Sauran labarai a cikin jerin:
- Tarihin relay
- Tarihin kwamfutocin lantarki
- Tarihin transistor
- Tarihin Intanet
Gilashin yaƙin ya kafa hanyar zuwan transistor. Daga 1939 zuwa 1945, ilimin fasaha a fagen semiconductor ya fadada sosai. Kuma akwai wani dalili mai sauƙi na wannan: radar. Mafi mahimmancin fasahar yaƙi, misalan su sun haɗa da: gano hare-haren jiragen sama, neman jiragen ruwa na karkashin ruwa, kai hare-haren jiragen sama da daddare zuwa ga hare-hare, kai hari ga tsarin tsaro na iska da bindigogin ruwa. Har ma injiniyoyi sun koyi yadda ake yi wa ƙanana radars ɗin takalma a cikin harsashi don su fashe yayin da suke tashi kusa da wurin da aka nufa. . Koyaya, tushen wannan sabuwar fasahar soja mai ƙarfi ta kasance a cikin mafi kwanciyar hankali: nazarin yanayin sama don dalilai na kimiyya.
Radar
A cikin 1901, Kamfanin Watsa Labarai na Marconi Wireless Telegraph ya sami nasarar isar da saƙon mara waya a cikin Tekun Atlantika, daga Cornwall zuwa Newfoundland. Wannan hujja ta haifar da ilimin zamani cikin rudani. Idan watsa shirye-shiryen rediyo suna tafiya a madaidaiciyar layi (kamar yadda ya kamata), irin wannan watsawar yakamata ya zama mai yiwuwa. Babu wani layi na kai tsaye tsakanin Ingila da Kanada da ba ya ketare duniya, don haka sakon Marconi ya tashi zuwa sararin samaniya. Injiniyan Ba’amurke Arthur Kennealy da masanin kimiyyar lissafi na Burtaniya Oliver Heaviside a lokaci guda kuma sun ba da shawarar cewa bayanin wannan lamari dole ne a danganta shi da wani nau'in iskar gas mai ionized da ke cikin sararin sama, wanda zai iya nuna raƙuman radiyo a baya zuwa Duniya (Marconi da kansa ya yi imanin cewa raƙuman rediyo. bi lankwashewar saman Duniya, duk da haka, masana kimiyya ba su goyi bayansa ba).
A cikin shekarun 1920, masana kimiyya sun kirkiro sabbin kayan aiki wanda ya ba da damar da farko a tabbatar da wanzuwar ionosphere sannan a yi nazarin tsarinsa. Sun yi amfani da bututun ruwa don samar da bugun rediyo na gajeriyar igiyar ruwa, eriya na jagora don aika su cikin sararin samaniya da rikodin amsawar, da don nuna sakamakon. Da tsayin jinkirin dawowar echo, nisa da ionosphere dole ne ya kasance. Ana kiran wannan fasaha ta sautin yanayi, kuma ta samar da kayan aikin fasaha na yau da kullum don haɓaka radar (kalmar "radar", daga RAdio Detection And Ranging, bai bayyana ba sai 1940s a cikin sojojin ruwa na Amurka).
Lokaci ne kawai kafin mutanen da ke da ilimin da suka dace, albarkatu da kwarin gwiwa su gane yuwuwar aikace-aikacen ƙasa na irin waɗannan kayan aikin (don haka tarihin radar ya saba da tarihin na'urar hangen nesa, wanda aka fara yi niyya don amfani da ƙasa). . Kuma yiwuwar irin wannan hangen nesa ya karu yayin da rediyo ke yaduwa a duniya, kuma mutane da yawa sun lura da tsangwama daga jiragen ruwa, jiragen sama da sauran manyan abubuwa. Ilimin fasahar sautin yanayi na sama ya bazu a lokacin na biyu (1932-1933), lokacin da masana kimiyya suka tsara taswirar ionosphere daga tashoshin Arctic daban-daban. Ba da daɗewa ba, ƙungiyoyi a Biritaniya, Amurka, Jamus, Italiya, USSR da sauran ƙasashe sun haɓaka tsarin radar mafi sauƙi.
