sabon aiki - don ƙirƙirar shirin a fagen ilimin halayyar ɗabi'a. Yanzu ba a san ko wane dalili ba, amma gudanarwa ta yanke shawarar hayar Licklider a matsayin darektan shirye-shiryen biyu. Wataƙila shi ne ra'ayin Gene Fubini, darektan bincike a Ma'aikatar Tsaro, wanda ya san Leake daga aikinsa a kan SAGE.

Kamar Beranek a zamaninsa, Jack Ruina, a lokacin shugaban ARPA, bai san abin da ke tattare da shi ba lokacin da ya gayyaci Lik don yin hira. Ya yi imani yana samun ƙwararrun ɗabi'a tare da wasu ilimin kimiyyar kwamfuta. Maimakon haka, ya ci karo da cikakken ikon ra'ayoyin mutum-kwamfuta symbiosis. Leake ya bayar da hujjar cewa cibiyar kula da na'ura mai kwakwalwa za ta buƙaci kwamfutoci masu mu'amala, don haka dole ne babban direban shirin binciken ARPA ya zama ci gaba a ƙarshen fasahar sadarwa. Kuma ga Like wannan yana nufin raba lokaci.

Rarraba lokaci

Tsarin raba lokaci ya fito daga ainihin ƙa'ida ɗaya kamar jerin Wes Clark's TX: ya kamata kwamfutoci su kasance masu sauƙin amfani. Amma ba kamar Clark ba, masu ba da ra'ayi na raba lokaci sun yi imanin cewa mutum ɗaya ba zai iya amfani da kwamfutar gaba ɗaya yadda ya kamata ba. Mai bincike na iya zama na tsawon mintuna da yawa yana nazarin abubuwan da ke fitowa daga shirin kafin yin ɗan ƙaramin canji a gare shi ya sake gudanar da shi. Kuma a cikin wannan tazarar, kwamfutar ba za ta yi wani abu ba, mafi girman ƙarfinta zai zama marar aiki, kuma zai yi tsada. Ko da tazara tsakanin maɓallai na ɗaruruwan mil daƙiƙa guda kamar babban ramin ɓata lokaci na kwamfuta wanda za a iya yin dubban ƙididdiga.

Duk wannan ikon kwamfuta ba lallai bane ya lalace idan ana iya raba shi tsakanin masu amfani da yawa. Ta hanyar rarraba hankalin kwamfutar ta yadda za ta yi wa kowane mai amfani hidima, mai ƙirar kwamfuta zai iya kashe tsuntsaye biyu da dutse ɗaya - ya samar da tunanin kwamfuta mai mu'amala gaba ɗaya ƙarƙashin ikon mai amfani ba tare da bata yawancin ƙarfin sarrafa kayan masarufi masu tsada ba.

An tsara wannan ra'ayi a cikin SAGE, wanda zai iya ba da dama ga masu aiki daban-daban a lokaci guda, tare da kowannensu yana kula da nasa sashin sararin samaniya. Bayan ganawa da Clark, Leake nan da nan ya ga yuwuwar haɗawa da rabuwar mai amfani na SAGE tare da 'yanci na hulɗar TX-0 da TX-2 don ƙirƙirar sabon cakuda mai ƙarfi wanda ya kafa tushen shawararsa na ɗan adam-kwamfuta symbiosis, wanda. ya gabatar da shi ga Ma'aikatar Tsaro a cikin takardarsa ta 1957. Tsarin hikima na gaske, ko Gaba ga na'ura mai haɗaka / tsarin tunanin ɗan adam" [Sage Turanci. - sage / kusan. fassara.]. A cikin wannan takarda ya bayyana tsarin na'ura mai kwakwalwa ga masana kimiyya mai kama da tsarin SAGE, tare da shigarwa ta hanyar bindiga mai haske, da kuma "amfani da lokaci guda (saurin saurin lokaci) na na'ura mai kwakwalwa da kuma ajiyar damar da mutane da yawa."

