Tashin Intanet Kashi na 1: Girma Mai Girma

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A cikin 1990 John Quarterman, mai ba da shawara kan hanyar sadarwa kuma kwararre na UNIX, ya buga cikakken bayani kan yanayin sadarwar kwamfuta a wancan lokacin. A cikin wani ɗan gajeren sashe game da makomar kwamfuta, ya yi hasashen bullar cibiyar sadarwa guda ɗaya ta duniya don "e-mail, taro, canja wurin fayil, shiga mai nisa - kamar yadda ake samun hanyar sadarwa ta wayar tarho a duniya da kuma wasikun duniya a yau." Duk da haka, bai sanya wani matsayi na musamman ga Intanet ba. Ya ba da shawarar cewa wannan hanyar sadarwa ta duniya "zai iya kasancewa ta hukumomin sadarwa na gwamnati," sai dai a Amurka, "inda sassan yanki na Kamfanonin Ayyukan Bell da masu jigilar kaya za su gudanar da shi."

Manufar wannan labarin ita ce bayyana yadda, tare da haɓakar haɓakar faɗuwar sa ba zato ba tsammani, Intanet ta kifar da zato na zahiri.

Wucewa sandar

Muhimmin lamari na farko da ya kai ga bullowar Intanet na zamani ya faru ne a farkon shekarun 1980, lokacin da Hukumar Kula da Sadarwar Tsaro (DCA) [yanzu DISA] ta yanke shawarar raba ARPANET zuwa kashi biyu. DCA ta sami ikon sarrafa hanyar sadarwa a cikin 1975. A lokacin, ya bayyana a sarari cewa Ofishin Fasahar Sadarwar Watsa Labarai na ARPA (IPTO), ƙungiyar da ta sadaukar da kai don nazarin ra'ayoyin ra'ayoyin, ba ta da ma'ana wajen shiga cikin haɓaka hanyar sadarwar da aka yi amfani da ita ba don binciken sadarwa ba amma don sadarwa ta yau da kullum. ARPA tayi rashin nasara tayi ƙoƙarin kwace ikon hanyar sadarwa daga kamfani mai zaman kansa AT&T. DCA, mai alhakin tsarin sadarwar soja, ya zama mafi kyawun zaɓi na biyu.

A cikin 'yan shekarun farko na sabon yanayin, ARPANET ya bunƙasa cikin yanayin rashin kulawa. Koyaya, a farkon shekarun 1980, kayan aikin sadarwar tsufa na Ma'aikatar Tsaro na cikin tsananin buƙatar haɓakawa. Shirin maye gurbin, AUTODIN II, wanda DCA ya zaɓi Western Union a matsayin ɗan kwangilar sa, da alama ya gaza. Daga nan ne shugabannin DCA suka nada Kanar Heidi Hayden a matsayin mai kula da zabar wani madadin. Ya ba da shawarar yin amfani da fasahar sauya fakiti, wanda DCA ta riga ta kasance a hannunta ta hanyar ARPANET, a matsayin tushen sabuwar hanyar sadarwar bayanan tsaro.

Duk da haka, an sami matsala a fili ta hanyar watsa bayanan soja ta hanyar ARPANET - hanyar sadarwa ta cika da masana kimiyya masu dogon gashi, wasu daga cikinsu suna adawa da tsaro ko sirrin kwamfuta - misali. Richard Stallman tare da abokan aikinsa na hackers daga MIT Artificial Intelligence Lab. Hayden ya ba da shawarar raba hanyar sadarwa zuwa sassa biyu. Ya yanke shawarar ajiye masana kimiyyar binciken da ARPA ke tallafawa akan ARPANET tare da raba kwamfutocin tsaro zuwa sabuwar hanyar sadarwa mai suna MILNET. Wannan mitosis yana da sakamako mai mahimmanci guda biyu. Da fari dai, rarrabawar sojoji da sassan da ba na soji ba na hanyar sadarwa shine matakin farko na tura Intanet a karkashin farar hula, daga baya kuma karkashin kulawar sirri. Abu na biyu, shi ne shaida na yuwuwar fasahar Intanet ta Intanet - ka'idojin TCP/IP, wanda aka fara ƙirƙira kimanin shekaru biyar a baya. DCA na buƙatar duk nodes na ARPANET don canzawa daga ka'idojin gado zuwa goyon bayan TCP/IP a farkon 1983. A wancan lokacin, ƙananan cibiyoyin sadarwa sun yi amfani da TCP/IP, amma tsarin daga baya ya haɗa hanyoyin sadarwa guda biyu na proto-Internet, yana ba da damar zirga-zirgar sakonni don haɗa bincike da kamfanonin soja kamar yadda ake bukata. Don tabbatar da tsawon rayuwar TCP/IP a cikin hanyoyin sadarwar soja, Hayden ya kafa asusun dala miliyan 20 don tallafawa masana'antun kwamfuta waɗanda za su rubuta software don aiwatar da TCP/IP akan tsarin su.

