🥇 Tarihin Transistor, Sashe na 3: Sabbin Ƙirƙirar Maɗaukaki Masu Yawa

Sauran labarai a cikin jerin:

Sama da shekaru ɗari, karen analog ɗin yana waƙar wutsiya ta dijital. Ƙoƙarin faɗaɗa ƙarfin hankalinmu - hangen nesa, ji, har ma, a wata ma'ana, taɓawa - jagoranci injiniyoyi da masana kimiyya don nemo ingantattun abubuwa don telegraphs, tarho, rediyo da radar. Sai da sa'a kawai wannan binciken ya gano hanyar ƙirƙirar sabbin nau'ikan injunan dijital. Kuma na yanke shawarar ba da labarin wannan akai-akai exaptation, a lokacin da injiniyoyin sadarwa ke ba da kayan aikin kwamfutoci na farko na dijital, kuma wani lokacin ma sukan kera su da kera waɗannan kwamfutocin da kansu.

Amma a cikin shekarun 1960, wannan haɗin gwiwar mai albarka ya ƙare, kuma tare da shi labarina. Masu kera na'urorin dijital ba za su sake duba duniyar telegraph, tarho da rediyo don sababbin, ingantattun musaya ba, tunda transistor da kansa ya samar da tushen ci gaba mara ƙarewa. Shekara bayan shekara sun yi zurfi da zurfi, koyaushe suna neman hanyoyin haɓaka sauri da rage farashi.

Duk da haka, babu ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan da zai faru da ƙirƙira na transistor ya tsaya a aikin Bardeen da Brattain.

Sannu a hankali

Akwai 'yar sha'awa a cikin shahararrun 'yan jarida don sanarwar Bell Labs na ƙirƙirar transistor. A ranar 1 ga Yuli, 1948, jaridar New York Times ta keɓe sakin layi guda uku ga taron da ke ƙasan rahoton Labaran Rediyo. Bugu da ƙari, wannan labarin ya bayyana bayan wasu, a fili an dauke shi mafi mahimmanci: alal misali, gidan rediyo na tsawon sa'a "Waltz Time", wanda ya kamata ya bayyana akan NBC. A cikin hangen nesa, muna iya son yin dariya, ko ma tsawata wa marubutan da ba a san su ba - ta yaya suka kasa gane lamarin da ya juya duniya?

Amma hangen nesa yana karkatar da hasashe, yana haɓaka sigina waɗanda muka san muhimmancin su sun ɓace a cikin tekun hayaniya a lokacin. Transistor na 1948 ya sha bamban da transistor na kwamfutocin da kuke karanta wannan labarin a kansu (sai dai idan kun yanke shawarar buga shi). Sun bambanta sosai, duk da suna ɗaya, da kuma layin gadon da ba a warware su ba, ya kamata a la'akari da su nau'i daban-daban, idan ba jinsin daban ba. Suna da nau'o'i daban-daban, nau'i daban-daban, ka'idodin aiki daban-daban, ba tare da ma'anar babban bambanci a girman ba. Ta hanyar sabuntawa akai-akai ne kawai na'urar da Bardeen da Brattain suka gina zai iya canza duniya da rayuwarmu.

A zahiri, transistor germanium mai lamba ɗaya bai cancanci kulawa fiye da yadda aka samu ba. Yana da lahani da yawa da aka gada daga bututun injin. Ya kasance, ba shakka, ya fi ƙanƙanta fiye da mafi ƙarancin fitilu. Rashin filament mai zafi yana nufin cewa yana samar da ƙananan zafi, yana cinye makamashi kaɗan, ba ya ƙonewa, kuma baya buƙatar dumi kafin amfani.

Duk da haka, tarin datti a kan hanyar sadarwa ya haifar da gazawa kuma ya yi watsi da yiwuwar tsawon rayuwar sabis; ya ba da sigina mai surutu; yayi aiki kawai a ƙananan iko kuma a cikin kewayon mitar kunkuntar; kasa a gaban zafi, sanyi ko zafi; kuma ba za a iya samar da ita iri ɗaya ba. Yawancin transistor da aka ƙirƙira ta hanya ɗaya ta mutane ɗaya zasu sami nau'ikan lantarki daban-daban. Kuma duk wannan ya zo a kan farashi sau takwas na daidaitaccen fitila.