Duk da haka, Leake da kansa ba shi da ƙwarewar injiniya don ƙira ko gina irin wannan tsarin. Ya koyi tsarin shirye-shirye daga BBN, amma iyakar iyawarsa kenan. Mutum na farko da ya fara aiwatar da ka'idar raba lokaci a aikace shine John McCarthy, masanin lissafi a MIT. McCarthy yana buƙatar samun dama ga kwamfuta akai-akai don ƙirƙirar kayan aiki da ƙira don sarrafa dabaru na lissafi-matakan farko, in ji shi, zuwa ga hankali na wucin gadi. A cikin 1959, ya gina wani samfuri wanda ya ƙunshi na'ura mai ma'amala da aka toshe a kan kwamfutar jami'ar IBM 704 mai sarrafa batch. Abin ban mamaki, farkon "na'urar raba lokaci" tana da na'ura mai kwakwalwa guda ɗaya kawai - Flexowriter teletypewriter.

Amma a farkon shekarun 1960, sashin injiniya na MIT ya zo ga buƙatar saka hannun jari sosai a cikin kwamfuta mai hulɗa. Duk dalibi da malamin da ke sha'awar shirye-shirye sun kamu da kwamfuta. sarrafa bayanan batch yayi amfani da lokacin kwamfuta sosai, amma ya bata lokacin masu bincike da yawa - matsakaicin lokacin sarrafa aiki akan 704 ya fi kwana guda.

Don nazarin tsare-tsare na dogon lokaci don biyan buƙatun haɓaka albarkatun ƙididdiga, MIT ta kira kwamitin jami'a wanda masu ba da shawara na raba lokaci suka mamaye. Clark ya ba da hujjar cewa motsi zuwa hulɗar ba yana nufin raba lokaci ba. A cikin sharuddan aiki, in ji shi, raba lokaci yana nufin kawar da nunin bidiyo na mu'amala da hulɗar lokaci-lokaci-muhimman abubuwan aikin da yake aiki akai a MIT Biophysics Lab. Amma a matakin da ya fi mahimmanci, Clark ya bayyana yana da zurfin ƙin yarda na falsafa game da ra'ayin raba wurin aikinsa. Har zuwa 1990, ya ƙi haɗa kwamfutarsa ​​da Intanet, yana da'awar cewa cibiyoyin sadarwa "bug" ne kuma "ba su aiki."

Shi da dalibansa sun kafa “al’adar al’adu,” ƙaramin ci gaba a cikin al’adun ilimin kimiyyar kwamfuta mai zurfi. Duk da haka, hujjojinsu na ƙananan wuraren aiki waɗanda ba sa buƙatar raba wa kowa ba su gamsar da abokan aikinsu ba. Idan aka yi la'akari da farashin ko da mafi ƙarancin kwamfutoci guda ɗaya a lokacin, wannan tsarin ya zama kamar rashin ƙarfi ga sauran injiniyoyi. Bugu da ƙari, yawancin a lokacin sun yi imanin cewa kwamfutoci - masana'antun wutar lantarki na zamani na zamani na zamani - za su ci gajiyar tattalin arziki mai girma, kamar yadda kamfanonin wutar lantarki suka amfana. A cikin bazara na 1961, rahoton ƙarshe na kwamitin ya ba da izinin ƙirƙirar manyan tsarin raba lokaci a matsayin wani ɓangare na ci gaban MIT.

A lokacin, Fernando Corbato, wanda aka fi sani da "Corby" ga abokan aikinsa, ya riga ya yi aiki don haɓaka gwajin McCarthy. Ya kasance masanin kimiyyar lissafi ta hanyar horarwa, kuma ya koyi game da kwamfutoci yayin da yake aiki a Whirlwind a 1951, yayin da yake karatun digiri a MIT (daya tilo daga cikin dukkan mahalarta wannan labarin don tsira - a cikin Janairu 2019 ya kasance 92). Bayan ya kammala digirin digirgir, ya zama ma’aikacin gudanarwa a sabuwar cibiyar MIT da aka kafa, wadda aka gina a kan wani IBM 704. Corbato da tawagarsa (asali Marge Merwin da Bob Daly, manyan masu tsara shirye-shirye na cibiyar) sun kira tsarin raba lokaci CTSS (. Tsarin Raba Lokaci Mai Jiha, "tsarin raba lokaci mai jituwa") - saboda yana iya aiki tare tare da tsarin aiki na yau da kullun na 704, yana ɗaukar hawan kwamfuta ta atomatik don masu amfani idan an buƙata. Idan ba tare da wannan daidaito ba, aikin ba zai iya yin aiki ba saboda Corby ba shi da kuɗi don siyan sabuwar kwamfuta wacce za ta gina tsarin raba lokaci a kanta daga karce, kuma ayyukan sarrafa batch ɗin da ake da su ba za a iya rufe su ba.

