Nā ʻatikala ʻē aʻe ma ka moʻo:
- Moolelo o ka relay
- Moʻolelo o nā lolouila uila
- Moolelo o ka transistor
- moʻolelo pūnaewele
Ua lōʻihi a paʻakikī ke ala e hele ai i nā hoʻololi paʻa. Ua hoʻomaka me ka ʻike ʻana he ʻano ʻē ke ʻano o kekahi mau mea i mua o ka uila - ʻaʻole e like me nā manaʻo i wānana ʻia. ʻO ka mea i ukali ʻia he moʻolelo e pili ana i ka lilo ʻana o ka ʻenehana i mea hoʻonaʻauao ʻepekema a ʻoihana hoʻi i ke kenekulia 20. Ua hāʻawi koʻikoʻi nā poʻe Amateurs, novices a me nā mea hana ʻoihana me ka ʻole o ka hoʻonaʻauao ʻepekema i ka hoʻomohala ʻana i ka telegraph, telephony a me ka lekiō. Akā, e like me kā mākou e ʻike ai, ʻaneʻane nā mea holomua o ka mōʻaukala o nā mea uila paʻa i loaʻa mai nā ʻepekema i aʻo ʻia ma nā kulanui (a loaʻa pinepine ka PhD i ka physics) a hana ma nā kulanui a i ʻole nā laboratories noiʻi hui.
Hiki i ka poʻe me ke komo ʻana i kahi papa hana a me nā mākaukau kumu waiwai ke hōʻuluʻulu i kahi relay mai nā uea, metala a me ka lāʻau. ʻO ka hana ʻana i nā paipu ʻūhā e pono ai nā mea hana kūikawā e hiki ai ke hana i kahi ʻōpuʻu aniani a pā i ka ea mai loko mai. Ua nalowale nā mea paʻa paʻa i loko o kahi lua rabbit kahi i hoʻihoʻi ʻole ʻia ai ka hoʻololi kikohoʻe, e komo hohonu ana i loko o nā honua hiki ke hoʻomaopopo wale i ka makemakika abstract a hiki ke loaʻa wale me ke kōkua o nā lako waiwai nui.
Galena
I ka makahiki 1874 , he kanaka physicist 24 makahiki mai St. Thomas ma Leipzig, i hoʻopuka i ka mua o nā hana ʻepekema koʻikoʻi i kāna ʻoihana lōʻihi. Ua ʻae ʻia ka pepa, "On the Passage of Electric Currents through Metal Sulfides," ma Pogendorff's Annalen, he puke pai kaulana i hoʻolaʻa ʻia i ka ʻepekema kino. ʻOiai ke poʻo inoa ʻoluʻolu, ua wehewehe ka pepa a Brown i kekahi mau hopena hoʻokolohua kamahaʻo.
ʻO Ferdinand Brown
Ua lilo ʻo Brown i mea hoihoi i nā sulfides—nā kristal mineral i haku ʻia me nā pūhui sulfur me nā metala—ma kāna hana. . I ka makahiki 1833, ua ʻike ʻo Michael Faraday i ka piʻi ʻana o ka conductivity o ka sulfide kālā me ka mahana, ʻo ia ka mea kūʻē i ke ʻano o nā conductors metala. Ua hōʻuluʻulu ʻo Hittorf i kahi hōʻike nui o nā ana o kēia hopena i ka makahiki 1850, no nā sulfide kālā a me ke keleawe. I kēia manawa, ʻo Brown, me ka hoʻohana ʻana i kahi hoʻonohonoho hoʻokolohua akamai i kaomi ʻana i kahi uwea metala i kahi aniani sulfide me kahi pūnāwai e hōʻoia i ka pilina maikaʻi, ua ʻike ʻo ia i kahi mea ʻē aʻe. Ua hilinaʻi ka conductivity o nā kristal i ke kuhikuhi - no ka laʻana, hiki ke kahe maikaʻi ke au i hoʻokahi ʻaoʻao, akā i ka wā i hoʻohuli ʻia ka polarity o ka pākaukau, hiki i ke au ke hāʻule koke. ʻOi aku ka hana o nā kristal e like me nā mea hoʻokele ma kahi ʻaoʻao (e like me nā metala maʻamau) a ʻoi aku ka like me nā insulators i kekahi (e like me ke aniani a i ʻole ka lāʻau). Ua ʻike ʻia kēia waiwai ʻo ka hoʻoponopono ʻana ma muli o kona hiki ke hoʻopololei i ke au ʻokoʻa "ʻokiʻoki" i ke au pololei "flat".