Sai a 1952 Bell Labs (da sauran masu riƙe da haƙƙin mallaka) sun warware matsalolin masana'anta da suka isa transistor-point su zama na'urori masu amfani, kuma har ma ba su yaɗu da yawa fiye da kasuwar taimakon ji, inda hankalin farashin ya yi ƙasa kaɗan. .kuma amfanin ta fuskar rayuwar batir ya zarce rashin amfani.

Duk da haka, to, an riga an fara ƙoƙari na farko don juya transistor zuwa wani abu mafi kyau kuma mafi amfani. Haƙiƙa sun fara tun da wuri fiye da lokacin da jama'a suka sami labarin kasancewarsa.

Burin Shockley

A ƙarshen 1947, Bill Shockley ya yi tafiya zuwa Chicago cikin tsananin farin ciki. Yana da ra'ayoyi mara kyau game da yadda za a doke Bardeen da Brattain da suka ƙirƙira transistor kwanan nan, amma har yanzu bai sami damar haɓaka su ba. Don haka maimakon jin daɗin hutu tsakanin matakan aiki, ya yi Kirsimeti da Sabuwar Shekara a otal, yana cika shafuka 20 na littafin rubutu tare da ra'ayoyinsa. Daga cikin su akwai shawara don sabon transistor wanda ya ƙunshi sandwich semiconductor - yanki na nau'in germanium mai nau'in p-a tsakanin guda biyu na nau'in n.

Da yake samun kwarin guiwa da wannan dan wasan ya hau hannun riga, Shockley ya yi da'awar Bardeen da Brattain don komawar su Murray Hill, yana mai da'awar duk abin da ya dace don ƙirƙirar transistor. Shin ba ra'ayinsa bane na tasirin filin ne ya sa Bardeen da Brattain cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje? Shin wannan ba zai sa ya zama dole a mika masa dukkan haƙƙoƙin mallaka ba? Koyaya, dabarar Shockley ta ci tura: Lauyoyin Bell Labs sun gano cewa wanda ba a san shi ba, Julius Edgar Lilienfeld, ya ba da izinin amplifier filin tasirin semiconductor kusan shekaru 20 a baya, a cikin 1930. Lilienfeld, ba shakka, bai taɓa aiwatar da ra'ayinsa ba, idan aka ba da yanayin kayan a wancan lokacin, amma haɗarin haɗuwa ya yi yawa - yana da kyau a guje wa ambaton gaba ɗaya. tasirin filin a patent

Don haka, ko da yake Bell Labs ya ba Shockley wani kaso mai karimci na darajar wanda ya ƙirƙira, amma kawai sun sanya sunan Bardeen da Brattain a cikin patent. Duk da haka, abin da aka yi ba za a iya warware shi ba: Burin Shockley ya lalata dangantakarsa da wasu biyu. Bardeen ya daina aiki akan transistor kuma ya maida hankali akan superconductivity. Ya bar dakunan gwaje-gwaje a cikin 1951. Brattain ya kasance a can, amma ya ƙi sake yin aiki tare da Shockley, kuma ya nace a canja shi zuwa wata ƙungiya.

Saboda rashin iya aiki da sauran mutane, Shockley bai taba samun wani ci gaba a dakunan gwaje-gwaje ba, don haka ya bar wurin. A cikin 1956, ya koma gida zuwa Palo Alto don kafa kamfanin transistor na kansa, Shockley Semiconductor. Kafin ya tafi, ya rabu da matarsa Jean a lokacin da take murmurewa daga ciwon daji na mahaifa, kuma ya shiga cikin Emmy Lanning, wanda ba da daɗewa ba ya yi aure. Amma daga cikin rabi biyu na mafarkinsa na California - sabon kamfani da sabuwar mata - daya ne kawai ya cika. A cikin 1957, mafi kyawun injiniyoyinsa, waɗanda suka fusata da salon tafiyar da shi da kuma alkiblar da yake ɗaukan kamfani, sun bar shi ya sami sabon kamfani mai suna Fairchild Semiconductor.