A ƙarshen 1961, CTSS na iya tallafawa tashoshi huɗu. A shekara ta 1963, MIT ta sanya kwafin CTSS guda biyu akan injunan IBM 7094 da aka canjawa wuri wanda farashinsu ya kai dalar Amurka miliyan 3,5, kusan ninki 10 karfin ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya da ikon sarrafawa na 704s da suka gabata. Software na sa ido ya zagaya ta hanyar masu amfani da aiki, yana yiwa kowane ɗayansu hidima na tsawon daƙiƙa guda kafin tafiya zuwa na gaba. Masu amfani za su iya adana shirye-shirye da bayanai don amfani da su daga baya a cikin yankin ma'ajiya na faifai mai kariya ta kalmar sirri.

Corbato sanye da rigar baka na sa hannu a cikin dakin kwamfuta mai IBM 7094

Corby ya bayyana yadda raba lokaci ke aiki, gami da jerin gwano mai mataki biyu, a cikin watsa shirye-shiryen talabijin na 1963.

Kowace kwamfuta na iya amfani da kusan tashoshi 20. Wannan ya isa ba kawai don tallafawa wasu ƙananan dakuna biyu ba, har ma don rarraba hanyar shiga kwamfuta a cikin Cambridge. Corby da sauran injiniyoyi masu mahimmanci suna da nasu tashoshi a ofishin, kuma a wani lokaci MIT ta fara samar da tashoshi na gida ga ma'aikatan fasaha ta yadda za su iya aiki akan tsarin bayan sa'o'i ba tare da tafiya zuwa aiki ba. Duk tashoshi na farko sun ƙunshi na'ura mai jujjuyawar rubutu mai iya karanta bayanai da fitar da su ta hanyar layin tarho, da buga takardar ciyarwa mai ci gaba. Modem ɗin sun haɗa tashoshi na tarho zuwa na'ura mai zaman kanta a harabar MIT, ta inda za su iya sadarwa tare da kwamfutar CTSS. Don haka kwamfutar ta fadada hankalinta ta hanyar wayar tarho da sigina waɗanda suka canza daga dijital zuwa analog da dawowa. Wannan shi ne matakin farko na haɗa kwamfutoci tare da hanyar sadarwar sadarwa. An sauƙaƙe haɗin kai ta hanyar AT&T mahalli mai rikitarwa. Har yanzu ana kayyade tushen hanyar sadarwar, kuma ana buƙatar kamfanin ya samar da layukan da aka yi hayar a kan ƙayyadaddun farashi, amma wasu shawarwari na FCC sun lalata ikon da kamfanin ke da shi a kan gefen, kuma kamfanin ba shi da wani ra'ayi game da haɗa na'urori zuwa layinsa. Don haka, MIT ba ta buƙatar izini ga tashoshi.

Tashar kwamfuta ta yau da kullun daga tsakiyar 1960s: IBM 2741.

Babban makasudin Licklider, McCarthy, da Corbato shine ƙara samun ikon sarrafa kwamfuta ga masu bincike ɗaya. Sun zaɓi kayan aikin su da rarraba lokaci don dalilai na tattalin arziki: babu wanda zai iya tunanin siyan nasu kwamfutar ga kowane mai bincike a MIT. Koyaya, wannan zaɓin ya haifar da illolin da ba a yi niyya ba waɗanda ba za a iya gane su ba a cikin tsarin mutum ɗaya, na kwamfuta ɗaya na Clark. Tsarin fayil ɗin da aka raba da kuma jujjuya bayanan asusun masu amfani sun ba su damar raba, haɗin kai, da haɓaka aikin juna. A cikin 1965, Noel Morris da Tom van Vleck sun haɓaka haɗin gwiwa da sadarwa ta hanyar ƙirƙirar shirin MAIL, wanda ya ba masu amfani damar musayar saƙonni. Lokacin da mai amfani ya aika saƙo, shirin ya sanya shi zuwa fayil ɗin akwatin saƙo na musamman a yankin fayil ɗin mai karɓa. Idan wannan fayil ɗin ba komai bane, shirin LOGIN zai nuna saƙon "KA ANA DA WASIQA." Abubuwan da ke cikin injin sun zama bayanan ayyukan al'umma na masu amfani, kuma wannan yanayin zamantakewa na raba lokaci a MIT ya zo da daraja sosai kamar ainihin ra'ayin amfani da kwamfuta.

tsaba da aka watsar

Leake, yarda da tayin ARPA kuma ya bar BBN ya jagoranci sabon ofishin ARPA na Fasahar Fasaha (IPTO) a 1962, cikin sauri ya fara aiwatar da abin da ya alkawarta: mayar da hankali kan kokarin bincike na lissafi na kamfanin kan yadawa da inganta kayan aikin raba lokaci da software. Ya yi watsi da tsarin da aka saba yi na sarrafa shawarwarin bincike da za su zo kan teburinsa ya shiga cikin filin da kansa, ya jawo hankalin injiniyoyi su kirkiro shawarwarin bincike da zai so ya amince.

