A cikin mu ya bayyana haɓakar na'urorin wayar tarho ta atomatik, waɗanda aka sarrafa su ta amfani da da'irori na relay. A wannan karon muna so mu yi magana game da yadda masana kimiyya da injiniyoyi suka haɓaka da'irori na relay a farkon - yanzu an manta - ƙarni na kwamfutocin dijital.
Relay a zenith
Idan kun tuna, aikin relay yana dogara ne akan ka'ida mai sauƙi: electromagnet yana aiki da canjin karfe. Masana ilimin halitta da 'yan kasuwa da yawa sun gabatar da ra'ayin relay da kansa a cikin kasuwancin telegraph a cikin 1830s. Bayan haka, a tsakiyar karni na XNUMX, masu ƙirƙira da makanikai sun mai da relays zuwa wani abin dogaro kuma babu makawa bangaren hanyoyin sadarwa na telegraph. A cikin wannan yanki ne rayuwar gudun ba da sanda ta kai matsayi mafi girma: an rage ta, kuma tsararraki na injiniyoyi sun ƙirƙira ɗimbin ƙira yayin da suke horar da su a fannin lissafi da kimiyyar lissafi.
A farkon karni na 1870, ba kawai tsarin sauyawa ta atomatik ba, har ma kusan dukkanin na'urorin sadarwar tarho sun ƙunshi wani nau'i na relay. Ɗaya daga cikin abubuwan da aka fara amfani da su a cikin sadarwar tarho tun daga shekarun XNUMX, a cikin allo na hannu. Lokacin da mai biyan kuɗi ya juya hannun wayar (magneto), an aika sigina zuwa musayar tarho, yana kunna blanker. Maɓalli shine relay wanda, lokacin da aka kunna shi, yana haifar da ɓacin ƙarfe ya faɗi akan tebur mai sauyawa na ma'aikacin tarho, yana nuna kira mai shigowa. Sa'an nan kuma matashiyar ma'aikacin ta shigar da filogi a cikin mahaɗin, an sake saita relay, bayan haka yana yiwuwa ya sake tayar da kullun, wanda aka gudanar a wannan matsayi ta hanyar lantarki.
A shekara ta 1924, injiniyoyi biyu na Bell sun rubuta, musayar wayar tarho ta yau da kullun ta yi amfani da masu biyan kuɗi kusan 10. Kayan aikinta sun ƙunshi relays dubu 40-65, waɗanda jimlar ƙarfin maganadisu “ya isa ya ɗaga tan 10.” A cikin manyan musayar tarho tare da na'ura mai sauyawa, an ninka waɗannan halayen ta biyu. An yi amfani da miliyoyin relays da yawa a cikin tsarin wayar tarho na Amurka, kuma adadin yana ƙaruwa akai-akai yayin da ake musayar tarho ta atomatik. Ana iya haɗa haɗin tarho ɗaya daga ƴan zuwa ɗaruruwan relays, ya danganta da lamba da kayan aikin musanyar tarho da abin ya shafa.
Kamfanonin Western Electric, wani reshen masana'antu na Kamfanin Bell, sun samar da nau'in relay mai yawa. Injiniyoyi sun ƙirƙiri gyare-gyare da yawa wanda ƙwararrun masu kiwon kare ko masu kula da tattabara za su yi hassada da wannan iri-iri. An inganta saurin aiki da hankali na relay, kuma an rage girman. A cikin 1921, Western Electric ya samar da kusan relays miliyan 5 na nau'ikan asali guda ɗari. Mafi shahara shi ne nau'in nau'in nau'in duniya na nau'in E, na'ura mai lebur, kusan na'urar rectangular wacce ta auna dubun gram da yawa. A mafi yawancin lokuta, an yi shi ne daga sassa na ƙarfe da aka hati, watau an inganta shi ta hanyar fasaha wajen samarwa. Gidajen sun kare lambobin sadarwa daga ƙura da kuma jawo igiyoyin ruwa daga na'urorin makwabta: yawanci ana ɗora relays kusa da juna, a cikin raƙuman da ɗaruruwan da dubban relays. An haɓaka bambance-bambancen nau'in nau'in nau'in E guda 3, kowannensu yana da juzu'i daban-daban da tsarin tuntuɓar juna.
Ba da da ewa ba aka fara amfani da waɗannan relays a cikin mafi hadaddun musaya.
Mai daidaitawa
A cikin 1910, Gotthilf Betulander, injiniyan injiniya a Royal Telegrafverket, kamfani na jihar da ke sarrafa yawancin kasuwannin wayar tarho na Sweden (tsawon shekaru da yawa, kusan duka), yana da ra'ayi. Ya yi imanin cewa zai iya inganta ingantaccen ayyukan Telegrafverket ta hanyar gina tsarin sauyawa ta atomatik gaba ɗaya bisa ga relays. Fiye da daidai, akan matrices relay: grids na sandunan ƙarfe da aka haɗa da layin tarho, tare da relays a tsaka-tsakin sanduna. Irin wannan canjin ya kamata ya zama sauri, mafi aminci, da sauƙin kulawa fiye da tsarin da ya danganci zamiya ko juyawa lambobin sadarwa.