Shockley a shekarar 1956

Don haka Shockley ya watsar da ɓangarorin kamfaninsa kuma ya ɗauki aiki a sashen injiniyan lantarki a Stanford. A nan ya ci gaba da raba abokan aikinsa (da babban abokinsa, masanin kimiyyar lissafi Fred Seitz ne adam wata) theories na kabilanci lalata da sha'awar shi da tsaftar launin fata - batutuwan da ba su da farin jini a Amurka tun bayan ƙarshen yaƙin da ya gabata, musamman a fannin ilimi. Ya ji dadin tada husuma, bulala a kafafen yada labarai da haddasa zanga-zanga. Ya mutu a cikin 1989, ba tare da 'ya'yansa da abokan aikinsa ba, kuma matarsa ta biyu mai sadaukarwa, Emmy ce kawai ta ziyarce shi.

Kodayake yunƙurinsa na rashin ƙarfi na kasuwancin ya gaza, Shockley ya shuka iri a cikin ƙasa mai albarka. Yankin San Francisco Bay ya samar da ƙananan kamfanonin lantarki da yawa, waɗanda aka yi amfani da su tare da kudade daga gwamnatin tarayya a lokacin yakin. Fairchild Semiconductor, zuriyar Shockley ta bazata, ta haifar da ɗimbin sababbin kamfanoni, waɗanda har yanzu ana san su biyun: Intel da Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). A farkon shekarun 1970, yankin ya sami sunan barkwanci "Silicon Valley." Amma jira minti daya - Bardeen da Brattain sun kirkiro transistor na germanium. Daga ina silicon ya fito?

Wannan shine abin da rukunin Mountain View da aka watsar wanda a da yake da Shockley Semiconductor yayi kama da 2009. A yau an rushe ginin.

Zuwa Hanyar Silicon Crossroad

Ƙaddamar wani sabon nau'in transistor, wanda Shockley ya ƙirƙira a wani otal na Chicago, ya fi na wanda ya ƙirƙira shi farin ciki. Duk godiya ce ga sha'awar mutum ɗaya don girma guda ɗaya, tsantsar lu'ulu'u na semiconductor. Gordon Teal, masanin kimiyyar jiki daga Texas wanda ya yi nazarin germanium mara amfani a lokacin don digirinsa, ya ɗauki aiki a Bell Labs a cikin 30s. Bayan ya koyi game da transistor, sai ya gamsu cewa amincinsa da ƙarfinsa za a iya inganta shi sosai ta hanyar ƙirƙirar shi daga kristal mai tsafta, maimakon daga gaurayen polycrystalline sannan aka yi amfani da su. Shockley ya ƙi ƙoƙarinsa a matsayin ɓarnatar albarkatu.

Duk da haka, Teal ya dage kuma ya samu nasara, tare da taimakon injiniyan injiniya John Little, ya ƙirƙira wata na'urar da ke fitar da ɗan ƙaramin iri na crystal daga narkakken germanium. Yayin da germanium ya sanyaya a kusa da tsakiya, ya faɗaɗa tsarinsa na crystal, yana haifar da ci gaba kuma kusan tsattsauran raƙuman raƙuman ruwa. A cikin bazara na 1949, Teal da Little na iya ƙirƙirar lu'ulu'u don yin oda, kuma gwaje-gwaje sun nuna cewa sun yi nisa a baya ga masu fafatawa na polycrystalline. Musamman ma, ƙananan masu jigilar kaya da aka ƙara musu za su iya rayuwa a ciki har na daƙiƙa ɗari ko ma fiye da haka (ba tare da fiye da microseconds goma ba a cikin wasu samfuran crystal).

Yanzu Teal zai iya samun ƙarin albarkatu, kuma ya ɗauki ƙarin mutane zuwa ƙungiyarsa, daga cikinsu akwai wani masanin kimiyyar jiki wanda ya zo Bell Labs daga Texas - Morgan Sparks. Sun fara canza narke don yin nau'in p-type ko n-type germanium ta hanyar ƙara ƙazanta na ƙazanta masu dacewa. A cikin shekara guda, sun inganta fasaha ta yadda za su iya shuka sandwich npn na germanium kai tsaye a cikin narkewa. Kuma ya yi aiki daidai kamar yadda Shockley ya annabta: siginar lantarki daga nau'in p-type ya canza wutar lantarki tsakanin masu gudanarwa biyu da ke da alaƙa da nau'in n-nau'in da ke kewaye da shi.