tare da radar 1935
Sai yakin ya faru, kuma muhimmancin radar ga kasashe - da albarkatun da za a bunkasa su - ya karu sosai. A cikin Amurka, waɗannan albarkatun sun taru a kusa da sabuwar ƙungiya da aka kafa a 1940 a MIT, wanda aka sani da (an yi suna ne musamman don a yaudari ƴan leƙen asirin ƙasashen waje da kuma haifar da tunanin cewa ana nazarin aikin rediyo a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje - a wancan lokacin mutane kaɗan ne suka yi imani da bama-bamai na atomic). Aikin Rad Lab, wanda bai yi suna kamar na Manhattan Project ba, duk da haka ya ɗauki fitattun masana kimiyyar lissafi da hazaka daga ko'ina cikin Amurka zuwa cikin sahu. Biyar daga cikin ma'aikatan farko na dakin gwaje-gwaje (ciki har da и ) daga baya ya sami lambar yabo ta Nobel. A karshen yakin, kimanin likitoci 500 na kimiyya, masana kimiyya da injiniyoyi sun yi aiki a dakin gwaje-gwaje, kuma mutane 4000 sun yi aiki. Rabin dala miliyan - kwatankwacin duk kasafin kudin ENIAC - an kashe shi a kan Tsarin dakin gwaje-gwaje na Radiation kadai, rikodin juzu'i ashirin da bakwai na duk ilimin da aka samu daga dakin gwaje-gwaje a lokacin yakin (duk da cewa kashe kudaden da gwamnatin Amurka ke kashewa kan fasahar radar ba ta da iyaka. zuwa kasafin kudin Rad Lab; a lokacin yakin gwamnati ta sayi radar dala biliyan uku).
Ginin MIT 20, inda Rad Lab yake
Ɗaya daga cikin manyan wuraren bincike na Rad Lab shine radar mai saurin mita. Radar farko sun yi amfani da tsayin daka wanda aka auna cikin mita. Amma mafi girma-mita katako mai tsayin raƙuman raƙuman ruwa da aka auna cikin santimita-microwaves-an ba da izinin ƙarin eriya mai ƙarfi kuma ba su warwatse a kan dogon nesa, suna yin alƙawarin fa'ida mafi girma a cikin kewayo da daidaito. Radar Microwave na iya shiga cikin hancin jirgin sama kuma su gano abubuwa girman periscope na jirgin ruwa.
Wanda ya fara magance wannan matsalar ita ce tawagar masana kimiyyar lissafi ta Burtaniya daga Jami’ar Birmingham. A 1940 sun ci gaba "", wanda yayi aiki kamar na'urar lantarki ta "whistle", yana mai da bugun wutar lantarki bazuwar zuwa wani haske mai ƙarfi da daidaitaccen katako na microwaves. Wannan na'urar watsawa ta microwave ta kasance mafi ƙarfi sau dubu fiye da abokin hamayyarsa na kusa; ya ba da hanya ga masu watsa radar mai saurin gaske. Duk da haka, yana buƙatar abokin tarayya, mai karɓa mai iya gano manyan mitoci. Kuma a wannan lokaci za mu koma ga tarihin semiconductor.
Magnetron giciye-sashe
Zuwan na biyu na whisker cat
Ya bayyana cewa kwata-kwata tubes ba su dace da karɓar siginar radar microwave ba. Rata tsakanin zafi cathode da sanyi anode haifar da wani capacitance, sa da'irar ya ƙi yin aiki a high mita. Mafi kyawun fasaha da ake samu don radar mai ƙarfi shine tsohuwar zamani ""- wata karamar waya da aka matse a kan kristal semiconductor. Mutane da yawa sun gano wannan da kansu, amma mafi kusancin labarinmu shine abin da ya faru a New Jersey.
A cikin 1938, Bell Labs ya yi kwangila tare da Navy don haɓaka radar sarrafa wuta a cikin kewayon 40 cm - ya fi guntu, sabili da haka mafi girma a mitar, fiye da radar da ake da su a zamanin magnetron da aka rigaya. Babban aikin bincike ya je sashin dakunan gwaje-gwaje a Holmdel, kudu da tsibirin Staten. Ba a dau lokaci mai tsawo ba masu binciken sun gano abin da za su bukata don samun mai karɓar mai yawan gaske, kuma ba da daɗewa ba injiniya George Southworth ya zazzage shagunan rediyo a Manhattan don tsofaffin masu gano cat-whisker. Kamar yadda aka zata, ya yi aiki da kyau fiye da na'urar gano fitila, amma ba ta da ƙarfi. Don haka Southworth ya nemi wani masanin kimiyyar lantarki mai suna Russell Ohl kuma ya tambaye shi ya yi ƙoƙarin inganta daidaiton martanin mai gano crystal mai maki ɗaya.