Ma ka manawa like, ua ʻike ka poʻe noiʻi i nā waiwai ʻē aʻe o nā mea e like me ka selenium, hiki ke hoʻoheheʻe ʻia mai kekahi ores sulfide metala. Ke ʻike ʻia i ka mālamalama, hoʻonui ka selenium i ka conductivity a hoʻomaka hoʻi e hana i ka uila, a hiki ke hoʻohana ʻia no ka hoʻoponopono ʻana. Aia kekahi pilina me nā kristal sulfide? Me ka ʻole o nā kumu hoʻohālike e wehewehe i ka mea e hana nei, ua huikau ke kahua.
Akā naʻe, ʻaʻole i hoʻōki ka manaʻo ʻole i ka hoʻāʻo ʻana e hoʻohana pono i nā hopena. I ka hopena o nā makahiki 1890, ua lilo ʻo Brown i polopeka ma ke Kulanui o Strasbourg - i hoʻohui ʻia mai Farani mai i ka wā a ua kapa hou ʻia ʻo Kaiser Wilhelm University. Ma laila ʻo ia i omo ʻia ai i loko o ka honua hou hoihoi o ka radiotelegraphy. Ua ʻae ʻo ia i kahi noi mai kahi hui o nā ʻoihana e hana pū i kahi ʻōnaehana kamaʻilio uea ʻole e pili ana i ka hoʻouna ʻana i nā nalu lekiō ma o ka wai. Akā naʻe, ua haʻalele koke ʻo ia a me kāna mau hoa hana i ka manaʻo kumu no ka hōʻailona lewa, i hoʻohana ʻia e Marconi a me nā mea ʻē aʻe.
Ma waena o nā ʻano o ka lekiō i ʻimi ʻia e ka hui o Brown e hoʻomaikaʻi, ʻo ia ka mea hoʻokipa maʻamau i kēlā manawa. . Ua hoʻokumu ʻia ma ka ʻoiaʻiʻo o nā nalu lekiō i hoʻopili pū ʻia nā faila metala, e ʻae ana i ka manawa mai ka pākaukau e hele i ka mea hōʻailona. Ua hana, akā ua pane wale ka ʻōnaehana i nā hōʻailona koʻikoʻi, a pono ia e paʻi mau i ka hāmeʻa e wāwahi ai i kahi puʻupuʻu sawdust. Ua hoʻomanaʻo ʻo Brown i kāna mau hoʻokolohua kahiko me nā kristal sulfide, a i ka makahiki 1899 ua hana hou ʻo ia i kāna hoʻonohonoho hoʻokolohua kahiko me kahi kumu hou - e lawelawe ma ke ʻano he mea ʻike no nā hōʻailona uila. Ua hoʻohana ʻo ia i ka hopena hoʻoponopono no ka hoʻohuli ʻana i ke au oscillating liʻiliʻi i hana ʻia e ka hoʻoheheʻe ʻana i nā nalu lekiō i kahi au pololei e hiki ai ke hoʻoikaika i kahi ʻōlelo liʻiliʻi e hoʻopuka i kahi kaomi hoʻolohe no kēlā me kēia kiko a i ʻole ke kaha. Ua ʻike ʻia kēia mea hana ma hope mai ʻo ""ma muli o ke ʻano o ka uea, i pā maʻalahi i ka piko o ke aniani. Ma Inia Beretania (kahi i loaʻa ai ʻo Bangladesh i kēia lā), ua kūkulu ka mea ʻepekema a me ka mea hoʻokumu ʻo Jagadish Bose i kahi mea like, i ka makahiki 1894 paha. Ua hoʻomaka koke kekahi poʻe e hana i nā mea ʻike like e pili ana i ka silicon a me ka carborundum (silicon carbide).