Morgan Sparks da Gordon Teal a wurin aiki a Bell Labs

Wannan girma junction transistor ya zarce kakannin tuntuɓar sa guda ɗaya ta kowace hanya. Musamman ma, ya fi abin dogaro da iya tsinkaya, ya samar da hayaniya da yawa (sabili da haka ya fi hankali), kuma yana da ƙarfin kuzari sosai - yana cinye makamashi sau miliyan ƙasa da bututun da aka saba. A cikin Yuli 1951, Bell Labs ya gudanar da wani taron manema labarai don sanar da sabon ƙirƙira. Tun kafin transistor na farko ya sami damar isa kasuwa, ya riga ya zama ba shi da mahimmanci.

Kuma duk da haka wannan shi ne kawai mafari. A cikin 1952, General Electric (GE) ya ba da sanarwar haɓaka sabon tsari don yin junction transistor, hanyar fusion. A cikin tsarin sa, ƙwallaye biyu na indium (mai ba da gudummawa na nau'in p) an haɗa su a ɓangarorin biyu na yanki na bakin ciki na nau'in germanium. Wannan tsari ya kasance mai sauƙi kuma mai rahusa fiye da girma junctions a cikin gami; irin wannan transistor ya ba da ƙarancin juriya kuma yana goyan bayan manyan mitoci.

Girma da fused transistor

A shekara mai zuwa, Gordon Teal ya yanke shawarar komawa jiharsa kuma ya ɗauki aiki a Texas Instruments (TI) a Dallas. An kafa kamfanin a matsayin Geophysical Services, Inc., kuma da farko ya samar da kayan aiki don hako mai, TI ya bude sashin lantarki a lokacin yakin, kuma yanzu yana shiga kasuwar transistor karkashin lasisi daga Western Electric (sashen masana'antu na Bell Labs).

Teal ya zo tare da shi sababbin ƙwarewa da aka koya a cikin dakunan gwaje-gwaje: ikon girma da gami silicon monocrystals. Mafi bayyananne rauni na germanium shine ji na zafin jiki. Lokacin da aka fallasa ga zafi, germanium atoms a cikin crystal da sauri zubar da electrons kyauta, kuma yana ƙara zama madubi. A zafin jiki na 77 ° C ya daina aiki gaba ɗaya kamar transistor. Babban makasudin tallace-tallacen transistor shine soja - mai yuwuwar mabukaci mai ƙarancin farashi da babbar buƙatu na barga, abin dogaro da ƙananan kayan lantarki. Koyaya, germanium mai tsananin zafin jiki ba zai yi amfani ba a yawancin aikace-aikacen soja, musamman a fagen sararin samaniya.

Silicon ya fi kwanciyar hankali, amma ya zo a farashin wani wuri mai narkewa mafi girma, kwatankwacin na karfe. Wannan ya haifar da matsaloli masu yawa, ganin cewa ana buƙatar lu'ulu'u masu tsabta don ƙirƙirar transistor masu inganci. Silikon narkakkar zafi zai shafe gurɓatacce daga duk wani crucible da yake ciki. Teel da tawagarsa a TI sun sami damar shawo kan waɗannan ƙalubalen ta amfani da samfuran silicon mai tsafta daga DuPont. A cikin Mayu 1954, a Cibiyar Injiniya ta Rediyo a Dayton, Ohio, Teal ya nuna cewa sabbin na'urorin silicon da aka samar a cikin dakin gwaje-gwajensa sun ci gaba da aiki ko da lokacin da aka nutsar da su cikin mai.

Nasarar farawa

A ƙarshe, bayan shekaru bakwai da fara ƙirƙira transistor, ana iya yin shi daga kayan da ya zama kamanceceniya da su. Kuma kusan adadin lokaci ɗaya zai shuɗe kafin bayyanar transistor waɗanda ke kama da sifar da ake amfani da su a cikin microprocessors da kwakwalwan ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya.