Haka kuma, Betulander ya zo da ra'ayin cewa yana yiwuwa a raba zaɓi da sassan haɗin tsarin zuwa da'irori masu zaman kansu. Kuma sauran tsarin ya kamata a yi amfani da shi kawai don kafa tashar murya, sannan a sami 'yanci don gudanar da wani kira. Wato Betulander ya zo da wani ra'ayi wanda daga baya aka kira "ikon gama gari".
Ya kira da'irar da ke adana lambar kira mai shigowa "recorder" (wani kalmar rajista ce). Kuma da'irar da ta samo kuma ta "alama" haɗin da aka samu a cikin grid ana kiransa "alama." Marubucin ya ba da izinin tsarinsa. Irin waɗannan tashoshi da yawa sun bayyana a Stockholm da London. Kuma a cikin 1918, Betulander ya koyi game da wani sabon abu na Amurka: canjin daidaitawa, wanda injiniyan Bell John Reynolds ya kirkira shekaru biyar da suka gabata. Wannan canjin ya yi kama da ƙirar Betulander, amma yana amfani da shi n+m gudun ba da sanda sabis n+m matrix nodes, wanda ya fi dacewa don ƙarin fadada musayar tarho. Lokacin yin haɗin gwiwa, sandar riƙon ta maƙe kirgin piano "yatsu" kuma sandar zaɓin ta matsa tare da matrix don haɗawa zuwa wani kira. A shekara mai zuwa, Betulander ya haɗa wannan ra'ayin a cikin ƙirar canjin sa.
Amma yawancin injiniyoyi sunyi la'akari da halittar Betulander baƙon abu kuma mai rikitarwa ba dole ba. Lokacin da lokaci ya yi don zaɓar tsarin sauyawa don sarrafa hanyoyin sadarwa na manyan biranen Sweden, Telegrafverket ya zaɓi ƙira ta Ericsson. An yi amfani da musaya na Betulander ne kawai a cikin ƙananan musaya na tarho a yankunan karkara: relays ɗin sun fi dogaro fiye da injina na maɓalli na Ericsson kuma baya buƙatar masu fasaha na kulawa a kowace musayar.
Sai dai injiniyoyin wayar tarho na Amurka sun yi wani ra'ayi na daban kan wannan batu. A cikin 1930, ƙwararrun ƙwararrun Labs na Bell sun zo Sweden kuma sun “ji daɗi sosai da sigogin tsarin sauyawa na daidaitawa.” Lokacin da Amurkawa suka dawo, nan da nan suka fara aiki a kan abin da aka fi sani da tsarin daidaitawa na 1, suna maye gurbin na'urori a manyan birane. A shekara ta 1938, an shigar da irin waɗannan tsarin guda biyu a New York. Ba da daɗewa ba suka zama na'urori na yau da kullun don musayar tarho na birni, har sai da na'urorin lantarki sun maye gurbin su fiye da shekaru 30 bayan haka.
Abu mafi ban sha'awa na X-Switch No. 1 sabon abu ne, mafi hadaddun alamar da aka haɓaka a Bell. An yi niyya ne don nemo hanya kyauta daga mai kira zuwa ga wanda ake kira ta hanyar haɗin kai da yawa da aka haɗa da juna, ta haka ne ke haifar da haɗin tarho. Alamar kuma dole ne ta gwada kowace haɗin gwiwa don kyauta/jihar aiki. Wannan yana buƙatar aiwatar da dabaru na sharaɗi. Kamar yadda ɗan tarihi Robert Chapuis ya rubuta:
Zaɓin yana da sharadi saboda ana gudanar da haɗin kyauta ne kawai idan yana ba da dama ga grid wanda ke da haɗin kai kyauta zuwa mataki na gaba azaman fitarwa. Idan saitin haɗin kai da yawa sun gamsar da sharuɗɗan da ake so, to "maganganun fifiko" zai zaɓi ɗaya daga cikin mafi ƙanƙanta hanyoyin sadarwa ...
Maɓallin daidaitawa babban misali ne na giciye-hadi na ra'ayoyin fasaha. Betulander ya ƙirƙiri jujjuyawar jujjuyawar sa gabaɗaya, sannan ya inganta shi tare da matrix mai sauya Reynolds kuma ya tabbatar da aikin ƙirar da aka samu. Daga baya injiniyoyin AT&T sun sake fasalin wannan nau’in na’ura mai suna ‘hybrid switch’, suka inganta shi, sannan suka kirkiri Coordinate System No. 1. Wannan tsarin sai ya zama wani bangare na kwamfutoci biyu na farko, daya daga cikinsu a yanzu ake kiransa da wani muhimmin mataki a tarihin kwamfuta.
Aikin lissafi
Don fahimtar yadda da kuma dalilin da yasa relays da ƴan uwansu na lantarki suka taimaka wajen kawo sauyi na kwamfuta, muna buƙatar ɗan taƙaitaccen bayani a cikin duniyar lissafi. Bayan haka, zai bayyana dalilin da yasa aka sami buƙatu na ɓoye don inganta hanyoyin sarrafa kwamfuta.