Mataki na farko na canja wurin Intanet a hankali daga soja zuwa ikon sirri kuma yana ba mu dama mai kyau don yin bankwana da ARPA da IPTO. Kudadenta da tasirinta, wanda Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider, Ivan Sutherland, da Robert Taylor suka jagoranta, sun jagoranci kai tsaye da kuma kai tsaye zuwa duk abubuwan da suka fara faruwa a cikin mu'amalar kwamfuta da sadarwar kwamfuta. Koyaya, tare da ƙirƙirar ma'aunin TCP/IP a tsakiyar shekarun 1970, ya taka muhimmiyar rawa a tarihin kwamfutoci a karo na ƙarshe.

Babban aikin kwamfuta na gaba wanda DARPA ke daukar nauyinsa shine gasar Motoci masu cin gashin kai na 2004-2005. Shahararren aikin da ke gaban wannan zai kasance dala biliyan-dala AI na tushen dabarun ƙididdige ƙididdiga na shekarun 1980, wanda zai haifar da aikace-aikacen soja da yawa masu fa'ida amma kusan ba su da wani tasiri ga ƙungiyoyin jama'a.

Babban abin da ya haifar da asarar tasirin ƙungiyar shine Yaƙin Vietnam. Yawancin masu binciken ilimi sun yi imanin cewa suna yaƙi da kyakkyawan yaƙin da kuma kare dimokuradiyya lokacin da sojoji suka ba da tallafin bincike na zamanin Cold War. Duk da haka, waɗanda suka girma a cikin 1950s da 1960s sun rasa bangaskiya ga soja da manufofinsa bayan ya shiga cikin yakin Vietnam. Daga cikin na farko akwai Taylor da kansa, wanda ya bar IPTO a 1969, yana ɗaukar ra'ayoyinsa da haɗin kai zuwa Xerox PARC. Majalisar da ke karkashin mulkin Demokradiyya, ta damu da illar da kudin soji ke yi kan binciken kimiyya na asali, ta yi gyare-gyaren da ke bukatar kudin tsaro da za a kashe shi kadai kan binciken soji. ARPA ta nuna wannan canji a al'adun bayar da kuɗi a cikin 1972 ta hanyar sake suna DARPA- Hukumar Ayyukan Bincike Na Ci Gaban Tsaron Amurka.

Don haka sandar ta wuce ga farar hula gidauniyar kimiyyar kasa (NSF). A shekara ta 1980, tare da kasafin kuɗi na dala miliyan 20, NSF ce ke da alhakin ba da kuɗi kusan rabin shirye-shiryen binciken kwamfuta na tarayya a Amurka. Kuma yawancin wadannan kudade nan ba da jimawa ba za a ware su ga sabuwar hanyar sadarwa ta kwamfuta ta kasa Farashin NSFNET.