Ol ya kasance mutum ne na musamman, wanda ya ɗauki haɓakar fasaha a matsayin makomarsa, kuma ya yi magana game da hangen nesa na lokaci-lokaci tare da hangen nesa na gaba. Alal misali, ya bayyana cewa a shekara ta 1939 ya san abin da za a yi a nan gaba na na'urar amplifier na silicon, amma wannan ƙaddarar ta kasance ga wani mutum ya ƙirƙira ta. Bayan yayi nazarin zaɓuɓɓuka da yawa, ya zauna akan silicon a matsayin mafi kyawun abu ga masu karɓar Southworth. Matsalar ita ce ikon sarrafa abubuwan da ke cikin kayan don sarrafa kayan lantarki. A wancan lokacin, masana'antun silicon ingots sun yadu, ana amfani da su a masana'antar karfe, amma a irin wannan samarwa babu wanda ya damu da abun ciki na 1% phosphorus a cikin silicon. Da yake neman taimakon wasu ma'aikatan ƙarfe, Ol ya shirya don samun mafi tsafta fiye da yadda ake yi a baya.
Yayin da suke aiki, sun gano cewa wasu daga cikin lu'ulu'unsu sun gyara halin yanzu a wata hanya, wasu kuma suna gyara halin yanzu a daya. Sun kira su "n-type" da "p-type". Ƙarin bincike ya nuna cewa nau'ikan ƙazanta daban-daban ne ke da alhakin waɗannan nau'ikan. Silicon yana cikin ginshiƙi na huɗu na tebur na lokaci-lokaci, ma'ana yana da electrons guda huɗu a cikin harsashinsa na waje. A cikin siliki mai tsabta, kowane ɗayan waɗannan electrons zai haɗu tare da maƙwabci. Najasa daga shafi na uku, in ji boron, wanda ke da ƙarancin lantarki ɗaya, ya haifar da “rami,” ƙarin sarari don motsi na yanzu a cikin crystal. Sakamakon ya kasance nau'in p-type semiconductor (tare da wuce haddi na tabbataccen caji). Abubuwa daga shafi na biyar, kamar su phosphorus, sun ba da ƙarin electrons kyauta don ɗaukar halin yanzu, kuma an sami nau'in semiconductor na nau'in n.
Crystal tsarin silicon
Duk wannan binciken ya kasance mai ban sha'awa sosai, amma a shekara ta 1940 Southworth da Ohl ba su da kusanci da ƙirƙirar samfurin aiki na radar mai ƙarfi. A lokaci guda kuma, gwamnatin Burtaniya ta bukaci sakamako mai amfani cikin gaggawa saboda barazanar da ke kunno kai daga kamfanin Luftwaffe, wanda ya riga ya haifar da shirye-shiryen samar da injin na'ura mai kwakwalwa wanda ke aiki tare da masu watsa magnetron.
Koyaya, ma'auni na ci gaban fasaha zai dosa nan ba da jimawa ba zuwa yammacin Tekun Atlantika. Churchill ya yanke shawarar bayyana duk sirrin fasaha na Biritaniya ga Amurkawa kafin ya shiga yakin (tunda ya dauka hakan zai faru). Ya yi imanin cewa ya cancanci haɗarin leken asirin, tun lokacin da duk ƙarfin masana'antu na Amurka za a jefa shi cikin magance matsaloli kamar makaman nukiliya da radars. Ofishin Jakadancin Kimiyya da Fasaha na Burtaniya (wanda aka fi sani da ) ta isa Washington a watan Satumba 1940 kuma ta kawo kayanta kyauta a cikin nau'i na al'ajabi na fasaha.