Eia naʻe, ʻo ia , ke kēpau sulfide, ka mea i hooheheeia e hana i ke kepau mai ka wa kahiko mai, ua lilo ia i mea koho no na mea ike aniani. He maʻalahi lākou e hana a maʻalahi, a ma muli o ka hopena ua lilo lākou i mea kaulana loa i waena o ka hanauna mua o nā mea hoʻokani lekiō. Eia kekahi, ʻaʻole e like me ka coherer binary (me ka sawdust i hui pū ʻia a ʻaʻole ʻole), hiki i ka crystalline rectifier ke hana hou i kahi hōʻailona mau. No laila, hiki iā ia ke hoʻopuka i ka leo a me ke mele i lohe ʻia e ka pepeiao, ʻaʻole wale i ka code Morse me kona mau kiko a me nā kaha.
ʻO ka ʻimi ʻumiʻumi o ka pōpoki ma muli o ka galena. ʻO ka ʻāpana uea liʻiliʻi ma ka ʻaoʻao hema, ʻo ia ka ʻumikū, a ʻo ka ʻāpana kālā ma lalo he aniani galena.
Eia naʻe, e like me ka ʻike koke ʻana o ka poʻe lekiō huhū, hiki ke lawe i nā minuke a i ʻole mau hola e ʻike ai i ke kiko kilokilo ma ka ʻili o ka aniani e hāʻawi i ka hoʻoponopono maikaʻi. A ua nāwaliwali nā hōʻailona me ka hoʻonui ʻole ʻia a me ke kani metala. Ma nā makahiki 1920, ua hoʻolilo ʻia nā mea ʻike aniani ʻeleʻele i nā wahi a pau. ʻO kā lākou hiʻohiʻona maikaʻi wale nō ko lākou ʻano haʻahaʻa.
ʻO kēia hiʻohiʻona pōkole i ka pā lekiō me he mea lā ʻo ia ka palena o ka hoʻohana pono ʻana i nā waiwai uila ʻē aʻe o ka mea i ʻike ʻia e Brown a me nā mea ʻē aʻe.
Copper oxide
A laila i ka makahiki 1920, ua ʻike ʻia kekahi mea ʻokoʻa ʻē aʻe i kapa ʻia ʻo Lars Grondahl me kāna hoʻonohonoho hoʻokolohua. ʻO Grondahl, ka mea mua o ka laina o nā kānaka akamai a hoʻomaha ʻole i ka mōʻaukala o ʻAmelika Komohana, he keiki ia na kahi ʻenekinia kīwila. ʻO kona makuakāne, ka mea i neʻe mai Norewai i ka makahiki 1880, ua hana ʻo ia no kekahi mau makahiki ma ke ala kaʻaahi ma Kaleponi, Oregon a me Wakinekona. I ka wā mua, ua manaʻo ʻo Grondahl e haʻalele i ka honua ʻenekinia o kona makuakāne, e hele ana i Johns Hopkins no ke kauka kauka ma ka physics e alualu i ke ala kula. Akā, ua komo ʻo ia i loko o ka ʻoihana kaʻaahi a lawe i kahi kūlana ma ke ʻano he luna noiʻi ma Union Switch and Signal, kahi mahele o ka ʻoihana pilikua. , nāna i hoʻolako i nā lako no ka ʻoihana kaʻaahi.
Hōʻike nā kumu like ʻole i nā kumu kū'ē i ka hoʻoikaika ʻana o Grondahl i kāna noiʻi, akā naʻe, ua hoʻomaka ʻo ia e hoʻokolohua me nā diski keleawe i hoʻomehana ʻia ma kekahi ʻaoʻao e hana i kahi papa oxidized. ʻOiai ʻo ia e hana pū ana me lākou, ʻike ʻo ia i ka asymmetry o kēia manawa - ʻoi aku ka nui o ke kūʻē ʻana ma kekahi ʻaoʻao ma mua o kekahi. Ua hoʻoponopono ʻia ke au e like me ke aniani sulfide kahi diski keleawe a me ka ʻokikene keleawe.