Farashin NSFNET

A farkon shekarun 1980, Larry Smarr, masanin kimiyyar lissafi a Jami'ar Illinois, ya ziyarci Cibiyar. Max Planck a Munich, inda supercomputer "Cray" ya yi aiki, wanda aka ba wa masu binciken Turai damar shiga. Cikin takaicin rashin samun irin wannan albarkatun ga masana kimiyar Amurka, ya ba da shawarar cewa NSF ta ba da tallafin samar da cibiyoyin sarrafa kwamfuta da dama a fadin kasar. Kungiyar ta mayar da martani ga Smarr da sauran masu bincike masu irin wannan koke-koke ta hanyar samar da Advanced Scientific Computing Division a 1984, wanda ya kai ga samar da kudade irin wadannan cibiyoyi guda biyar tare da kasafin kudi na shekaru biyar na dala miliyan 42, wanda ya tashi daga Jami'ar Cornell a arewa maso gabas zuwa San Diego. a Kudu-maso-Yamma. Ana zaune a tsakanin, Jami'ar Illinois, inda Smarr ya yi aiki, ta sami cibiyarta, Cibiyar Nazarin Kwamfuta ta Kasa, NCSA.

Koyaya, ikon cibiyoyin don haɓaka damar yin amfani da wutar lantarki ya iyakance. Yin amfani da kwamfutocin su ga masu amfani da ba su zama kusa da ɗaya daga cikin cibiyoyi biyar ba zai yi wahala kuma suna buƙatar kuɗi don tafiye-tafiyen bincike na tsawon semester ko na rani. Saboda haka, NSF ta yanke shawarar gina hanyar sadarwar kwamfuta kuma. Tarihi ya maimaita kansa-Taylor ya inganta ƙirƙirar ARPANET a ƙarshen 1960s daidai don baiwa al'umman bincike damar samun albarkatun kwamfuta masu ƙarfi. NSF za ta samar da kashin baya wanda zai haɗu da manyan cibiyoyin sarrafa kwamfuta, ya shimfiɗa a duk faɗin nahiyar, sa'an nan kuma haɗi zuwa cibiyoyin sadarwa na yanki waɗanda ke ba wa sauran jami'o'i da dakunan gwaje-gwajen bincike damar shiga waɗannan cibiyoyin. NSF za ta yi amfani da ka'idojin Intanet wanda Hayden ya inganta ta hanyar sadaukar da alhakin gina cibiyoyin sadarwa na gida ga al'ummomin kimiyyar gida.

NSF ta fara canja wurin ayyuka don ƙirƙira da kula da hanyar sadarwar NCSA daga Jami'ar Illinois a matsayin tushen tushen tsari na ƙirƙira shirin babban kwamfuta na ƙasa. NCSA ta yi hayar hanyoyin haɗin 56 kbps iri ɗaya waɗanda ARPANET ke amfani da su tun 1969 kuma ta ƙaddamar da hanyar sadarwa a cikin 1986. Koyaya, waɗannan layukan cikin sauri sun toshe tare da zirga-zirga ( ana iya samun cikakkun bayanai game da wannan tsari a cikin aikin David Mills "NSFNET Core NetworkHar ila yau, tarihin ARPANET ya sake maimaita kansa - da sauri ya zama a fili cewa babban aikin cibiyar sadarwa bai kamata ya zama damar da masana kimiyya suka yi amfani da wutar lantarki ba, amma musayar sakonni tsakanin mutanen da ke da damar yin amfani da shi. Ana iya gafartawa ARPANET don rashin sanin cewa wani abu makamancin haka na iya faruwa - amma ta yaya wannan kuskuren zai sake faruwa kusan shekaru ashirin bayan haka? Yana kashe adadi takwas fiye da tabbatar da kashe irin waɗannan kuɗaɗen akan manufofin da ba su dace ba, kamar ikon yin musayar imel, wannan ba yana nufin NSF ta ɓatar da kowa da gangan ba. saboda in ba haka ba ba za mu wanzu ba, kuma mu Idan ba za su iya lura da su ba, ba zan yi rubutu game da hanyar sadarwar kwamfuta da gwamnati ke tallafawa ba idan babu makamancin haka, wasu dalilai na gaskiya na wanzuwarta.