Gano ƙarfin ban mamaki na magnetron mai resonant da tasiri na masu gano kristal na Biritaniya wajen karɓar siginar sa ya sake farfado da binciken Amurka a cikin na'urori masu ɗaukar nauyi a matsayin tushen radar mai ƙarfi. Akwai ayyuka da yawa da za a yi, musamman a fannin kimiyyar kayan aiki. Don biyan buƙatu, lu'ulu'u na semiconductor "dole ne a samar da su cikin miliyoyin, fiye da yadda ake yuwuwa a baya. Ya zama dole a inganta gyarawa, da rage ƙwannafi da ƙonawa, da rage bambance-bambance tsakanin batches na lu'ulu'u daban-daban. "
Silicon Point Contact Rectifier
Rad Lab ya buɗe sabbin sassan bincike don nazarin kaddarorin lu'ulu'u na semiconductor da kuma yadda za'a iya canza su don haɓaka kyawawan kaddarorin masu karɓa. Abubuwan da suka fi dacewa sune silicon da germanium, don haka Rad Lab ya yanke shawarar yin wasa da shi lafiya kuma ya ƙaddamar da shirye-shirye masu kama da juna don nazarin duka biyu: silicon a Jami'ar Pennsylvania da germanium a Purdue. Kattai na masana'antu irin su Bell, Westinghouse, Du Pont, da Sylvania sun fara shirye-shiryen bincike na semiconductor kuma sun fara haɓaka sabbin wuraren masana'anta don masu gano crystal.
Ta hanyar yunƙurin haɗin gwiwa, an ɗaga tsaftar siliki da lu'ulu'u na germanium daga 99% a farkon zuwa 99,999% - wato, ƙwayar ƙazanta ɗaya a cikin 100 atom. A cikin tsari, wani cadre na masana kimiyya da injiniyoyi sun kasance sun saba da ƙayyadaddun kaddarorin germanium da silicon da kuma amfani da fasahar sarrafa su: narkewa, lu'ulu'u masu girma, ƙara ƙazantattun abubuwa (irin su boron, wanda ya karu).
Daga nan kuma yakin ya kare. Bukatar radar ta bace, amma ilimi da basirar da aka samu a lokacin yakin sun kasance, kuma ba a manta da mafarkin na'urar amplifier mai ƙarfi ba. Yanzu tseren shine ƙirƙirar irin wannan amplifier. Kuma aƙalla ƙungiyoyi uku sun kasance cikin kyakkyawan yanayi don lashe wannan kyautar.
West Lafayette
Na farko rukuni ne daga Jami'ar Purdue karkashin jagorancin wani masanin kimiyyar lissafi haifaffen Austriya mai suna Carl Lark-Horowitz. Shi kadai ne ya fitar da sashen ilimin kimiyyar lissafi na jami’ar daga cikin duhun kai ta hanyar hazakarsa da tasirinsa sannan ya yi tasiri kan shawarar da Rad Lab ta yanke na baiwa dakin bincikensa amanar binciken germanium.
Carl Lark-Horowitz a 1947, cibiyar, rike da bututu
A farkon shekarun 1940, an dauki silicon a matsayin mafi kyawun abu don gyara radar, amma kayan da ke ƙasa da shi akan tebur na lokaci-lokaci shima ya cancanci ƙarin bincike. Germanium yana da fa'ida mai amfani saboda ƙarancin narkewa, wanda ya sauƙaƙe aiki tare da: kusan digiri 940, idan aka kwatanta da digiri 1400 na silicon (kusan daidai da ƙarfe). Saboda babban maƙarƙashiya, yana da matuƙar wahala a yi wani fanko wanda ba zai zubo cikin narkakkar siliki ba, yana gurɓata shi.
Saboda haka, Lark-Horowitz da abokan aikinsa sun shafe tsawon yakin suna nazarin sinadarai, lantarki da kayan jiki na germanium. Mafi mahimmancin cikas shine "bayar da wutar lantarki": masu gyara germanium, a ƙananan ƙarfin lantarki, sun daina gyara halin yanzu kuma sun bar shi ya gudana ta hanyar da aka saba. Juyin juya halin yanzu ya ƙone sauran abubuwan da ke cikin radar. Daya daga cikin daliban Lark-Horowitz, Seymour Benzer, ya yi nazarin wannan matsala fiye da shekara guda, kuma a karshe ya samar da wani abin da ake hadawa da gwangwani wanda ya daina juyar da bugun jini a karfin wutar lantarki har zuwa daruruwan volts. Ba da daɗewa ba, Western Electric, sashin masana'antar Bell Labs, ya fara ba da na'urorin gyara Benzer don amfani da sojoji.