Kaapuni Oxide Rectifier
Ua hoʻohana ʻo Grondahl i nā makahiki ʻeono e hiki mai ana i ka hoʻomohala ʻana i kahi hoʻoponopono pāʻoihana mākaukau e hoʻohana ʻia e pili ana i kēia hanana, e noi ana i ke kōkua o kekahi mea noiʻi US ʻē aʻe, ʻo Paul Geiger, ma mua o ka waiho ʻana i kahi palapala patent a hoʻolaha i kāna ʻike ʻana i ka American Physical Society ma 1926. lilo koke i mea pāʻoihana. Ma muli o ka loaʻa ʻole o nā filament palupalu, ʻoi aku ka hilinaʻi o ia ma mua o ka hoʻoponopono ʻana i ka pahu pahu ma muli o ke kumu Fleming valve, a ʻoi aku ka maʻalahi o ka hana ʻana. ʻAʻole like me nā kristal rectifier Brown, ua hana ia i ka hoʻāʻo mua, a ma muli o ka nui o ka hoʻopili ʻana ma waena o ka metala a me ka oxide, ua hana ia me ka nui o nā au a me nā voltages. Hiki iā ia ke hoʻopaʻa i nā pila, ʻike i nā hōʻailona ma nā ʻōnaehana uila like ʻole, a hana ma ke ʻano he shunt palekana i nā mea hana mana. Ke hoʻohana ʻia ma ke ʻano he kiʻi paʻi kiʻi, hiki i nā disc ke hana ma ke ʻano he mau mika māmā, a he mea pono loa i ke kiʻi. Ua hoʻomohala nā mea noiʻi ʻē aʻe i ka manawa like i nā mea hoʻoponopono selenium i loaʻa nā noi like.
ʻO kahi pūʻulu o nā mea hoʻoponopono e pili ana i ka copper oxide. ʻO kahi hui o nā disks i hoʻonui i ke kū'ē kū'ē, i hiki ai ke hoʻohana iā lākou me ka volta kiʻekiʻe.
I kekahi mau makahiki ma hope mai, ʻelua Bell Labs physicists, ʻo Joseph Becker a me , ua hoʻoholo e aʻo i ke kumu hana o ka hoʻoponopono keleawe - makemake lākou e aʻo i ka hana a pehea e hoʻohana ʻia ai ma ka Bell System.
ʻO Brattain i ka wā ʻelemakule - approx. 1950
No ka wahi like ʻo Brattain me Grondal, ma ka Pākīpika Northwest, kahi i ulu ai ʻo ia ma kahi mahiʻai he mau kilomita mai ka palena ʻo Kanada. Ma ke kula kiʻekiʻe, ua lilo ʻo ia i hoihoi i ka physics, e hōʻike ana i ke akamai ma ke kula, a ua loaʻa iā ia kahi kauka mai ke Kulanui o Minnesota i ka hopena o 1920s, a lawe ʻo ia i kahi hana ma Bell Laboratories ma 1929. Ma waena o nā mea ʻē aʻe, ma ke kulanui āna i aʻo ai. ʻO ka physics theoretical hou loa, e kaulana ana ma ʻEulopa, a ʻike ʻia ʻo quantum mechanics (ʻo kona curator , nāna i alakaʻi iā John Atanasoff).
Kuantum revolution
Ua hoʻomohala mālie kahi paepae theoretical hou i nā makahiki he ʻekolu i hala iho nei, a i ka manawa kūpono e hiki ai iā ia ke wehewehe i nā mea ʻē aʻe i ʻike ʻia no nā makahiki i nā mea e like me ka galena, selenium a me ka copper oxide. ʻO kahi pūʻulu holoʻokoʻa o ka hapa nui o nā physicists ʻōpio, ʻo ka hapa nui mai Kelemania a me nā ʻāina e pili ana, ua hoʻokumu i ka quantum revolution i ka physics. Ma nā wahi a pau a lākou i nānā ai, ʻaʻole lākou i ʻike i ka honua paheʻe a hoʻomau i aʻo ʻia iā lākou, akā he mau puʻupuʻu ʻē aʻe.
Ua hoʻomaka ia i nā makahiki 1890. Ua hoʻoholo ʻo Max Planck, he polopeka kaulana ma ke Kulanui o Berlin, e hana me kahi pilikia i ʻike ʻole ʻia: pehea ""(he mea waiwai maikaʻi e hoʻomoʻa i ka ikehu āpau a ʻaʻole e hōʻike iā ia) e hoʻokuʻu i ka radiation i ka spectrum electromagnetic? Ua hoʻāʻo ʻia nā ʻano hoʻohālike like ʻole, ʻaʻohe o ia mau mea i kūlike me nā hopena hoʻokolohua - ua hāʻule lākou ma kekahi ʻaoʻao o ka spectrum a i ʻole kekahi. Ua ʻike ʻo Planck inā mākou e manaʻo e hoʻopuka ʻia ka ikehu e ke kino i loko o nā "paʻi" liʻiliʻi o nā nui ʻokoʻa, a laila hiki iā mākou ke kākau i lalo i kahi kānāwai maʻalahi o ka pilina ma waena o ka pinepine a me ka ikehu, i kūpono loa i nā hopena empirical.