Matakinsa na farko shine sake saita aikin bincike na yanzu a cibiyoyin umarni na SDC a Santa Monica. Umurni ya zo daga ofishin Lick a SDC don auna mayar da ƙoƙarin wannan bincike da kuma mayar da hankali kan mayar da kwamfutar SAGE da ba ta da yawa zuwa tsarin raba lokaci. Leake ya yi imanin cewa dole ne a fara aza harsashin musayar lokaci tsakanin injina, kuma cibiyoyin umarni za su zo daga baya. Cewa irin wannan fifikon ya zo daidai da bukatun falsafancinsa kawai haɗari ne na farin ciki. Jules Schwartz, tsohon soja na aikin SAGE, yana haɓaka sabon tsarin raba lokaci. Kamar CTSS na zamani, ya zama wurin taro na kama-da-wane, kuma umarninsa sun haɗa da aikin DIAL don aika saƙonnin rubutu na sirri daga mai amfani zuwa wani - kamar yadda a cikin misali mai zuwa tsakanin Jon Jones da id 9 mai amfani.

DIAL 9 WANNAN SHINE JOHN Jones, INA BUKATAR 20K DOMIN LOKACIN PROGNA.
DAGA 9 ZAMU IYA SAMUN KU A CIKIN MINTI 5.
DAGA 9 CI GABA DA DAYA

DIAL 9 WANNAN SHINE JOHN JONES INA BUKATAR 20K DOMIN FARA SHIRIN
DAGA 9 ZAMU IYA BAKU SU A CIKIN MINTI 5
DAGA 9 GABATARWA

Sa'an nan, don tabbatar da kudade don ayyukan raba lokaci na gaba a MIT, Licklider ya sami Robert Fano don jagorantar aikin flagship: Project MAC, wanda ya tsira a cikin 1970s (MAC yana da raguwa da yawa - "lissafi da lissafi", "kwamfutar samun dama" , "sani tare da taimakon na'ura" [Mathematics And Computation, Multiple-Access Computer, Machine-Aided Cognition]). Ko da yake masu haɓakawa sun yi fatan sabon tsarin zai iya tallafawa aƙalla masu amfani da 200 a lokaci guda, ba su yi la'akari da ƙayyadaddun ƙayyadaddun software masu amfani ba, wanda ke ɗaukar duk wani ci gaba a cikin sauri da ingancin kayan aiki. Lokacin da aka ƙaddamar da shi a MIT a cikin 1969, tsarin zai iya tallafawa kusan masu amfani da 60 ta amfani da na'urorin sarrafawa guda biyu na tsakiya, wanda shine kusan adadin masu amfani da na'ura mai sarrafawa kamar CTSS. Duk da haka, jimlar yawan masu amfani ya fi girma fiye da matsakaicin yuwuwar nauyi - a cikin watan Yuni 1970, masu amfani 408 sun riga sun yi rajista.

Manhajar tsarin aikin, mai suna Multics, ta yi fahariya da wasu manyan gyare-gyare, wasu daga cikinsu har yanzu ana la’akari da su a cikin tsarin aiki na yau: tsarin fayil ɗin tsarin bishiya mai tsari tare da manyan fayiloli waɗanda za su iya ƙunshi wasu manyan fayiloli; rabuwa da hukuncin kisa daga mai amfani da kuma tsarin a matakin hardware; haɗin kai mai ƙarfi na shirye-shirye tare da loda kayan aikin shirye-shiryen yayin aiwatarwa kamar yadda ake buƙata; ikon ƙara ko cire CPUs, bankunan ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya ko diski ba tare da rufe tsarin ba. Ken Thompson da Dennis Ritchie, masu shirya shirye-shirye akan aikin Multics, daga baya sun ƙirƙiri Unix OS (wanda sunansa ke nufin magabata) don kawo wasu daga cikin waɗannan ra'ayoyin zuwa mafi sauƙi, ƙananan tsarin kwamfuta [Sunan "UNIX" (asali "Unics" ) an samo shi daga "Multics". "U" a cikin UNIX ya tsaya ga "Uniplexed" sabanin "Multiplexed" da ke ƙarƙashin sunan Multics, don haskaka ƙoƙarin masu ƙirƙira UNIX na ƙaura daga rikitattun tsarin Multics don samar da hanya mafi sauƙi kuma mafi inganci.] .