Nazarin germanium a Purdue ya ci gaba bayan yakin. A cikin watan Yuni 1947, Benzer, wanda ya riga ya zama farfesa, ya ba da rahoton wani abu mai ban mamaki: a wasu gwaje-gwajen, ƙananan oscillations sun bayyana a cikin lu'ulu'u na germanium. Kuma abokin aikinsa Ralph Bray ya ci gaba da yin nazarin "juriya na juriya" akan aikin da aka fara a lokacin yakin. Juriyar ƙara ya bayyana yadda wutar lantarki ke gudana a cikin kristal germanium a wurin tuntuɓar mai gyarawa. Bray ya gano cewa babban ƙarfin wutan lantarki yana rage juriya na nau'in germanium na n-nau'i ga waɗannan igiyoyin ruwa. Ba tare da ya sani ba, ya shaida wanda ake kira. 'yan tsiraru' masu caji. A cikin nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'in nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i nau'i) nau'i-nau'i-nau'i. .
Bray da Benzer sun zo kusa da amplifier na germanium ba tare da sun sani ba. Benzer ya kama Walter Brattain, masanin kimiyyar Bell Labs, a wani taro a cikin Janairu 1948 don tattaunawa game da jan hankali tare da shi. Ya ba da shawarar cewa Brattain ya sanya wata lamba ta gaba kusa da na farko wanda zai iya gudanar da halin yanzu, sannan za su iya fahimtar abin da ke faruwa a ƙasa. Brattain a nutse ya amince da wannan shawara ya tafi. Kamar yadda za mu gani, ya san da kyau abin da irin wannan gwaji zai iya bayyanawa.
Daya-sous-Bois
Ƙungiyar Purdue tana da duka fasaha da tushen ka'idar don yin tsalle zuwa transistor. Amma za su iya tuntuɓe a kai ta hanyar haɗari. Sun kasance masu sha'awar abubuwan da ke cikin jiki na kayan, kuma ba a cikin binciken sabon nau'in na'ura ba. Wani yanayi na daban ya yi galaba a Aunes-sous-Bois (Faransa), inda tsoffin masu binciken radar biyu daga Jamus, Heinrich Welker da Herbert Mathare, suka jagoranci ƙungiyar da burinsu shine ƙirƙirar na'urori masu sarrafa masana'antu.
Welker ya fara karatu sannan kuma ya koyar da ilimin kimiyyar lissafi a Jami'ar Munich, wanda shahararren masanin ra'ayi Arnold Sommerfeld ke gudanarwa. Tun 1940, ya bar wata hanya ta ka'ida kawai kuma ya fara aiki akan radar don Luftwaffe. Mathare (an asalin Belgium) ya girma ne a Aachen, inda ya karanta ilimin kimiyyar lissafi. Ya shiga sashen bincike na babbar gidan rediyon Jamus Telefunken a 1939. A lokacin yakin, ya motsa aikinsa daga Berlin gabas zuwa abbey a Silesia don kauce wa hare-haren jiragen sama na Allied, sannan ya koma yamma don kauce wa ci gaban Red Army, daga bisani ya fada hannun sojojin Amurka.
Kamar abokan hamayyarsu a cikin haɗin gwiwar Anti-Hitler, Jamusawa sun san a farkon shekarun 1940 cewa masu gano kristal sun kasance masu karɓar radar, kuma silicon da germanium sune kayan da suka fi dacewa don ƙirƙirar su. Mathare da Welker sun yi ƙoƙari a lokacin yaƙi don inganta ingantaccen amfani da waɗannan kayan a cikin masu gyara. Bayan yakin, dukansu sun fuskanci tambayoyi na lokaci-lokaci game da aikin soja, kuma daga bisani sun sami gayyata daga jami'in leken asirin Faransa zuwa Paris a 1946.
Compagnie des Freins & Signaux ("kamfanin birki da sigina"), wani yanki na Faransa na Westinghouse, ya karɓi kwangila daga hukumar tarho ta Faransa don ƙirƙirar ƙwararrun masu gyara ƙasa kuma ya nemi masanan Jamusanci don taimaka musu. Irin wannan ƙawance na abokan gaba na baya-bayan nan na iya zama kamar baƙon abu, amma wannan tsarin ya kasance mai kyau ga ɓangarorin biyu. Faransawan da aka ci nasara a shekarar 1940, ba su da ikon samun ilimi a fannin na'ura mai kwakwalwa, kuma suna matukar bukatar basirar Jamusawa. Jamusawan ba su iya aiwatar da ci gaba a duk wani fage na fasaha na zamani a cikin ƙasar da aka mamaye da yaƙi, don haka suka yi tsalle suka sami damar ci gaba da aiki.