Ma hope koke iho, ua ʻike ʻo Einstein ua like ka hana me ka absorption o ka mālamalama (ka hōʻike mua o nā kiʻi kiʻi), a ua hōʻike ʻo J. J. Thomson i ka lawe ʻia ʻana o ka uila ʻaʻole e ka wai mau a i ʻole ka nalu, akā ma nā ʻāpana discrete - electrons. A laila, hana ʻo Niels Bohr i kumu hoʻohālike e wehewehe i ka hoʻokuʻu ʻana o nā ʻātoma hauʻoli i ka radiation ma o ka hāʻawi ʻana i nā electrons i nā orbit pākahi i loko o ka atom, kēlā me kēia me kona ikehu ponoʻī. Akā naʻe, he mea hoʻopunipuni kēia inoa no ka mea ʻaʻole lākou e hana like me nā orbit o nā hōkū - ma ke kumu hoʻohālike a Bohr, lele koke nā electrons mai kahi orbit, a i ʻole ka pae ikehu, a i kekahi, me ka hele ʻole ʻana i kahi mokuʻāina waena. ʻO ka mea hope loa, i nā makahiki 1920, ua hana ʻo Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born a me nā mea ʻē aʻe i kahi kahua makemakika laulā i kapa ʻia ʻo quantum mechanics, e hoʻopili ana i nā hiʻohiʻona quantum kūikawā i hana ʻia i nā makahiki he iwakālua i hala.
I kēia manawa, ua hilinaʻi mua nā physicists i nā mea e like me ka selenium a me ka galena, ka mea i hōʻike i ka photovoltaic a me ka hoʻoponopono ʻana i nā waiwai, aia i kahi papa ʻokoʻa o nā mea, i kapa ʻia lākou he semiconductors. Ua lōʻihi ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana no nā kumu he nui. ʻO ka mea mua, ʻo nā ʻāpana "conductors" a me "insulators" iā lākou iho he ākea ākea. ʻO T.N. Ua ʻokoʻa loa ka "conductors" i ka conductivity, a ʻo ia (i ka liʻiliʻi liʻiliʻi) he ʻoiaʻiʻo no nā insulators, a ʻaʻole maopopo i ke ʻano o ka hoʻokaʻawale ʻana i kekahi o kēia mau papa. Eia kekahi, a hiki i ka waena o ke kenekulia 20 ʻaʻole hiki ke loaʻa a hana i nā mea maʻemaʻe loa, a ʻo nā mea ʻē aʻe i ka conductivity o nā mea kūlohelohe hiki ke hoʻopili ʻia i ka contamination.
Ua loaʻa i nā physicists nā mea hana makemakika o quantum mechanics a me kahi papa hou o nā mea hiki ke hoʻohana ʻia. ʻO ka manaʻo Pelekane ʻO ia ka mea mua i hui pū a kūkulu i kahi kumu hoʻohālike maʻamau o nā semiconductor a pehea lākou e hana ai i ka makahiki 1931.
I ka wā mua, ua hoʻopaʻapaʻa ʻo Wilson he ʻokoʻa nā mea conductive mai nā dielectrics i ka mokuʻāina o kā lākou mau kaha ikehu. Ua ʻōlelo ʻo Quantum mechanics e hiki i nā electrons ke noho i kahi helu palena o nā pae ikehu i loaʻa i loko o nā pūpū, a i ʻole nā orbital, o nā ʻātoma pākahi. Inā ʻomi ʻoe i kēia mau ʻātoma i loko o ke ʻano o kahi mea, ʻoi aku ka pololei o ka noʻonoʻo ʻana i nā ʻāpana ikehu mau e hele ana ma ia. Aia nā wahi hakahaka i loko o nā mea hoʻokele i nā pūʻali ikehu kiʻekiʻe, a hiki i ke kahua uila ke hoʻoneʻe manuahi i nā electrons ma laila. I loko o nā insulators, ua hoʻopiha ʻia nā ʻāpana, a he lōʻihi loa ka piʻi ʻana a hiki i kahi kiʻekiʻe, e alakaʻi ana i kahi wahi e maʻalahi ai ka hele ʻana o ka uila.