Lick ya shuka iri na ƙarshe a Berkeley, a Jami'ar California. An fara shi a cikin 1963, Project Genie12 ya haifar da Tsarin Lokaci na Berkeley, ƙarami, kwafin MAC mai ma'amala da kasuwanci. Kodayake yawancin malaman jami'o'i ne ke gudanar da shi, a zahiri ɗalibi Mel Peirtle ne ke gudanar da shi, tare da taimakon wasu ɗalibai - musamman Chuck Tucker, Peter Deutsch, da Butler Lampson. Wasu daga cikinsu sun riga sun kamu da kwayar cutar mu'amala a Cambridge kafin su isa Berkeley. Deutsch, ɗan farfesa na kimiyyar lissafi na MIT kuma mai sha'awar ƙirar kwamfuta, ya aiwatar da yaren shirye-shiryen Lisp akan Digital PDP-1 tun yana matashi kafin ya zama ɗalibi a Berkeley. Lampson ya shirya PDP-1 a Cambridge Electron Accelerator yayin da yake dalibi a Harvard. Pairtle da tawagarsa sun ƙirƙiri tsarin raba lokaci akan SDS 930 wanda Scientific Data Systems suka kirkira, sabon kamfani na kwamfuta da aka kafa a Santa Monica a 1961 (ci gaban fasaha da ke faruwa a Santa Monica a wancan lokacin na iya zama batun gabaɗayan daban. Kasidar. gudumawar da aka samu ga fasahar kwamfuta ta ci gaba a cikin shekarun 1960 ta RAND Corporation, SDC, da SDS, dukkansu suna da hedikwata a can).

SDS ya haɗa software na Berkeley cikin sabon ƙirarsa, SDS 940. Ya zama ɗaya daga cikin shahararrun tsarin kwamfuta na raba lokaci a ƙarshen 1960s. Tymshare da Comshare, waɗanda suka yi ciniki da raba lokaci ta hanyar siyar da sabis na kwamfuta mai nisa, sun sayi ɗimbin SDS 940. Pyrtle da tawagarsa kuma sun yanke shawarar gwada hannunsu a kasuwar kasuwanci kuma suka kafa Berkeley Computer Corporation (BCC) a cikin 1968, amma a lokacin koma bayan tattalin arziki. na 1969-1970 ya shigar da karar fatarar kudi. Yawancin ƙungiyar Peirtle sun ƙare a Cibiyar Bincike ta Palo Alto ta Xerox (PARC), inda Tucker, Deutsch, da Lampson suka ba da gudummawa ga ayyuka masu ban sha'awa da suka haɗa da aikin Alto na sirri, cibiyoyin sadarwa na gida, da firinta na laser.

Mel Peirtle (tsakiya) kusa da Tsarin Lokaci na Berkeley

Tabbas, ba kowane aikin raba lokaci ba daga shekarun 1960 ya kasance godiya ga Licklider. Labaran abin da ke faruwa a MIT da Lincoln Laboratories sun bazu ta hanyar adabi na fasaha, taro, haɗin ilimi, da canjin aiki. Godiya ga waɗannan tashoshi, wasu tsaba, waɗanda iska ke ɗauke da su, sun sami tushe. A Jami'ar Illinois, Don Bitzer ya sayar da tsarinsa na PLATO ga Ma'aikatar Tsaro, wanda ya kamata ya rage farashin horon fasaha ga ma'aikatan soja. Clifford Shaw ya kirkiro tsarin JOHNNIAC Open Shop System (JOSS) na Rundunar Sojan Sama don inganta ikon ma'aikatan RAND don gudanar da bincike na lambobi cikin sauri. Tsarin raba lokaci na Dartmouth yana da alaƙa kai tsaye da abubuwan da suka faru a MIT, amma in ba haka ba aikin ne na musamman, wanda fararen hula daga Gidauniyar Kimiyya ta ƙasa suka ba da tallafi gaba ɗaya a ƙarƙashin tsammanin cewa ƙwarewar kwamfuta za ta zama wani muhimmin ɓangare na ilimin shugabannin Amurka. na gaba tsara.