A farkon karni na 20, dukkanin tsarin kimiyya da injiniya na zamani ya dogara ne akan ayyukan dubban mutane da ke yin lissafin lissafi. Aka kira su kwamfutoci (kwamfutoci) [Don guje wa rudani, za a yi amfani da kalmar a duk cikin rubutun kalkuleta. - Bayanan kula. layi]. A cikin 1820s, Charles Babbage ya kirkiro (duk da cewa na'urarsa tana da magabata na akida). Babban aikinsa shi ne sarrafa sarrafa tebur na lissafin lissafi, misali don kewayawa (ƙididdigar ayyukan trigonometric ta ƙimayar ɗabi'a a digiri 0, digiri 0,01, digiri 0,02, da sauransu). Hakanan an sami babban buƙatu don ƙididdige lissafin lissafi a cikin ilmin taurari: ya zama dole don aiwatar da ingantaccen sakamakon binciken telescopic a cikin ƙayyadaddun wuraren sararin samaniya (dangane da lokaci da kwanan wata na lura) ko ƙayyade kewayar sabbin abubuwa (misali, Tauraro mai wutsiya na Halley).
Tun daga lokacin Babbage, buƙatar injinan kwamfuta ya karu sau da yawa. Kamfanonin wutar lantarki suna buƙatar fahimtar halayen tsarin watsa wutar lantarki na kashin baya tare da ƙayyadaddun kaddarorin masu ƙarfi. Bindigogin ƙarfe na Bessemer, masu iya jefa harsashi a sararin sama (saboda haka, godiya ga lura da manufa kai tsaye, ba a yi niyya ba), suna buƙatar ƙarin ingantattun teburan wasan ballistic. Sabbin kayan aikin ƙididdiga waɗanda suka haɗa da ƙididdiga masu yawa na lissafi (kamar hanyar mafi ƙarancin murabba'i) an ƙara yin amfani da su duka a cikin kimiyya da na'urorin gwamnati masu girma. Sassan na'urorin kwamfuta sun bullo a cikin jami'o'i, hukumomin gwamnati, da kamfanonin masana'antu, wadanda galibi ke daukar mata aiki.
Ƙididdigar injina kawai sun sauƙaƙe matsalar lissafi, amma ba su warware ta ba. Ƙididdigar ƙididdiga ta hanzarta ayyukan ƙididdiga, amma duk wata matsala mai rikitarwa ta kimiyya ko injiniya tana buƙatar ɗaruruwa ko dubban ayyuka, wanda kowane ɗayan (dan Adam) ya yi da hannu, yana yin rikodin duk sakamakon matsakaici.
Abubuwa da yawa sun ba da gudummawa ga bullar sabbin hanyoyin magance matsalar lissafin lissafi. Matasan masana kimiyya da injiniyoyi, waɗanda ke lissafin ayyukansu cikin raɗaɗi da dare, sun so su ba da hannayensu da idanunsu hutawa. An tilastawa manajojin aikin fitar da kudade da yawa don biyan albashin kwamfutoci da yawa, musamman bayan yakin duniya na farko. A ƙarshe, yawancin matsalolin kimiyya da injiniyanci sun kasance masu wuyar ƙididdige su da hannu. Duk waɗannan abubuwan sun haifar da ƙirƙirar jerin kwamfutoci, aikin da aka gudanar a ƙarƙashin jagorancin Vannevar Bush, injiniyan lantarki a Cibiyar Fasaha ta Massachusetts (MIT).
Daban-daban analyzer
Har zuwa wannan lokaci, tarihi sau da yawa ba ya zama mutum, amma yanzu za mu fara magana game da takamaiman mutane. Shahararriyar ta wuce ga waɗanda suka ƙirƙiri na canza panel, Nau'in E relay da da'irar alama ta gaskiya. Ko taswirar tarihin rayuwa ba su tsira ba game da su. Shaida daya tilo da ake samu a bainar jama'a na rayuwarsu shine burbushin na'urorin da suka kirkira.
Yanzu za mu iya samun zurfin fahimtar mutane da abubuwan da suka gabata. Amma ba za mu ƙara saduwa da waɗanda suka yi aiki tuƙuru a cikin ɗakuna da kuma tarurruka a gida - Morse da Vail, Bell da Watson. A ƙarshen Yaƙin Duniya na ɗaya, zamanin jarumai masu ƙirƙira ya kusan ƙarewa. Ana iya la'akari da Thomas Edison a matsayin mutum na wucin gadi: a farkon aikinsa ya kasance mai ƙirƙira haya, kuma a ƙarshensa ya zama ma'abucin "masana'anta." A lokacin, haɓaka sabbin fasahohin da suka fi fice sun zama yanki na ƙungiyoyi-jami'o'i, sassan bincike na kamfanoni, dakunan gwaje-gwaje na gwamnati. Mutanen da za mu yi magana a kansu a wannan sashe na cikin irin wadannan kungiyoyi ne.
Alal misali, Vannevar Bush. Ya isa MIT a cikin 1919, lokacin yana ɗan shekara 29. Sama da shekaru 20 kadan bayan haka, ya kasance daya daga cikin mutanen da suka yi tasiri a yakin duniya na biyu da Amurka ta yi, kuma ta taimaka wajen kara yawan kudaden gwamnati, wanda har abada ya canza dangantakar dake tsakanin gwamnati, da ilimi, da ci gaban kimiyya da fasaha. Amma don manufar wannan labarin, muna sha'awar jerin na'urori da aka kera a cikin dakin gwaje-gwaje na Bush daga tsakiyar shekarun 1920 kuma an yi nufin magance matsalar lissafin lissafi.