Ua alakaʻi ʻo ia iā ia i ka manaʻo ʻo nā mea haumia - nā ʻātoma haole i loko o ka hale o kahi mea - pono e kōkua i kāna mau waiwai semiconductor. Hiki iā lākou ke hāʻawi i nā electrons ʻē aʻe, e pakele maʻalahi i loko o ka hui conduction, a i ʻole nā lua-ka nele o nā electrons e pili ana i ke koena o ka mea-e hana i nā wahi ikehu ʻole kahi e hiki ai i nā electrons manuahi ke neʻe. ʻO ka koho mua ma hope mai i kapa ʻia ʻo n-type (a i ʻole uila) semiconductors ma muli o ka nui o ka hoʻopiʻi maikaʻi ʻole, a ʻo ka lua - p-type a i ʻole hole semiconductors no ka nui o ka uku maikaʻi.
ʻO ka hope, ua ʻōlelo ʻo Wilson e hiki ke wehewehe ʻia ka hoʻoponopono ʻana i kēia manawa e nā semiconductors ma nā huaʻōlelo quantum quantum. , ka lele koke ʻana o nā electrons ma kahi pale uila lahilahi i loko o kahi mea. ʻO ke kumumanaʻo he mea kūpono ia, akā ua wānana ʻo ia i loko o ka rectifier e kahe ke au mai ka oxide a i ke keleawe, ʻoiai ʻo ka ʻoiaʻiʻo ʻo ia ke ala ʻē aʻe.
No laila, ʻoiai ʻo nā hanana holomua a Wilson, ua paʻakikī ka wehewehe ʻana i nā semiconductor. E like me ka maopopo ʻana, ua hoʻololi ʻia nā loli microscopic i ke ʻano aniani a me ka neʻe ʻana o nā haumia i hoʻopilikia ʻole i kā lākou ʻano uila macroscopic. Ke nānā ʻole nei i ka ʻike ʻole - no ka mea ʻaʻole hiki i kekahi ke wehewehe i nā ʻike hoʻokolohua i hana ʻia e Brown i 60 mau makahiki ma mua - ua hoʻomohala ʻo Brattain lāua ʻo Becker i kahi kaʻina hana hana kūpono no nā mea hoʻoponopono copper-oxide no kā lākou mea hana. Ua hoʻomaka koke ka Bell System i ka hoʻololi ʻana i nā mea hoʻoponopono ʻana i ka pahu pahu ma loko o ka ʻōnaehana me kahi mea hou i kapa ʻia e kā lākou poʻe ʻenekinia. , no ka mea ua ʻokoʻa kona kūʻē ʻana ma muli o ke kuhikuhi.
mekala gula
ʻO Mervyn Kelly, he physicist a me ke poʻo mua o ka ʻoihana ʻo ke keʻena ʻumeke o Bell Labs, ua makemake nui i kēia hoʻomohala ʻana. I loko o nā makahiki he ʻumi, ua hāʻawi ʻia nā puʻupuʻu haʻahaʻa iā Bell me ka lawelawe koʻikoʻi, a ua hiki iā lākou ke hana i nā hana i hiki ʻole ke hana me ka hanauna mua o nā mea mechanical a electromechanical. Akā, ua holo lākou me ka wela, ka wela mau, hoʻopau i ka ikehu, a paʻakikī ke mālama. Ua manaʻo ʻo Kelly e kūkulu hou i ka ʻōnaehana ʻo Bell me nā ʻāpana uila paʻa paʻa paʻa a paʻa loa, e like me nā varistors, ʻaʻole pono i hoʻopaʻa ʻia, piha i ke kinoea a i ʻole nā hihia wela. I ka makahiki 1936, ua lilo ʻo ia i poʻo o ka ʻoihana noiʻi ʻo Bell Labs, a hoʻomaka ʻo ia e hoʻohuli i ka hui ma kahi ala hou.