Tabbatar cewa cibiyar sadarwar kanta tana da aƙalla mahimmanci kamar na'urori masu haɓakawa waɗanda ke tabbatar da kasancewarta, NSF ta juya zuwa taimakon waje don haɓaka ƙashin bayan cibiyar sadarwar tare da hanyoyin haɗin T1- capacity (1,5 Mbps). / Tare da). Ma'aunin T1 AT&T ne ya kafa shi a cikin 1960s, kuma yakamata ya yi amfani da har zuwa kiran waya 24, kowannensu an sanya shi cikin rafi na dijital 64 kbit/s.

Merit Network, Inc. ya lashe kwangilar. tare da haɗin gwiwar MCI da IBM, kuma sun sami kyautar $ 58 miliyan daga NSF a cikin shekaru biyar na farko don ginawa da kula da hanyar sadarwa. MCI ta samar da kayan aikin sadarwa, IBM ta samar da wutar lantarki da software don masu amfani da hanyoyin sadarwa. Kamfanin mai ba da riba Merit, wanda ke gudanar da hanyar sadarwar kwamfuta da ke haɗa harabar Jami'ar Michigan, ya zo tare da shi gogewar kula da hanyar sadarwar kwamfuta ta kimiyya, kuma ya ba duk haɗin gwiwar jami'a jin da ya sa NSF da masana kimiyyar da suka yi amfani da NSFNET su sami sauƙin karɓa. Duk da haka, canja wurin ayyuka daga NCSA zuwa Gari ya kasance matakin farko a bayyane ga keɓantawa.

MERIT ta samo asali ne don Triad Bayanan Bincike na Ilimi na Michigan. Jihar Michigan ta kara dala miliyan 5 don taimakawa cibiyar sadarwar gida ta T1 ta bunkasa.

Ƙashin baya na Merit ya ɗauki zirga-zirga daga hanyoyin sadarwa na yanki fiye da dozin, daga New York's NYSERNet, cibiyar sadarwa ta bincike da ilimi da aka haɗa da Jami'ar Cornell a Ithaca, zuwa CERFNet, cibiyar bincike da ilimi ta California da ke da alaƙa da San Diego. Kowane ɗayan waɗannan cibiyoyin sadarwa na yanki sun haɗa da cibiyoyin cibiyoyin harabar gida marasa adadi, kamar yadda ɗakunan karatu na kwaleji da ofisoshin malamai ke gudana ɗaruruwan injin Unix. Wannan cibiyar sadarwa ta tarayya ta zama kristal iri na Intanet na zamani. ARPANET ya haɗu kawai masu binciken kimiyyar kwamfuta masu kuɗi masu kyau waɗanda ke aiki a manyan cibiyoyin kimiyya. Kuma zuwa 1990, kusan kowane dalibi ko malami zai iya shiga yanar gizo. Ta hanyar jefa fakiti daga kumburi zuwa kumburi - ta hanyar Ethernet na gida, sannan zuwa hanyar sadarwar yanki, sannan a kan nesa mai nisa cikin saurin haske akan kashin baya na NSFNET - suna iya musayar imel ko yin tattaunawar Usenet mai daraja tare da abokan aiki daga wasu sassan ƙasar. .

Bayan da ƙungiyoyin kimiyya da yawa suka sami dama ta hanyar NSFNET fiye da ta hanyar ARPANET, DCA ta soke hanyar sadarwar gado a cikin 1990, kuma ta cire gaba ɗaya Ma'aikatar Tsaro daga haɓaka cibiyoyin sadarwar farar hula.

Takeoff

A tsawon wannan tsawon lokacin, adadin kwamfutocin da ke da alaƙa da NSFNET da hanyoyin sadarwa masu alaƙa - kuma duk waɗannan da muke iya kiran Intanet yanzu - ya ninka kusan sau biyu kowace shekara. 28 a watan Disamba 000, 1987 a Oktoba 56,000, 1988 a Oktoba 159, da sauransu. Wannan yanayin ya ci gaba har zuwa tsakiyar 000s, sannan kuma girma sannu a hankali. Ta yaya, idan aka yi la'akari da wannan yanayin, ina mamakin, Quarterman zai iya kasa lura da cewa Intanet an ƙaddara don mulkin duniya? Idan annoba ta baya-bayan nan ta koya mana wani abu, yana da wuya mutane su yi tunanin girman girma domin bai dace da duk wani abu da muke fuskanta a rayuwar yau da kullun ba.