A cikin 1955, masana kimiyya na Bell Labs sun sami nasarar koyon yin siliki transistor tare da sabuwar fasahar doping - maimakon ƙara ƙwallan ƙazanta masu ƙarfi zuwa narke ruwa, sun gabatar da abubuwan ƙari na gaseous a cikin m saman na semiconductor.thermal yadawa). Ta hanyar sarrafa zafin jiki a hankali, matsa lamba da tsawon lokacin hanya, sun sami daidai zurfin da ake buƙata da matakin doping. Babban iko akan tsarin masana'antu ya ba da iko mafi girma akan kayan lantarki na samfurin ƙarshe. Mafi mahimmanci, yaduwar zafi ya sa ya yiwu a samar da samfurin a cikin batches-zaku iya yin babban katako na silicon sannan ku yanke shi cikin transistor. Sojoji sun ba da kuɗi don dakunan gwaje-gwaje na Bell saboda kafa samarwa yana buƙatar farashi mai girma. Suna buƙatar sabon samfur don hanyar haɗin radar faɗakarwa da sauri ("Layukan raɓa"), jerin tashoshin radar Arctic da aka tsara don gano masu bama-bamai na Soviet da ke tashi daga Arewa Pole, kuma sun kasance a shirye su kashe dala 100 a kowace transistor (wannan shine kwanakin da za a iya sayen sabuwar mota akan $ 2000).

Alloying tare da daukar hoto, wanda ke sarrafa wurin da ƙazanta, ya buɗe yuwuwar etching gaba ɗaya da'irar gabaɗaya a kan madaidaicin madauri guda ɗaya - Fairchild Semiconductor da Texas Instruments sun yi tunanin hakan a 1959.Fasahar Planar" daga Fairchild ya yi amfani da jigon sinadarai na fina-finai na ƙarfe da ke haɗa lambobin lantarki na transistor. Ya kawar da buƙatar ƙirƙirar wayoyi na hannu, rage farashin samarwa da haɓaka aminci.

A ƙarshe, a cikin 1960, injiniyoyi biyu na Bell Labs (John Atalla da Davon Kahn) sun aiwatar da ainihin tunanin Shockley don transistor mai tasirin filin. Wani bakin ciki na oxide akan saman semiconductor ya sami damar murkushe jihohin saman yadda ya kamata, yana haifar da filin lantarki daga ƙofar aluminium don shiga cikin silicon. Don haka aka haifi MOSFET [metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor] (ko tsarin MOS, daga karfe-oxide-semiconductor), wanda ya zama mai sauƙi don rage girman, wanda har yanzu ana amfani dashi a kusan dukkanin kwamfutocin zamani (abin sha'awa). , Atalla ya fito ne daga Masar, kuma Kang ya fito daga Koriya ta Kudu, kuma kusan waɗannan injiniyoyi biyu daga dukan tarihinmu ba su da tushen Turai).

A ƙarshe, bayan shekaru goma sha uku da ƙirƙirar transistor na farko, wani abu mai kama da transistor a cikin kwamfutarka ya bayyana. Ya kasance sauƙin ƙira da amfani da ƙasa da ƙarfi fiye da junction transistor, amma ya yi jinkirin amsa sigina. Sai kawai tare da yaɗuwar manyan na'urori masu haɗaka, tare da ɗaruruwa ko dubban abubuwan da ke kan guntu guda, fa'idodin transistor- tasirin filin ya fito kan gaba.

Misali daga filin tasirin transistor patent

Tasirin filin shine babban gudunmawar da Bell Labs ya bayar na ƙarshe don haɓaka transistor. Manyan masana'antun lantarki irin su Bell Laboratories (tare da Western Electric), General Electric, Sylvania da Westinghouse sun tara adadin bincike mai ban sha'awa na semiconductor. Daga 1952 zuwa 1965, Bell Laboratories kadai sun yi rajistar haƙƙin mallaka sama da ɗari biyu akan wannan batu. Duk da haka kasuwar kasuwancin cikin sauri ta fada hannun sabbin 'yan wasa kamar Texas Instruments, Transitron, da Fairchild.

Kasuwancin transistor na farko ya yi ƙanƙanta don jawo hankalin manyan 'yan wasa: kimanin dala miliyan 18 a shekara a tsakiyar shekarun 1950, idan aka kwatanta da jimillar kasuwar lantarki ta dala biliyan 2. Duk da haka, dakunan gwaje-gwajen bincike na waɗannan ƙattai sun kasance sansanin horo na rashin hankali. inda matasa masana kimiyya za su iya sha ilimin semiconductor kafin su ci gaba da sayar da ayyukansu ga ƙananan kamfanoni. Lokacin da kasuwar bututun lantarki ta fara raguwa sosai a tsakiyar shekarun 1960, ya yi latti don Bell Labs, Westinghouse da sauran su yi gasa tare da masu tasowa.