MIT, wanda kwanan nan ya tashi daga tsakiyar Boston zuwa gabar ruwa na Charles River a Cambridge, ya yi daidai da bukatun masana'antu. Bush da kansa, baya ga farfesa, yana da sha'awar kuɗi a kamfanoni da yawa a fannin lantarki. Don haka bai kamata ya zama abin mamaki ba cewa matsalar da ta kai Busch da ɗalibansa yin aiki a kan sabuwar na'urar kwamfuta ta samo asali ne daga masana'antar makamashi: yin kwaikwayon halayen layin watsawa a ƙarƙashin yanayin nauyi. Babu shakka, wannan ɗaya ne kawai daga cikin aikace-aikacen kwamfutoci da yawa: an gudanar da kididdigar lissafi mai wahala a ko'ina.
Busch da abokan aikinsa sun fara gina injuna biyu da ake kira samfur integraphs. Amma mafi shaharar kuma nasara inji MIT wata daya ce - daban-daban analyzer, kammala a 1931. Ya magance matsalolin da ke tattare da isar da wutar lantarki, ya lissafta yanayin kewayawar electrons, yanayin hasken sararin samaniya a filin maganadisu na duniya, da dai sauransu. Masu bincike a duk faɗin duniya, waɗanda ke buƙatar ikon sarrafa kwamfuta, sun ƙirƙiri ɗimbin kwafi da bambance-bambancen masu nazari a cikin 1930s. Wasu ma daga Meccano suke (analan Ingilishi na ƙirar ƙirar yara na Amurka ).
Mai nazari daban-daban kwamfuta ce ta analog. An ƙididdige ayyukan lissafi ta amfani da sandunan ƙarfe masu jujjuya, saurin jujjuyawar kowannensu yana nuna wasu ƙima. Motar ta kori sanda mai zaman kanta - mai canzawa (yawanci yana wakiltar lokaci), wanda, bi da bi, yana jujjuya sauran sanduna (masu canza launi daban-daban) ta hanyar haɗin injin, kuma an ƙididdige wani aiki bisa saurin jujjuyawar shigarwa. An zana sakamakon lissafin akan takarda a cikin nau'i na masu lankwasa. Abubuwan da suka fi mahimmanci sune masu haɗawa - ƙafafun da ke juyawa azaman diski. Masu haɗaka zasu iya ƙididdige abin da ke cikin lanƙwasa ba tare da ƙwaƙƙwaran ƙididdiga na hannu ba.
Daban-daban analyzer. Ƙaddamar da haɗin kai - tare da murfi da aka ɗaga, a gefen taga akwai tebur tare da sakamakon ƙididdiga, kuma a tsakiya - saitin sandunan kwamfuta.
Babu ɗaya daga cikin abubuwan nazartar da ke ƙunshe da madaidaitan jujjuyawar juzu'i ko kowane musaya na dijital. Don haka me yasa muke magana game da wannan na'urar? Amsar ita ce na hudu motar iyali.
A farkon 1930s, Bush ya fara zawarcin Gidauniyar Rockefeller don samun kuɗi don ƙarin haɓakar mai nazari. Warren Weaver, shugaban gidauniyar kimiyyar halitta, da farko bai gamsu ba. Injiniya ba yankin gwaninta ba ne. Amma Busch ya yi la'akari da sabuwar injinsa mara iyaka don aikace-aikacen kimiyya-musamman a cikin ilimin lissafi, aikin dabbobin Weaver. Bush ya kuma yi alƙawarin ɓullo da yawa ga mai nazarin, gami da "ikon sauya mai nazari da sauri daga wannan matsala zuwa wata, kamar allon wayar tarho." A cikin 1936, an ba wa ƙoƙarinsa kyautar $85 don ƙirƙirar sabuwar na'ura, wanda daga baya aka kira Rockefeller Differential Analyzer.
A matsayin kwamfuta mai amfani, wannan mai nazari ba babban ci gaba ba ne. Bush, wanda ya zama mataimakin shugaban MIT kuma shugaban injiniya, bai iya ba da lokaci mai yawa don jagorantar ci gaban ba. A gaskiya ma, ba da daɗewa ba ya janye, yana ɗaukar aiki a matsayin shugaban Cibiyar Carnegie a Washington. Bush yana ganin yaki yana gabatowa, kuma yana da ra'ayoyin kimiyya da masana'antu da yawa waɗanda zasu iya biyan bukatun sojoji. Wato yana so ya kasance kusa da cibiyar mulki, inda zai iya tasiri sosai wajen warware wasu batutuwa.
A lokaci guda kuma, ma'aikatan dakin gwaje-gwaje sun warware matsalolin fasaha da sabon zane ya tsara, kuma nan da nan aka fara karkatar da su zuwa aiki a kan matsalolin soja. The Rockefeller inji aka kammala kawai a 1942. Sojoji sun gano yana da amfani ga samar da tebur na ballistic don yin amfani da bindigogi a cikin layi. Amma nan da nan wannan na'urar ta lullube ta kawai dijital kwamfutoci — masu wakiltar lambobi ba a matsayin adadi na zahiri ba, amma a zahiri, ta amfani da wurare masu canzawa. Haka ya faru cewa Rockefeller analyzer da kansa ya yi amfani da nau'i-nau'i masu kama da juna, wanda ya ƙunshi da'irori na relay.