Tabbas, suna da ra'ayin Intanet sun riga NSFNET. An ƙirƙira ka'idar Intanet a cikin 1974, kuma tun kafin NSFNET akwai hanyoyin sadarwa waɗanda ke sadarwa akan IP. Mun riga mun ambata ARPANET da MILNET. Duk da haka, na kasa samun wani ambaton “internet”—guda ɗaya, cibiyar sadarwa ta duniya—kafin zuwan NSFNET mai hawa uku.

Yawan cibiyoyin sadarwa a cikin Intanet ya karu a irin wannan adadin, daga 170 a cikin Yuli 1988 zuwa 3500 a cikin bazara na 1991. Tun da masana kimiyya ba su san iyakoki ba, yawancin su sun kasance a kasashen waje, suna farawa da haɗin gwiwa tare da Faransa da Kanada da aka kafa. 1988. A shekarar 1995, kusan kasashe 100 za su iya shiga Intanet, daga Algeria zuwa Vietnam. Kuma ko da yake adadin na'urori da cibiyoyin sadarwa sun fi sauƙi don ƙididdige yawan adadin masu amfani da gaske, bisa ga ƙididdiga masu dacewa, a ƙarshen 1994 akwai 10-20 miliyan daga cikinsu. a wane lokaci ne aka yi amfani da Intanet, yana da wuya a iya tabbatar da wannan ko wani bayanin tarihi na irin wannan ci gaba mai ban mamaki. Ƙananan tarin labaru da ƙididdiga ba za su iya bayyana yadda kwamfutoci 1991 suka haɗa da Intanet daga Janairu 1992 zuwa Janairu 350, sannan 000 a shekara mai zuwa, da kuma wasu miliyan 600 a shekara mai zuwa.

Duk da haka, zan shiga cikin wannan yanki mai ban tsoro kuma zan yi jayayya cewa raƙuman ruwa guda uku na masu amfani da ke da alhakin haɓakar haɓakar Intanet, kowannensu yana da nasa dalilai na haɗawa, an kori su ta hanyar tunani mara kyau. Dokar Metcalfe, wanda ya ce darajar (sabili da haka ikon jan hankali) na cibiyar sadarwa yana ƙaruwa yayin da murabba'in adadin mahalarta.

Masana kimiyya sun zo na farko. NSF da gangan ta yada lissafin zuwa jami'o'i da yawa gwargwadon yiwuwa. Bayan haka, kowane masanin kimiyya yana so ya shiga aikin saboda kowa yana can. Idan imel ɗin ba zai iya isa gare ku ba, idan ba za ku iya gani ko shiga cikin sabbin tattaunawa akan Usenet ba, kuna haɗarin rasa sanarwar wani muhimmin taro, damar samun jagora, rasa babban bincike kafin a buga shi, da sauransu. . Jin an matsa musu lamba don shiga tattaunawar kimiyya ta kan layi, jami'o'i da sauri sun haɗa da cibiyoyin sadarwa na yanki waɗanda zasu iya haɗa su da kashin bayan NSFNET. Misali, NEARNET, wanda ya shafi jihohi shida a yankin New England, ya sami mambobi sama da 1990 a farkon shekarun 200.

A lokaci guda, samun damar shiga ya fara raguwa daga malamai da ɗaliban da suka kammala karatun digiri zuwa ga al'umma mafi girma na ɗalibai. A shekara ta 1993, kusan kashi 70% na sabbin mutanen Harvard suna da adireshin imel. A wannan lokacin, Intanet a Harvard ta kai ga dukkan kusurwoyi da cibiyoyin haɗin gwiwa. Jami'ar ta jawo makudan kudade don samar da Ethernet ba kawai ga kowane ginin cibiyar ilimi ba, har ma ga duk ɗakunan kwanan dalibai. Lallai ba za a dade ba sai da daya daga cikin daliban ya fara tuntube cikin dakinsa bayan guguwar dare, ya fada kan kujera ya yi ta faman buga sakon imel da ya yi nadamar aiko wa da safe - walau ta bayyana soyayya ko kuwa. tsautawa mai zafi ga abokan gaba.