Welker da Mathare sun kafa hedkwatarsu a wani gida mai hawa biyu a unguwar Aunes-sous-Bois na Paris, kuma tare da taimakon gungun masu fasaha, sun yi nasarar ƙaddamar da gyaran germanium a ƙarshen 1947. Daga nan sai suka koma ga mafi tsanani. kyaututtuka: Welker ya koma ga sha'awar sa na manyan masu gudanarwa, da Mathare zuwa amplifiers.
Herbert Mathare a 1950
A lokacin yakin, Mathare yayi gwaji tare da masu gyara lamba biyu - "duodeodes" - a ƙoƙarin rage hayaniyar da'ira. Ya ci gaba da gwaje-gwajensa kuma nan da nan ya gano cewa whisker na cat na biyu, wanda yake da nisan mil 1/100 na mita daga farkon, wani lokaci yana iya canza yanayin halin yanzu da ke gudana ta barayin farko. Ya ƙirƙiri ƙaƙƙarfan ƙaramar yanayi, ko da yake mara amfani. Don cimma ƙarin abin dogara, ya juya zuwa Welker, wanda ya sami kwarewa mai yawa tare da lu'ulu'u na germanium a lokacin yakin. Ƙungiyar Welker ta girma, samfurori mafi tsabta na lu'ulu'u na germanium, kuma yayin da ingancin kayan ya inganta, Mathare point amplifiers ya zama abin dogara a watan Yuni 1948.
Hoton X-ray na "transistron" bisa tsarin Mathare, wanda ke da maki biyu na lamba tare da germanium.
Mathare har ma yana da tsarin ƙayyadaddun abin da ke faruwa: ya yi imanin cewa tuntuɓar ta biyu ta sanya ramuka a cikin germanium, yana haɓaka nassi na yanzu ta hanyar tuntuɓar ta farko, tana ba da masu ɗaukar kaya kaɗan. Welker bai yarda da shi ba, kuma ya yi imanin cewa abin da ke faruwa ya dogara da wani nau'i na tasirin filin. Duk da haka, kafin su iya fitar da na'urar ko ka'idar, sun koyi cewa gungun Amurkawa sun ɓullo da ra'ayi iri ɗaya - na'urar amplifier na germanium mai lamba biyu - watanni shida a baya.
Murray Hill
A ƙarshen yaƙin, Mervyn Kelly ya gyara ƙungiyar binciken semiconductor na Bell Labs wanda Bill Shockley ke jagoranta. Aikin ya girma, ya sami ƙarin kuɗi, kuma ya ƙaura daga ginin dakin bincikensa na ainihi a Manhattan zuwa wani babban harabar da ke Murray Hill, New Jersey.
Murray Hill Campus, ca. 1960
Don sake fahimtar kansa da na'urori masu ci gaba (bayan lokacinsa a cikin bincike na aiki a lokacin yakin), Shockley ya ziyarci dakin gwaje-gwaje na Russell Ohl's Holmdel a cikin bazara na 1945. Ohl ya shafe shekarun yaki yana aiki akan silicon kuma bai ɓata lokaci ba. Ya nuna Shockley wani danyen amplifier na ginin kansa, wanda ya kira "masoyi." Ya ɗauki mai gyara tuntuɓar wurin siliki ya aika da halin yanzu daga baturin ta cikinsa. A bayyane yake, zafi daga baturi ya rage juriya a duk inda ake tuntuɓar, kuma ya juya mai gyara zuwa wani amplifier mai iya watsa siginar rediyo mai shigowa zuwa da'ira mai ƙarfi wanda zai iya kunna lasifika.
Tasirin ya kasance ɗanyen da ba shi da tabbas, bai dace da kasuwanci ba. Duk da haka, ya isa ya tabbatar da ra'ayin Shockley cewa yana yiwuwa a ƙirƙiri na'urar amplifier na semiconductor, kuma wannan ya kamata a ba da fifiko ga bincike a fannin kayan lantarki mai ƙarfi. Har ila yau, wannan ganawa da tawagar Ola ne ya tabbatar wa Shockley cewa ya kamata a fara nazarin silicon da germanium. Sun baje kolin kaddarorin lantarki masu kayatarwa, kuma abokan aikin Ohl Jack Skaff da Henry Theurer sun sami nasara mai ban mamaki wajen girma, tsarkakewa, da yin amfani da waɗannan lu'ulu'u a lokacin yaƙin, wanda ya zarce duk fasahar da ake samu don sauran kayan aikin semiconductor. Ƙungiyar Shockley ba za ta ƙara ɓata lokaci ba a kan na'urorin haɓaka oxide na jan ƙarfe kafin yaƙi.