Shannon
A shekara ta 1936, Claude Shannon yana da shekaru 20 kacal, amma ya riga ya sauke karatu daga Jami'ar Michigan tare da digiri na farko a injiniyan lantarki da lissafi. An kawo shi MIT ta hanyar foda da aka makala a allon sanarwa. Vannevar Bush yana neman sabon mataimaki don yin aiki a kan masu nazarin bambancin. Shannon ya gabatar da aikace-aikacensa ba tare da jinkiri ba kuma ba da daɗewa ba yana aiki kan sabbin matsaloli kafin sabuwar na'urar ta fara yin tsari.
Shannon ba komai bane kamar Bush. Shi ba dan kasuwa ba ne, ba maginin masarautun ilimi ba, ba kuma mai gudanarwa ba. Duk rayuwarsa yana son wasanni, wasanin gwada ilimi da nishaɗi: dara, juggling, mazes, cryptograms. Kamar mutane da yawa na zamaninsa, a lokacin yakin Shannon ya sadaukar da kansa ga kasuwanci mai mahimmanci: ya rike matsayi a Bell Labs karkashin kwangilar gwamnati, wanda ya kare jikinsa daga aikin soja. Binciken da ya yi game da sarrafa wuta da cryptography a wannan lokacin ya kai ga aikin seminal akan ka'idar bayanai (wanda ba za mu taɓa shi ba). A cikin 1950s, yayin da yakin da abin da ya biyo baya ya ragu, Shannon ya koma koyarwa a MIT, yana ba da lokacinsa na kyauta akan karkatar da hankali: ƙididdiga wanda ke aiki kawai tare da lambobin Roman; wata na'ura, lokacin da aka kunna, sai wani hannu na inji ya fito daga cikinta ya kashe injin din.
Tsarin na'urar Rockefeller da Shannon ya ci karo da ita a ma'ana daidai yake da na na'urar nazari na 1931, amma an gina ta ne daga sassa daban-daban na zahiri. Busch ya gane cewa sanduna da injina a cikin tsofaffin injuna sun rage yadda ake amfani da su: don yin lissafi, injin dole ne a saita shi, wanda ke buƙatar sa'o'i da yawa na aiki ta ƙwararrun injiniyoyi.
Sabon mai nazari ya rasa wannan koma baya. Ƙirar ta ba ta dogara ne akan tebur mai sanduna ba, amma akan faifan faifan giciye, samfurin rarar da Bell Labs ya bayar. Maimakon isar da wutar lantarki daga ramin tsakiya, kowane na'ura mai haɗaɗɗiyar injinan lantarki ya motsa shi da kansa. Don saita na'ura don magance wata sabuwar matsala, ya isa kawai saita relays a cikin matrix mai daidaitawa don haɗa masu haɗawa a cikin jerin da ake so. Mai karanta kaset (wanda aka aro daga wata na'urar sadarwa, roll teletype) ya karanta tsarin na'urar, sai na'urar relay ta canza siginar daga tef ɗin zuwa siginar sarrafa matrix-kamar saita jerin kiran tarho tsakanin masu haɗawa.
Sabuwar na'urar ba wai kawai ta kasance mai sauri da sauƙi don saitawa ba, tana da sauri da inganci fiye da wanda ya gabace ta. Ta iya magance matsaloli masu rikitarwa. A yau ana iya ɗaukar wannan kwamfutar a matsayin tsohuwar, har ma da almubazzaranci, amma a lokacin ya zama kamar masu kallo suna da wasu manyan - ko watakila munanan - hankali a wurin aiki:
Ainihin, mutum-mutumin lissafi ne. Na'ura mai sarrafa wutar lantarki wanda aka tsara ba kawai don sauke kwakwalwar ɗan adam daga nauyin nauyi mai nauyi da bincike ba, amma don kai hari da warware matsalolin ilimin lissafi waɗanda ba za a iya magance su ta hanyar hankali ba.
Shannon ya mai da hankali kan canza bayanai daga tef ɗin takarda zuwa umarni don "kwakwalwa", kuma da'irar relay ce ke da alhakin wannan aiki. Ya lura da wasiƙun da ke tsakanin tsarin da'ira da tsarin lissafi na Boolean algebra, wanda ya yi karatu a makarantar digiri a Michigan. Wannan algebra ne wanda operands suka kasance GASKIYA da KARYA, da kuma masu aiki - KUMA, KO, BA da sauransu. Algebra masu dacewa da maganganun hankali.
Bayan ya shafe lokacin rani na 1937 yana aiki a Bell Labs a Manhattan (wani wuri mai kyau don tunani game da da'irori na relay), Shannon ya rubuta rubutun nasa mai suna "A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits." Tare da aikin Alan Turing a shekarar da ta gabata, littafin Shannon ya kafa tushen kimiyyar kwamfuta.
A cikin 1940s da 1950s, Shannon ya gina injunan kwamfuta da ma'ana da yawa: kalkuleta na THROBAC na Roman, injin ƙarshen wasan dara, da Theseus, labyrinth ta hanyar da linzamin kwamfuta na lantarki ya motsa (hoto)
Shannon ya gano cewa ana iya jujjuya tsarin ma'auni na dabaru kai tsaye ta hanyar injina zuwa da'irar na'urar juyawa ta zahiri. Ya karkare da cewa: “A zahiri duk wani aiki da za a iya siffanta shi da takaitaccen matakai ta hanyar amfani da kalmomi IDAN, DA, KO da sauransu, ana iya yin su ta atomatik ta amfani da relay.” Misali, relays masu sarrafawa guda biyu da aka haɗa a cikin jerin suna zama mai ma'ana И: Yanzu zai gudana ta babban waya kawai lokacin da aka kunna duka na'urorin lantarki don rufe maɓallan. A lokaci guda, relays biyu sun haɗa a layi daya OR: A halin yanzu yana gudana ta hanyar babban kewayawa, wanda ɗayan na'urorin lantarki ke kunnawa. Fitar da irin wannan da'irar dabaru na iya, bi da bi, sarrafa electromagnets na sauran relays don samar da ƙarin hadaddun ayyuka kamar (A). И B) ko (C И G).