A cikin tashin hankali na gaba, a kusa da 1990, masu amfani da kasuwanci sun fara isowa. A waccan shekarar, an yi rajistar wuraren 1151 .com. Masu halartar kasuwanci na farko sune sassan bincike na kamfanonin fasaha (Bell Labs, Xerox, IBM, da dai sauransu). Da gaske suna amfani da hanyar sadarwar don dalilai na kimiyya. Sadarwar kasuwanci tsakanin shugabanninsu ta bi ta wasu hanyoyin sadarwa. Duk da haka, a shekarar 1994 ya wanzu An riga an sami sunaye sama da 60 a cikin .com, kuma an fara samun kuɗi akan Intanet da gaske.

A ƙarshen 1980s, kwamfutoci sun fara zama wani ɓangare na aikin yau da kullun da rayuwar gida na ƴan ƙasar Amurka, kuma mahimmancin kasancewar dijital ga kowane kasuwanci mai mahimmanci ya bayyana. Imel yana ba da hanya don musanya saƙonni cikin sauƙi da matuƙar sauri tare da abokan aiki, abokan ciniki da masu kaya. Lissafin aikawasiku da Usenet sun ba da sabbin hanyoyi guda biyu don ci gaba da ci gaba a cikin ƙwararrun al'umma da sabbin hanyoyin talla mai arha ga ɗimbin masu amfani. Ta hanyar Intanet an sami damar samun dama ga tarin bayanai na kyauta - doka, likita, kuɗi da siyasa. Daliban jiya da ke samun ayyukan yi da zama a gidajen kwanan dalibai sun sha soyayya da Intanet kamar yadda masu daukar ma’aikata ke yi. Ya ba da damar yin amfani da saitin masu amfani da yawa fiye da kowane ɗayan sabis na kasuwanci (Dokar Metcalfe kuma). Bayan biyan kuɗin shiga yanar gizo na wata guda, kusan komai ya kasance kyauta, sabanin kuɗaɗen kuɗin sa'a ko kowane saƙo wanda CompuServe da sauran ayyuka makamantansu ke buƙata. Wadanda suka fara shiga kasuwar Intanet sun haɗa da kamfanonin odar wasiku, irin su The Corner Store na Litchfield, Connecticut, waɗanda aka yi talla a ƙungiyoyin Usenet, da The Online Littattafai, kantin e-littattafai wanda tsohon editan Little, Brown da Kamfani ya kafa, kuma fiye da shekaru goma kafin Kindle.

Sannan kuma ya zo na uku na girma, yana kawo masu amfani da yau da kullun waɗanda suka fara shiga kan layi da yawa a tsakiyar shekarun 1990. A wannan lokacin, Dokar Metcalfe ta riga ta fara aiki a cikin manyan kayan aiki. Ƙara, "kasancewa kan layi" yana nufin "kasancewa akan Intanet." Masu amfani ba za su iya ba da damar ƙaddamar da layin aji na T1 zuwa gidajensu ba, don haka kusan koyaushe suna shiga Intanet ta hanyar modem na waya. Mun riga mun ga wani ɓangare na wannan labarin lokacin da BBS na kasuwanci a hankali ya zama masu samar da Intanet. Wannan canjin ya amfana da masu amfani (wanda tafkin dijital ya girma ba zato ba tsammani zuwa teku) da kuma BBSs kansu, waɗanda suka koma kasuwancin mafi sauƙi na tsaka-tsaki tsakanin tsarin tarho da Intanet "kashin baya" kayan aiki a cikin T1, ba tare da buƙatar kulawa ba. nasu ayyuka.