Ma hope o ka loaʻa ʻana o kahi mea hoʻoponopono paʻa, ʻo ka hana aʻe i ʻike ʻia ʻo ia ka hana ʻana i kahi mea hoʻonui paʻa. Ma keʻano maʻamau, e like me ka mea hoʻonui paipu, hiki ke hana ʻia kēlā mea hana ma ke ʻano he hoʻololi kikohoʻe. He mea hoihoi loa kēia i ka hui ʻo Bell, ʻoiai ua hoʻohana mau nā hoʻololi kelepona i ka nui o nā hoʻololi kikohoʻe electromechanical. Ke ʻimi nei ka hui i kahi mea hoʻololi hilinaʻi, ʻoi aku ka liʻiliʻi, ʻoi aku ka maikaʻi o ka ikehu a ʻoi aku ka maʻalili no ka paipu maloʻo ma nā ʻōnaehana kelepona, radios, radar a me nā mea hana analog ʻē aʻe, kahi i hoʻohana ʻia ai e hoʻonui i nā hōʻailona nāwaliwali i nā pae i hiki i ka pepeiao o ke kanaka ke lohe.
I ka makahiki 1936, ua hoʻokiʻekiʻe ʻo Bell Laboratories i ka hoʻolimalima manuahi i kau ʻia i ka wā . Ua hoʻomaka koke ʻo Kelly i ka ʻimi ʻana i nā loea quantum mechanics e kōkua i ka hoʻomaka ʻana i kāna papahana noiʻi solid-state, me , kekahi kamaaina Komohana Komohana, mai Palo Alto, Kaleponi. Ua kūpono loa ke kumuhana o kāna dissertation MIT hou i nā pono o Kelly: "Electron Bands in Sodium Chloride."
Ua hoʻomau ʻo Brattain lāua ʻo Becker i kā lākou noiʻi ʻana i ka copper oxide rectifier i kēia manawa, e ʻimi ana i kahi mea hoʻonui ikaika. ʻO ke ala maopopo loa e hana ai ʻo ia ka hahai ʻana i ke ʻano hoʻohālikelike me kahi paipu māmā. E like me ka lawe ʻana o Lee de Forest i kahi paipu amp a ma waena o ka cathode a me ka anode, a ua noʻonoʻo ʻo Brattain lāua ʻo Becker i ke ʻano o ka hoʻokomo ʻia ʻana o ka mesh ma ka hui ʻana o ke keleawe a me ke keleawe oxide, kahi i manaʻo ʻia e hoʻoponopono ʻia. Eia naʻe, ma muli o ka liʻiliʻi o ka mānoanoa o ka papa, ua ʻike lākou he hiki ʻole ke hana i kēia, a ʻaʻole i kūleʻa i kēia.
I kēia manawa, ua hōʻike ʻia nā hanana ʻē aʻe ʻaʻole ʻo Bell Labs wale nō ka ʻoihana makemake i ka uila paʻa. I ka makahiki 1938, ua paʻi ʻo Rudolf Hilsch lāua ʻo Robert Pohl i nā hopena o nā hoʻokolohua i hana ʻia ma ke Kulanui o Göttingen ma kahi mea hoʻoikaika paʻa paʻa i hana ʻia ma ka hoʻokomo ʻana i kahi mākia i loko o kahi aniani bromide potassium. ʻAʻohe waiwai kūpono o kēia mea hoʻokolohua, no ka mea, ua hana ʻo ia ma ke alapine ʻaʻole ʻoi aku ma mua o 1 Hz. Akā naʻe, ʻaʻole hiki i kēia hoʻokō ke ʻoluʻolu i ka poʻe a pau e makemake ana i ka electronic solid-state. I kēlā makahiki hoʻokahi, ua hāʻawi ʻo Kelly iā Shockley i kahi hui noiʻi ʻenehana kūʻokoʻa kūʻokoʻa hou a hāʻawi iā ia a me kāna mau hoa hana ʻo Foster Nix lāua ʻo Dean Woolridge carte blanche e ʻimi i ko lākou hiki.
Ma ka liʻiliʻi loa, ʻelua mau mea hana i hana i nā mea hoʻonui paʻa ma mua o ke Kaua Honua II. I ka makahiki 1922, Soviet physicist and inventor hoʻopuka i nā hopena o nā hoʻokolohua kūleʻa me nā semiconductors zincite, akā ʻaʻole i ʻike ʻia kāna hana e ke kaiāulu Komohana; I ka makahiki 1926, ua noi ʻo Julius Lillenfield ka mea hoʻokumu ʻAmelika i kahi patent no ka hoʻonui ʻana i ka mokuʻāina paʻa, akā ʻaʻohe mea hōʻike i hana ʻia kāna mea hana.