Shannon ya kammala karatunsa tare da kari mai kunshe da misalai da dama na da'irori da aka kirkira ta hanyar amfani da hanyarsa. Tun da ayyukan Boolean algebra sun yi kama da ayyukan ƙididdiga a cikin binary (watau ta amfani da lambobin binary), ya nuna yadda za a iya haɗa relay zuwa cikin "lantarki a cikin binary" - muna kiran shi da binary adder. Bayan 'yan watanni, daya daga cikin masana kimiyya na Bell Labs ya gina irin wannan adder a kan teburinsa na dafa abinci.
Stibitz
George Stibitz, wani mai bincike a sashen lissafi a hedkwatar Bell Labs da ke Manhattan, ya kawo wa gida wani bakon kayan aiki a maraice maraice na Nuwamba a 1937. Busassun ƙwayoyin baturi, ƙananan fitilu guda biyu don bangarorin kayan aikin, da kuma wasu nau'ikan relay na nau'in U da aka samu a cikin kwandon shara. Ta hanyar ƙara ƴan wayoyi da tarkace, ya haɗa na'urar da za ta iya ƙara lambobi biyu masu lamba ɗaya (wakilta ta kasancewar ko rashin ƙarfin shigarwa) da fitar da lamba biyu ta amfani da kwararan fitila: ɗaya don kunna, sifili. don kashe.
Binary Stiebitz
Stiebitz, masanin kimiyyar lissafi ta hanyar horarwa, an nemi ya kimanta halayen jiki na maganadisu na relay. Ba shi da masaniya a baya game da relays kwata-kwata don haka ya fara ne da nazarin amfani da su a cikin da'irar tarho na Bell. Ba da daɗewa ba George ya lura da kamance tsakanin wasu da'irori da ayyukan lissafin binary. Cike da sha'awa ya had'a side project d'insa akan table d'in.
Da farko, Stiebitz's dabbling tare da relays ya taso kadan sha'awa tsakanin Bell Labs management. Amma a cikin 1938, shugaban ƙungiyar bincike ya tambayi George ko za a iya amfani da na'urorin ƙididdigansa don ayyukan ƙididdiga tare da lambobi masu rikitarwa (misali. a + b baiinda i shine tushen murabba'in lamba mara kyau). Ya bayyana cewa sassan lissafin da yawa a Bell Labs sun riga sun yi nishi saboda koyaushe suna haɓaka da rarraba irin waɗannan lambobi. Haɓaka hadadden lamba ɗaya yana buƙatar ayyuka huɗu na lissafi akan ma'aunin lissafi, rarraba yana buƙatar ayyuka 16. Stibitz ya ce zai iya magance matsalar kuma ya kera na'ura don irin wannan lissafin.
Zane na ƙarshe, wanda injiniyan tarho Samuel Williams ya haɗa shi da ƙarfe, ana kiransa Complex Number Computer - ko Complex Computer a takaice - kuma an ƙaddamar da shi a cikin 1940. An yi amfani da relays 450 don ƙididdigewa, an adana sakamakon tsaka-tsaki a cikin masu daidaitawa guda goma. An shigar da bayanai kuma an karɓa ta amfani da na'urar nadi. Sassan Bell Labs sun shigar da irin waɗannan nau'ikan nau'ikan telebijin guda uku, waɗanda ke nuna babban buƙatu na ikon sarrafa kwamfuta. Relays, matrix, teletypes - a kowace hanya ya kasance samfurin tsarin Bell.
Mafi kyawun sa'a na Computer ya faru a ranar 11 ga Satumba, 1940. Stiebitz ya gabatar da rahoto kan na'ura mai kwakwalwa a wani taron kungiyar Lissafi na Amurka a Kwalejin Dartmouth. Ya amince cewa za a shigar da na’urar wayar tarho a can tare da hanyar sadarwa ta telegraph zuwa Complex Computer a Manhattan, mai nisan kilomita 400. Masu sha'awar za su iya zuwa nau'in teletype, shigar da yanayin matsalar akan madannai kuma su ga yadda a cikin ƙasa da minti ɗaya teletype ke buga sakamakon sihiri. Daga cikin waɗanda suka gwada sabon samfurin akwai John Mauchly da John von Neumann, kowannensu zai taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen ci gaba da labarinmu.
Mahalarta taron sun ga taƙaitaccen haske game da makomar duniya. Daga baya, kwamfutoci sun yi tsada sosai ta yadda masu gudanar da aikin ba za su iya barin su su zauna ba aiki yayin da mai amfani ya tarar da haƙarsa a gaban na'urar sarrafa kayan aikin, yana mamakin abin da zai buga gaba. A cikin shekaru 20 masu zuwa, masana kimiyya za su yi tunanin yadda za su gina kwamfutoci na gaba ɗaya waɗanda koyaushe za su kasance suna jiran ku don shigar da bayanai a cikin su, koda yayin aiki akan wani abu dabam. Sannan kuma wasu shekaru 20 za su shude har sai wannan tsarin sadarwa na kwamfuta ya zama tsari na yau da kullun.