Manyan ayyukan kan layi sun haɓaka tare da layi ɗaya. A shekara ta 1993, duk sabis na ƙasa a cikin Amurka-Prodigy, CompuServe, GEnie, da kuma ƙaramin kamfani America Online (AOL) - sun ba da haɗin gwiwar masu amfani da miliyan 3,5 damar aika imel zuwa adiresoshin Intanet. Kuma kawai Delphi mai rauni (tare da masu biyan kuɗi 100) sun ba da cikakkiyar damar shiga Intanet. Duk da haka, a cikin 'yan shekaru masu zuwa, darajar shiga Intanet, wanda ya ci gaba da girma a cikin adadi mai yawa, da sauri ya wuce damar shiga dandalin masu mallakar mallaka, wasanni, shaguna da sauran abubuwan da ke cikin ayyukan kasuwanci da kansu. 000 ya kasance wani juyi - zuwa Oktoba, 1996% na masu amfani da yanar gizo suna amfani da WWW, idan aka kwatanta da 73% na shekarar da ta gabata. An ƙirƙiro sabon kalma, “portal,” don bayyana ragowar ayyukan da AOL, Prodigy da sauran kamfanoni ke bayarwa waɗanda mutane ke biyan kuɗi don shiga Intanet kawai.

Abun sirri

Don haka, muna da tsayayyen ra’ayi na yadda Intanet ke girma a irin wannan adadin fashewar, amma ba mu fahimci dalilin da ya sa hakan ya faru ba. Me ya sa ya zama mafi rinjaye yayin da akwai nau'ikan ayyuka iri-iri da ke ƙoƙarin girma zuwa magabata? zamanin rarrabuwa?

Tabbas tallafin gwamnati ya taka rawa. Baya ga ba da tallafin kashin baya, lokacin da NSF ta yanke shawarar saka hannun jari sosai a ci gaban cibiyar sadarwa mai zaman kanta daga shirinta na sarrafa kwamfuta, ba ta ɓata lokaci kan ƙananan abubuwa ba. Shugabanni masu ra'ayi na shirin NSFNET, Steve Wolfe da Jane Cavines, sun yanke shawarar gina ba kawai hanyar sadarwa ta manyan kwamfutoci ba, amma sabon kayan aikin bayanai na kwalejoji da jami'o'in Amurka. Don haka ne suka kirkiro shirin Connections, wanda ya dauki wani bangare na kudin da ake kashewa wajen hada jami’o’i da hanyar sadarwa a madadin su samar da dama ga mutane da dama da hanyoyin sadarwa a harabar su. Wannan ya kara saurin yaduwar Intanet kai tsaye da kuma a kaikaice. A kaikaice, saboda yawancin cibiyoyin sadarwa na yanki sun haifar da kasuwancin kasuwanci waɗanda suka yi amfani da kayan aikin tallafi iri ɗaya don siyar da damar Intanet ga ƙungiyoyin kasuwanci.

Amma Minitel kuma yana da tallafi. Duk da haka, abin da ya bambanta Intanet mafi yawa shi ne tsarinsa mai nau'i-nau'i da yawa da kuma sassauƙar da ke tattare da shi. IP ya ba da izinin cibiyoyin sadarwa tare da kaddarorin jiki daban-daban don yin aiki tare da tsarin adireshin iri ɗaya, kuma TCP ya tabbatar da isar da fakiti ga mai karɓa. Shi ke nan. Sauƙin tsarin aikin cibiyar sadarwa ya sa ya yiwu a ƙara kusan kowane aikace-aikace zuwa gare shi. Mahimmanci, kowane mai amfani zai iya ba da gudummawar sabbin ayyuka idan zai iya shawo kan wasu suyi amfani da shirinsa. Misali, canja wurin fayiloli ta amfani da FTP yana daya daga cikin shahararrun hanyoyin amfani da Intanet a farkon shekarun, amma ba zai yiwu a sami sabar da ke ba da fayilolin da kuke sha'awar ba sai ta hanyar baki. Don haka, masu amfani da kasuwanci sun ƙirƙiri ka'idoji daban-daban don ƙididdigewa da kiyaye jerin sabar FTP - misali, Gopher, Archie da Veronica.