Ya zuwa tsakiyar 1960s, raba lokaci bai riga ya mamaye yanayin yanayin kwamfuta ba. Kasuwancin sarrafa batch na gargajiya sun mamaye duka tallace-tallace da shaharar su, musamman a wajen harabar kwaleji. Amma har yanzu ya sami alkuki.

ofishin Taylor

A lokacin rani na 1964, kimanin shekaru biyu bayan isa ARPA, Licklider ya sake canza ayyuka, wannan lokacin ya koma cibiyar bincike ta IBM a arewacin New York. Ya gigita da asarar kwangilar MAC na Project ga abokin hamayyar mai kera kwamfuta General Electric bayan shekaru masu kyau da MIT, Leake ya ba IBM kwarewarsa ta farko na yanayin da ke da alama yana wucewa kamfanin. Ga Leake, sabon aikin ya ba da dama don mayar da tushe na ƙarshe na sarrafa batch na gargajiya zuwa sabon bangaskiyar hulɗar juna (amma hakan bai yi nasara ba - Leake an tura shi a bango, kuma matarsa ​​​​ta sha wahala, keɓe a cikin Yorktown Heights. Ya koma ofishin IBM na Cambridge, sannan ya koma MIT a 1967 ya shugabanci Project MAC).

An maye gurbinsa a matsayin shugaban IPTO ta Ivan Sutherland, matashin ƙwararren masani na kwamfuta, wanda Robert Taylor ya maye gurbinsa a 1966. Takardar Lick ta 1960 mai suna "Symbiosis of Man and Machine" ta mayar da Taylor ta zama mai imani a cikin sarrafa kwamfuta, kuma shawarar Lick ta kawo shi ARPA bayan ya yi aiki a takaice kan shirin bincike a NASA. Halinsa da gogewarsa sun sanya shi zama kamar Leake fiye da Sutherland. Masanin ilimin halayyar dan adam ta hanyar horarwa, ba shi da ilimin fasaha a fagen kwamfyuta, amma ya rama rashin himma da kwarin gwiwa da jagoranci.

Wata rana, yayin da Taylor yake ofishinsa, sabon shugaban IPTO da aka nada yana da ra'ayi. Ya zauna a tebur tare da tashoshi daban-daban guda uku waɗanda suka ba shi damar sadarwa tare da tsarin raba lokaci guda uku na ARPA da ke cikin Cambridge, Berkeley da Santa Monica. A lokaci guda kuma, ba a haɗa su da juna ba - don canja wurin bayanai daga wannan tsarin zuwa wani, dole ne ya yi shi da kansa, a jiki, yana amfani da jikinsa da tunaninsa.

Kwayoyin da Licklider ya jefa sun ba da 'ya'ya. Ya kirkiro wata jama'a ta ma'aikatan IPTO da suka girma zuwa wasu cibiyoyin kwamfuta da yawa, kowannensu ya haifar da ƴan ƙaramin al'umma na masana na'ura mai kwakwalwa da suka taru a kusa da wutar lantarki ta hanyar raba lokaci. Taylor ya yi tunanin lokaci ya yi da za a haɗa waɗannan cibiyoyin tare. Tsarin su na zamantakewa da fasaha na kowane mutum, idan an haɗa su, za su iya samar da wani nau'i na superorganism, rhizomes wanda zai bazu ko'ina cikin nahiyar, yana sake haifar da fa'idodin zamantakewa na raba lokaci akan sikelin mafi girma. Kuma da wannan tunanin ne aka fara yaƙe-yaƙe na fasaha da na siyasa waɗanda suka haifar da ƙirƙirar ARPANET.

Me kuma za a karanta

• Richard J. Barber Associates, Babban Cibiyar Ayyukan Bincike, 1958-1974 (1975)
• Katie Hafner da Matthew Lyon, Inda Wizards suka tsaya Late: Asalin Intanet (1996)
• Severo M. Ornstein, Kwamfuta a Tsakanin Zamani: Ra'ayi Daga Trenches, 1955-1983 (2002)
• M. Mitchell Waldrop, Injin Mafarki: JCR Licklider da Juyin Juya Halin da Ya Yi Kwamfuta Na Musamman (2001)

source: www.habr.com