Stiebitz a bayan Dartmouth Interactive Terminal a cikin 1960s. Kolejin Dartmouth ta kasance majagaba a cikin sarrafa kwamfuta. Stiebitz ya zama malamin kwaleji a 1964
Abin mamaki shi ne, duk da matsalolin da take magancewa, Complex Computer, bisa ka’idojin zamani, ba ita ce kwamfuta kwata-kwata ba. Yana iya aiwatar da ayyukan lissafi akan lambobi masu rikitarwa kuma tabbas zai magance wasu matsaloli makamantan haka, amma ba matsalolin manufa gaba ɗaya ba. Ba shi da shirye-shirye. Ba zai iya yin ayyuka ba bisa ka'ida ko akai-akai. Kalkuleta ne mai iya yin wasu ƙididdiga fiye da waɗanda suka gabace shi.
Da barkewar yakin duniya na biyu, Bell, karkashin jagorancin Stiebitz, ya kirkiro wasu nau'ikan kwamfutoci masu suna Model II, Model III da Model IV (Complex Computer, saboda haka, ana kiranta Model I). Yawancin su an gina su ne bisa bukatar kwamitin bincike na tsaro na kasa, kuma ba kowa ne ke jagoranta ba face Vannevar Bush. Stibitz ya inganta ƙirar injinan dangane da mafi girman haɓakar ayyuka da shirye-shirye.
Misali, an samar da Kalkuleta na Ballistic (daga baya Model III) don buƙatun tsarin sarrafa gobarar jiragen sama. An fara aiki a 1944 a Fort Bliss, Texas. Na'urar tana ƙunshe da relays 1400 kuma tana iya aiwatar da shirin ayyukan lissafin da aka ƙayyade ta jerin umarni akan tef ɗin takarda. An kawo tef mai bayanan shigarwa daban, kuma an kawo bayanan tambura daban. Wannan ya sa ya yiwu a sami ƙimar ƙimar, alal misali, ayyukan trigonometric ba tare da ƙididdigewa na gaske ba. Injiniyoyin Bell sun ƙera da'irori na musamman na bincike (da'irori na farauta) waɗanda ke duba tef ɗin gaba/ baya kuma suka nemo adireshin ƙimar teburin da ake so, ba tare da la'akari da lissafin ba. Stibitz ya gano cewa kwamfutarsa ta Model III, yana danna relays dare da rana, ya maye gurbin kwamfutoci 25-40.
Bell Model III Relay Racks
Motar V Model ba ta da lokacin ganin aikin soja. Ya zama ma fi dacewa da ƙarfi. Idan muka yi la'akari da adadin kwamfutocin da ta maye gurbinsu, to ya kai kusan sau goma girma fiye da Model III. Yawancin nau'ikan kwamfuta tare da relays dubu 9 na iya karɓar bayanan shigarwa daga tashoshi da yawa, inda masu amfani suka shiga yanayin ayyuka daban-daban. Kowace irin wannan tasha tana da mai karanta kaset guda don shigar da bayanai da biyar don umarni. Wannan ya sa ya yiwu a kira subroutines daban-daban daga babban tef lokacin ƙididdige ɗawainiya. Babban tsarin sarrafawa (musamman analogue na tsarin aiki) ya rarraba umarni tsakanin na'urorin kwamfuta dangane da samuwarsu, kuma shirye-shirye na iya yin rassa na sharadi. Ba abin lissafi ba ne kawai.
Shekarar Mu'ujiza: 1937
Ana iya ɗaukar shekarar 1937 a matsayin wani sauyi a cikin tarihin kwamfuta. A wannan shekarar, Shannon da Stibitz sun lura da kamanceceniya tsakanin da'irori na relay da ayyukan lissafi. Waɗannan binciken sun jagoranci Bell Labs don ƙirƙirar jerin mahimman injunan dijital. Ya kasance irin - ko ma musanya - a lokacin da madaidaiciyar hanyar sadarwa ta wayar tarho, ba tare da canza yanayin zahiri ba, ya zama siffa ta ilimin lissafi da dabaru.
A cikin wannan shekarar a cikin Janairu fitowar Abubuwan da aka gabatar na Ƙungiyar Lissafi ta London ya buga labarin wani masanin lissafi dan Burtaniya Alan Turing “A kan lambobi masu iya lissafi dangane da "(Akan Lambobin Lissafi, Tare da Aikace-aikacen zuwa Matsalar Entscheidungs). Ya bayyana wata na'ura mai sarrafa kwamfuta ta duniya: marubucin ya yi jayayya cewa zai iya yin ayyukan da suka dace daidai da ayyukan kwamfutocin ɗan adam. Turing, wanda ya shiga makarantar digiri na biyu a Jami'ar Princeton a shekarar da ta gabata, shi ma yana da sha'awar da'irori na relay. Kuma, kamar Bush, ya damu da karuwar barazanar yaki da Jamus. Don haka ya ɗauki aikin ɓoyayyen ɓoyayyen ɓoyayyiyar ɓoyayyiyar binaryar da za a iya amfani da ita don ɓoye hanyoyin sadarwar soja. Turing ya gina shi daga relays da aka taru a kantin injin jami'a.