A ka'ida, OSI cibiyar sadarwa model akwai sassauƙa iri ɗaya, da kuma albarkar ƙungiyoyin ƙasa da ƙasa da manyan kamfanonin sadarwa don yin aiki a matsayin ma'aunin aikin intanet. Koyaya, a aikace, filin ya kasance tare da TCP/IP, kuma babban fa'idarsa shine lambar da ta fara aiki akan dubbai sannan akan miliyoyin injuna.

Canja wurin sarrafa Layer aikace-aikace zuwa gefuna na cibiyar sadarwa ya haifar da wani muhimmin sakamako. Wannan yana nufin cewa manyan ƙungiyoyi, waɗanda suka saba gudanar da ayyukansu, za su iya jin daɗi. Ƙungiyoyi za su iya saita sabar imel na kansu kuma su aika da karɓar imel ba tare da adana duk abubuwan da ke ciki a kwamfutar wani ba. Za su iya yin rajistar sunayen yankin nasu, su kafa nasu gidajen yanar gizon da kowa zai iya shiga Intanet, amma kiyaye su gaba ɗaya ƙarƙashin ikonsu.

A dabi'a, mafi kyawun misali na tsari mai nau'i-nau'i da rarrabawa shine World Wide Web. Tsawon shekaru ashirin, tsarin daga kwamfutoci masu raba lokaci na shekarun 1960 zuwa ayyuka kamar CompuServe da Minitel sun ta'allaka ne akan ƙaramin saiti na sabis na musayar bayanai - imel, tarurruka da ɗakunan hira. Gidan yanar gizon ya zama sabon abu gaba daya. Kwanakin farko na gidan yanar gizo, lokacin da ya ƙunshi gabaɗaya na musamman, shafukan da aka yi da hannu, ba kome ba ne kamar yadda yake a yau. Koyaya, tsalle daga hanyar haɗi zuwa hanyar haɗin gwiwa ya riga ya sami baƙon roƙo, kuma ya ba kasuwancin damar samar da talla mai rahusa da tallafin abokin ciniki. Babu ɗaya daga cikin masu fasahar intanet da aka shirya don gidan yanar gizon. Ya kasance 'ya'yan itace na ƙirƙira Tim Berners-Lee, injiniyan Burtaniya a Cibiyar Nazarin Nukiliya ta Turai (CERN), wanda ya ƙirƙira shi a cikin 1990 tare da manufar rarraba bayanai cikin sauƙi tsakanin masu binciken dakin gwaje-gwaje. Koyaya, yana rayuwa cikin sauƙi akan TCP/IP kuma yayi amfani da tsarin sunan yanki wanda aka kirkira don wasu dalilai don URLs masu yawa. Duk wanda ke da damar Intanet zai iya yin gidan yanar gizo, kuma a tsakiyar shekarun 90s, ya zama kamar kowa yana yin hakan - zauren birni, jaridu na gida, ƙananan kasuwanci, da masu sha'awar kowane nau'in.

Keɓancewa

Na bar wasu muhimman abubuwan da suka faru a cikin wannan labarin game da haɓakar Intanet, kuma za a bar ku da ƴan tambayoyi. Misali, ta yaya daidai yadda kasuwanci da masu amfani suka sami damar shiga Intanet, wanda asalinsa ya kasance a kusa da NSFNET, cibiyar sadarwar da gwamnatin Amurka ke ba da tallafi ga jama'ar bincike? Domin amsa wannan tambayar, a talifi na gaba za mu koma ga wasu muhimman al’amura da ban ambata ba a yanzu; al'amuran da sannu a hankali amma babu makawa sun mayar da Intanet kimiyyar jihar ta zama ta sirri da kasuwanci.

Me kuma za a karanta

• Janet Abatte, Ƙirƙirar Intanet (1999)
• Karen D. Fraser "NSFNET: Haɗin gwiwa don Babban-Speed ​​​​Networking, Ƙarshe Rahoton" (1996)
• John S. Quarterman, The Matrix (1990)
• Peter H. Salus, Casting the Net (1995)

source: www.habr.com