ʻO ka ʻike nui mua o Shockley i kona kūlana hou i loaʻa i ka heluhelu ʻana i ka hana physicist Pelekane ʻo Neville Moth i ka makahiki 1938, The Theory of Crystalline Rectifiers, nāna i wehewehe hope i ke kumu o ka hana o ka Grondahl copper oxide rectifier. Ua hoʻohana ʻo Mott i ka makemakika o ka quantum mechanics e wehewehe i ka hoʻokumu ʻana o kahi kahua uila ma ka hui ʻana o kahi metala hoʻokele a me ka semiconducting oxide, a pehea e "lele ai" nā electrons ma luna o kēia pale uila, ma mua o ke kau ʻana e like me ka manaʻo o Wilson. ʻOi aku ka maʻalahi o ke kahe ʻana mai ka metala a i ka semiconductor ma mua o ka hoʻololi ʻana no ka mea he nui nā electrons manuahi o ka metala.
Ua alakaʻi kēia iā Shockley i ka manaʻo like a Brattain lāua ʻo Becker i noʻonoʻo ai a hōʻole ʻia i nā makahiki ma mua-ka hana ʻana i kahi mea hoʻonui paʻa ma o ka hoʻokomo ʻana i ka mesh copper oxide ma waena o ke keleawe a me ka copper oxide. Ua manaʻolana ʻo ia e hoʻonui ʻia ke kahe e kahe ana ma ka mānoanoa i ka pale e kaupalena ana i ke kahe o kēia manawa mai ke keleawe a i ka oxide, e hana ana i kahi mana hoʻohuli a hoʻonui ʻia o ka hōʻailona ma ka pā. ʻAʻole i hāʻule loa kāna hoʻāʻo mua ʻana, no laila ua huli ʻo ia i kahi kanaka me nā mākau hale hana hoʻomaʻemaʻe hou aʻe a kamaʻāina me nā mea hoʻoponopono: Walter Brattain. A, ʻoiai ʻaʻohe ona kanalua e pili ana i ka hopena, ua ʻae ʻo Brattain e hoʻomāʻona i ko Shockley makemake, a ua hana i kahi mana paʻakikī o ka "grid" amplifier. Ua hōʻole ʻo ia i ka hana.
A laila, komo mai ke kaua, a waiho wale i ka papahana noiʻi hou a Kelly. Ua lilo ʻo Kelly i poʻo o ka hui hana radar ma Bell Labs, i kākoʻo ʻia e ke kikowaena noiʻi radar nui o US ma MIT. Ua hana pōkole ʻo Brattain iā ia, a laila neʻe ʻo ia i ka noiʻi e pili ana i ka ʻike magnetic o nā submarines no ka navy. Ua hana ʻo Woolridge i nā ʻōnaehana hoʻomalu ahi, ua hana ʻo Nix i ka diffusion gas no ka Manhattan Project, a ua hele ʻo Shockley i ka noiʻi hana, hana mua ma ke kaua anti-submarine ma ka ʻAkelanika a laila ma ka hoʻolālā hoʻolālā i ka Pākīpika.
Akā naʻe me kēia hana, ʻaʻole i hoʻōki ke kaua i ka hoʻomohala ʻana i nā mea uila paʻa. ʻO ka mea ʻē aʻe, ua hoʻonohonoho ia i kahi infusion nui o nā kumuwaiwai i loko o ke kula, a alakaʻi i ka ʻimi noiʻi ma nā mea ʻelua: germanium a me ke silika.
He aha hou aʻe e heluhelu ai
ʻO Ernest Bruan lāua ʻo Stuart MacDonald, Revolution in Miniature (1978)
ʻO Friedrich Kurylo lāua ʻo Charles Susskind, Ferdinand Braun (1981)
ʻO G. L. Pearson lāua ʻo W. H. Brattain, "History of Semiconductor Research," Proceedings of the IRE (December 1955).
ʻO Michael Riordan lāua ʻo Lillian Hoddeson, Crystal Fire (1997)
Source: www.habr.com