Har ila yau, a cikin 1937, Howard Aiken yana tunanin wani na'ura mai sarrafa kwamfuta ta atomatik. Wani dalibi da ya kammala karatun injiniyan lantarki na Harvard, Aiken ya yi daidai rabonsa na lissafin ta amfani da na'urar lissafi kawai da bugu na tebur na lissafi. Ya ba da shawarar zane wanda zai kawar da wannan al'ada. Ba kamar na'urorin kwamfuta da ake da su ba, ya kamata a aiwatar da tsari ta atomatik kuma a cycly, ta yin amfani da sakamakon lissafin da aka yi a baya azaman shigarwa zuwa na gaba.
A halin yanzu, a Kamfanin Lantarki na Nippon, injiniyan sadarwa Akira Nakashima ya kasance yana binciken alakar da'irori da lissafi tun 1935. A ƙarshe, a cikin 1938, da kansa ya tabbatar da daidaiton da'irori na relay zuwa Boolean algebra, wanda Shannon ya gano shekara guda a baya.
A Berlin, Konrad Zuse, tsohon injiniyan jirgin sama ya gaji da ƙididdiga marasa iyaka da ake buƙata a wurin aiki, yana neman kuɗi don gina kwamfuta ta biyu. Ya kasa samun na’urarsa ta farko ta injina, V1, ta yi aiki da dogaro, don haka ya so ya kera na’ura mai kwakwalwa ta relay, wadda ya hada shi da abokinsa, injiniyan sadarwa Helmut Schreyer.
A versatility na tarho relays, ƙarshe game da ilimin lissafi dabaru, da sha'awar masu haske don kawar da tunani-numbing aiki - duk wannan intertwined da ya haifar da bayyanar da ra'ayin wani sabon nau'i na ma'ana inji.
tsarar da aka manta
'Ya'yan itãcen binciken da ci gaban 1937 ya yi girma na shekaru da yawa. Yaƙi ya zama taki mafi ƙarfi, kuma da zuwansa, kwamfutoci na relay sun fara bayyana a duk inda ƙwararrun fasaha suka kasance. Ilimin lissafi ya zama trellis ga kurangar inabin injin lantarki. Sabbin nau'ikan na'urorin kwamfuta masu shirye-shirye sun fito - zanen farko na kwamfutocin zamani.
Baya ga injunan Stiebitz, zuwa 1944 Amurka na iya yin alfahari da Harvard Mark I/IBM Atomatik Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), sakamakon shawarar Aiken. Sunan biyu ya taso saboda tabarbarewar dangantaka tsakanin ilimi da masana'antu: kowa ya yi iƙirarin haƙƙin na'urar. Mark I/ASCC ta yi amfani da da'irori masu sarrafa relay, amma babban sashin lissafin ya dogara ne akan gine-ginen na'urorin ƙididdiga na IBM. An ƙirƙiri motar don buƙatun Ofishin Ginin Jirgin ruwa na Amurka. Magajinsa, Mark II, ya fara aiki a 1948 a wani wurin gwajin Navy, kuma duk ayyukansa sun dogara ne akan relays - 13.
A lokacin yakin, Zuse ya gina kwamfutoci da yawa na relay, suna ƙara rikitarwa. Ƙarshen ita ce V4, wanda, kamar Bell Model V, ya haɗa da saituna don kiran subroutines da kuma yin rassan sharadi. Saboda karancin kayan aiki a Japan, babu wani zane na Nakashima da 'yan uwansa da aka gane da karfe har sai da kasar ta farfado daga yakin. A cikin shekarun 1950, sabuwar ma'aikatar ciniki da masana'antu da aka kafa ta ba da gudummawar samar da injunan gudu guda biyu, na biyun wani dodo ne mai relays dubu 20. Fujitsu, wanda ya shiga cikin ƙirƙira, ya haɓaka samfuran kasuwancinsa.
A yau an kusan manta da waɗannan inji. Suna guda ɗaya kawai ya rage a ƙwaƙwalwar ajiya - ENIAC. Dalilin mantuwa baya da alaka da sarkakinsu, ko iyawarsu, ko gudunsu. Abubuwan ƙididdiga da ma'ana na relays, waɗanda masana kimiyya da masu bincike suka gano, sun shafi kowace irin na'ura da za ta iya aiki azaman canji. Don haka ya faru cewa akwai wata na'ura mai kama da ita - lantarki maɓalli wanda zai iya aiki da sauri sau ɗaruruwan fiye da relay.
Muhimmancin yakin duniya na biyu a cikin tarihin kwamfuta ya kamata ya kasance a bayyane. Yakin da ya fi muni ya zama yunƙurin samar da injunan lantarki. Ƙaddamar da shi ya 'yantar da albarkatun da ake buƙata don shawo kan gazawar bayyanannen na'urorin lantarki. Mulkin kwamfutocin lantarki ba su daɗe ba. Kamar Titans, 'ya'yansu sun yi musu juyin mulki. Kamar relays, canjin lantarki ya taso daga buƙatun masana'antar sadarwa. Kuma don gano inda ya fito, dole ne mu mayar da tarihinmu zuwa wani lokaci a farkon zamanin rediyo.
source: www.habr.com