Canjin kwamfutoci zuwa transistor

A cikin shekarun 1950, transistors sun mamaye duniyar lantarki a manyan yankuna hudu. Biyu na farko sune na'urorin sauraron ji da radiyo masu ɗaukar nauyi, inda ƙarancin wutar lantarki da sakamakon tsawon rayuwar batir ya wuce sauran la'akari. Na uku shine amfani da sojoji. Sojojin Amurka suna da kyakkyawan fata ga transistor a matsayin abin dogaro, ƙananan abubuwan da za a iya amfani da su a cikin komai daga rediyon filin zuwa makamai masu linzami. Koyaya, a farkon kwanakin, kashe kuɗin da suke kashewa akan transistor ya zama kamar fare kan makomar fasaha fiye da tabbatar da ƙimar su a lokacin. Kuma a ƙarshe, akwai kuma kwamfuta na dijital.

A fagen na'ura mai kwakwalwa, an san gazawar injin bututun mai, inda wasu masu shakka kafin yakin har ma sun yi imanin cewa ba za a iya yin na'ura mai kwakwalwa ta kwamfuta ba. Lokacin da aka tattara dubban fitilu a cikin na'ura guda, sun cinye wutar lantarki, suna haifar da zafi mai yawa, kuma dangane da abin dogara, mutum zai iya dogara ne kawai ga ƙonewa na yau da kullum. Don haka, transistor mara ƙarfi, mai sanyi da zare ya zama mai ceton masana'antun kwamfuta. Lalacewarsa azaman amplifier (fitowar amo, alal misali) ba irin wannan matsala bane lokacin amfani dashi azaman canji. Iyakar abin da ya hana shi tsada, kuma nan da nan zai fara faduwa sosai.

Dukkan gwaje-gwajen farko na Amurkawa tare da kwamfutoci masu canzawa sun faru ne a mahadar sha'awar sojoji don gano yuwuwar sabuwar fasaha mai ban sha'awa da kuma sha'awar injiniyoyi don motsawa zuwa ingantattun na'urori.

Bell Labs ya gina TRADIC ga Rundunar Sojan Sama na Amurka a 1954 don ganin ko transistor zai ba da damar shigar da na'ura mai kwakwalwa ta kwamfuta a kan wani bam, wanda ya maye gurbin na'urar kewayawa ta analog da kuma taimakawa wajen gano masu hari. MIT Lincoln Laboratory ya haɓaka kwamfutar TX-0 a matsayin wani ɓangare na babban aikin tsaro na iska a 1956. Na'urar ta yi amfani da wani bambance-bambancen transistor mai shinge na saman, wanda ya dace da babban kwamfuta mai sauri. Philco ya gina kwamfutar ta SOLO a ƙarƙashin kwangila tare da Rundunar Sojan Ruwa (amma a zahiri bisa buƙatar NSA), ya ƙare a 1958 (ta yin amfani da wani bambance-bambancen transistor mai shinge).

A Yammacin Turai, waɗanda ba su da albarkatu a lokacin yakin cacar baka, labarin ya bambanta sosai. Injin kamar Manhajar Transistor Computer, Harwell CADET (wani suna da aka yi wahayi daga aikin ENIAC, kuma an rubuta shi a baya), da Austrian Mailüfterl ayyuka ne na gefen da suka yi amfani da albarkatun da mahaliccinsu za su iya gogewa tare - gami da transistor-point na ƙarni na farko.

Ana ta cece-kuce kan sunan kwamfutar farko da ta fara amfani da transistor. Duk ya zo ƙasa, ba shakka, don zaɓar ma'anar ma'anar kalmomi kamar "na farko," "transistor," da "kwamfuta." Ko ta yaya, mun san inda labarin ya ƙare. Kasuwancin kwamfutoci masu canzawa sun fara kusan nan da nan. Shekara bayan shekara, kwamfutoci a kan farashi iri ɗaya suna ƙara ƙarfi, kuma kwamfutoci masu ƙarfi iri ɗaya sun zama masu arha, kuma wannan tsari ya zama kamar ba zai yiwu ba har ya kai matsayin doka, kusa da nauyi da kuma kiyaye makamashi. Shin muna bukatar mu yi gardama game da wane dutse ne ya fara rushewa?