Tare da taimakon Kelly, Shockley ya fara haɗa sabuwar ƙungiya. Manyan ƴan wasan sun haɗa da Walter Brattain, wanda ya taimaka wa Shockley tare da ƙoƙarinsa na farko a ƙaƙƙarfan amplifier (a cikin 1940), da John Bardeen, matashin masanin kimiyyar lissafi kuma sabon ma'aikacin Bell Labs. Wataƙila Bardeen ya fi sanin ilimin kimiyyar lissafi mai ƙarfi na kowane memba na ƙungiyar — littafinsa ya bayyana matakan makamashi na electrons a cikin tsarin ƙarfe na sodium. Shi ne kuma wani mai kare John Hasbrouck Van Vleck, kamar Atanasov da Brattain.
Kuma kamar Atanasov, littattafan Bardeen da Shockley sun buƙaci ƙididdiga masu rikitarwa. Dole ne su yi amfani da ka'idar injina ta jimla ta semiconductor, wanda Alan Wilson ya ayyana, don ƙididdige tsarin makamashin kayan ta amfani da kalkuleta na tebur na Monroe. Ta hanyar taimakawa wajen ƙirƙirar transistor, a zahiri, sun ba da gudummawa don ceton ɗaliban da suka kammala digiri na gaba daga irin wannan aikin.
Hanyar farko ta Shockley zuwa ƙaƙƙarfan amplifier na jiha ya dogara da abin da aka kira daga baya "". Ya dakatar da farantin karfe a kan nau'in semiconductor na nau'in n (tare da ƙarin cajin mara kyau). Aiwatar da tabbataccen cajin farantin yana jawo ɗimbin electrons zuwa saman kristal, ƙirƙirar kogin caji mara kyau wanda wutar lantarki zai iya gudana cikin sauƙi. Siginar haɓakawa (wanda ke wakilta ta matakin caji akan wafer) ta wannan hanya zai iya daidaita babban kewayawa (wucewa tare da saman na'ura mai kwakwalwa). An nuna masa ingancin wannan makirci ta hanyar ilimin ilimin kimiyyar lissafi. Amma, duk da gwaje-gwaje da gwaje-gwaje da yawa, shirin bai taɓa yin aiki ba.
A watan Maris na 1946, Bardeen ya ƙirƙiri ingantaccen ka'idar da ta bayyana dalilin haka: saman na'ura mai kwakwalwa a matakin ƙididdiga yana nuna bambanci da na cikinsa. Zarge-zarge marasa kyau da aka zana zuwa saman sun zama tarko a cikin "jihohin saman" kuma suna toshe filin lantarki daga shiga farantin cikin kayan. Sauran ƴan ƙungiyar sun sami wannan bincike mai ban sha'awa, kuma sun ƙaddamar da sabon shirin bincike ta hanyoyi uku:
- Tabbatar da wanzuwar jihohin saman.
- Yi nazarin kadarorin su.
- Yi la'akari da yadda za a kayar da su kuma sanya shi aiki .
Bayan shekara daya da rabi na bincike da gwaji, a ranar 17 ga Nuwamba, 1947, Brattain ya yi nasara. Ya gano cewa idan ya sanya wani ruwa mai cike da ion, kamar ruwa, tsakanin wafer da semiconductor, wutar lantarki daga wafer ɗin zai tura ion ɗin zuwa ga semiconductor, inda za su kawar da cajin da aka kama a cikin ƙasa. Yanzu yana iya sarrafa halayen lantarki na wani siliki ta hanyar canza cajin akan wafer. Wannan nasarar ta ba Bardeen ra'ayi don sabon hanyar ƙirƙirar amplifier: kewaye wurin tuntuɓar na'urar tare da ruwan electrolyte, sa'an nan kuma yi amfani da waya ta biyu a cikin ruwa don sarrafa yanayin saman, don haka sarrafa matakin conductivity na babban. tuntuɓar. Don haka Bardeen da Brattain sun kai ga ƙarshe.