Daga ina dokar Moore ta fito?

Yayin da muke gab da ƙarshen labarin canji, yana da kyau a yi tambaya: menene ya haifar da wannan rugujewar? Me yasa dokar Moore ta wanzu (ko ta wanzu - za mu yi jayayya game da hakan wani lokaci)? Babu wata doka ta Moore don jiragen sama ko masu tsabtace injin, kamar yadda babu mai amfani da bututu ko relays.

Amsar tana da sassa biyu:

Mahimman kaddarorin canji a matsayin nau'in kayan tarihi.
Ikon yin amfani da hanyoyin sinadarai zalla don yin transistor.

Na farko, game da ainihin maɓalli. Kaddarorin mafi yawan kayan tarihi dole ne su gamsar da kewayon ƙuntatawa na jiki marasa gafartawa. Dole ne jirgin fasinja ya goyi bayan haɗin nauyin mutane da yawa. Dole ne mai tsabtace injin ya iya tsotse ƙayyadaddun datti a cikin wani ɗan lokaci daga wani yanki na zahiri. Jiragen sama da injin tsabtace injin ba za su yi amfani ba idan an rage su zuwa nanoscale.

Maɓalli, maɓalli na atomatik wanda hannun ɗan adam bai taɓa taɓa shi ba, yana da ƙarancin gazawar jiki. Dole ne ya kasance yana da jihohi daban-daban guda biyu, kuma dole ne ya iya sadarwa zuwa wasu maɓalli masu kama da juna lokacin da jihohinsu suka canza. Wato duk abin da yakamata ayi shine kunnawa da kashewa. Menene na musamman game da transistors? Me yasa wasu nau'ikan musanya na dijital ba su sami irin wannan ci gaba mai ma'ana ba?

Anan zamu zo gaskiya ta biyu. Ana iya yin transistor ta amfani da hanyoyin sinadarai ba tare da sa hannun injina ba. Tun daga farko, wani muhimmin abu na samar da transistor shine amfani da gurɓataccen sinadari. Sa'an nan kuma tsarin tsari ya zo, wanda ya kawar da mataki na karshe na inji daga samarwa - haɗa wayoyi. A sakamakon haka, ya kawar da ƙayyadaddun jiki na ƙarshe akan miniaturization. Transistor ba sa buƙatar zama babba don yatsan ɗan adam—ko kowace na'urar inji. An yi shi duka ta hanyar sinadarai mai sauƙi, akan ƙaramin sikelin da ba za a iya misaltuwa ba: acid zuwa etch, haske don sarrafa waɗanne sassa na saman za su yi tsayayya da etching, da tururi don shigar da ƙazanta da fina-finai na ƙarfe a cikin waƙoƙin da aka ƙera.

Me yasa miniaturization ya zama dole kwata-kwata? Rage girman ya ba da duka galaxy na sakamako masu ban sha'awa: haɓaka saurin sauyawa, rage yawan amfani da makamashi da farashin kowane kwafi. Waɗannan ƙarfafawa masu ƙarfi sun sa kowa ya nemi hanyoyin da za a ƙara rage masu sauyawa. Kuma masana'antar semiconductor ta tashi daga yin na'urori masu girman girman ƙusa zuwa tattara dubun-dubatar makullai a kowace murabba'in milimita a rayuwar mutum ɗaya. Daga tambayar dala takwas akan canji daya zuwa bada masu sauya sheka miliyan ashirin akan dala daya.

Intel 1103 ƙwaƙwalwar ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya daga 1971. Transistor guda ɗaya, dubun micrometers kawai a girman, ba sa iya gani ga ido. Kuma tun daga nan sun sake raguwa sau dubu.

Me kuma za a karanta:

Ernest Bruan da Stuart MacDonald, Juyin Juya Hali a Miniature (1978)
Michael Riordan da Lillian Hoddeson, Crystal Fire (1997)
Joel Shurkin, Broken Genius (1997)

source: www.habr.com

Tarihin Transistor, Sashe na 3: Sabbin Ƙirƙirar Maɗaukaki