Tunanin Bardeen yayi aiki, amma haɓakawa ya kasance mai rauni kuma ana sarrafa shi a ƙananan mitoci marasa isa ga kunnen ɗan adam - don haka ba shi da amfani azaman ƙararrawar tarho ko rediyo. Bardeen ya ba da shawarar canzawa zuwa germanium mai jurewa mai jurewa da aka samar a Purdue, yana mai imani cewa ƙarancin cajin zai tattara akan saman sa. Ba zato ba tsammani sun sami karuwa mai ƙarfi, amma a gaba da gaba daga abin da ake tsammani. Sun gano tasirin ƴan tsirarun masu ɗaukar nauyi - maimakon electrons ɗin da ake tsammani, ana ƙara haɓakar da ke gudana ta germanium ta ramukan da ke fitowa daga electrolyte. A halin yanzu a kan waya a cikin electrolyte ya haifar da nau'in p-type (yankin da ya wuce kima mai kyau) akan saman nau'in germanium.
Gwaje-gwajen da suka biyo baya sun nuna cewa ba a buƙatar electrolyte kwata-kwata: kawai ta hanyar sanya wuraren tuntuɓar juna biyu kusa da saman germanium, yana yiwuwa a canza yanayin yanzu daga ɗayansu zuwa na yanzu akan ɗayan. Don kusantar da su kamar yadda zai yiwu, Brattain ya nannade wani foil na zinari a kusa da wani yanki na filastik mai kusurwa uku sannan kuma a hankali yanke foil a ƙarshen. Sa'an nan, ta yin amfani da maɓuɓɓugar ruwa, ya danna triangle a kan germanium, sakamakon haka gefuna biyu na yanke ya taɓa samansa a nesa na 0,05 mm. Wannan ya ba Bell Labs' transistor samfurin siffa ta musamman:
Brattain da Bardeen transistor samfur
Kamar na'urar Mathare da Welker, ya kasance, bisa ƙa'ida, wani al'ada ce ta "cat's whisker", kawai tare da maki biyu na lamba maimakon ɗaya. A ranar 16 ga Disamba, ya haifar da karuwa mai yawa a cikin wutar lantarki da ƙarfin lantarki, da kuma mitar 1000 Hz a cikin kewayon sauti. Mako guda bayan haka, bayan ƙananan gyare-gyare, Bardeen da Brattain sun ƙara ƙarfin wutar lantarki da sau 100 da kuma iko da sau 40, kuma sun nuna wa shugabannin Bell cewa na'urar su na iya samar da magana mai ji. John Pierce, wani memba na ƙungiyar ci gaban ƙasa mai ƙarfi, ya ƙirƙira kalmar "transistor" bayan sunan Bell's copper oxide rectifier, varistor.
A cikin watanni shida masu zuwa, dakin gwaje-gwaje ya ɓoye sabon halitta. Gudanarwa na son tabbatar da cewa sun fara kasuwanci da transistor kafin wani ya samu hannun sa. An shirya taron manema labarai a ranar 30 ga Yuni, 1948, a daidai lokacin da za a wargaza mafarkin Welker da Mathare na rashin mutuwa. A halin yanzu, ƙungiyar binciken semiconductor ta rushe a hankali. Bayan jin labarin abubuwan da Bardeen da Brattain suka yi, shugabansu Bill Shockley, ya fara aiki don ɗaukar duk abin da yabo ga kansa. Kuma ko da yake ya taka rawar gani kawai, Shockley ya sami daidai, idan ba haka ba, talla a cikin gabatarwar jama'a - kamar yadda aka gani a cikin wannan hoton da aka fitar a cikin lokacin farin ciki, kusa da wani benci na lab:
Hoton tallata 1948 - Bardeen, Shockley da Brattain
Koyaya, suna daidai bai isa Shockley ba. Kuma kafin kowa a wajen Bell Labs ya san game da transistor, ya shagaltu da sake ƙirƙira shi don kansa. Kuma wannan shi ne kawai na farko na yawancin irin wannan ƙirƙira.
Me kuma za a karanta
- Robert Buderi, Ƙirƙirar Ƙirƙirar Duniya (1996)
- Michael Riordan, "Yadda Turai Ta Keɓance Transistor," IEEE Spectrum (Nuwamba. 1, 2005)
- Michael Riordan da Lillian Hoddeson, Crystal Fire (1997)
- Armand Van Dormael, "Transistor 'Faransa'," (1994)
source: www.habr.com