Txhua tus neeg muab kev pabcuam huab muab cov kev pabcuam khaws cia. Cov no tuaj yeem ua rau txias thiab kub cia, Ice-txias, thiab lwm yam. Kev khaws cov ntaub ntawv hauv huab yog yooj yim heev. Tab sis cov ntaub ntawv tau khaws cia li cas 10, 20, 50 xyoo dhau los? Cloud4Y tau txhais ib tsab xov xwm nthuav dav uas hais txog qhov no xwb.
Ib byte ntawm cov ntaub ntawv tuaj yeem muab khaws cia rau hauv ntau txoj hauv kev, raws li qhov tshiab, ntau dua thiab ceev cia cov xov xwm tshwm sim txhua lub sijhawm. Ib byte yog ib chav tsev khaws cia thiab ua cov ntaub ntawv digital, uas muaj yim ntsis. Ib ntsis tuaj yeem muaj 0 lossis 1.
Nyob rau hauv cov ntaub ntawv ntawm punched phaib, lub me ntsis yog khaws cia raws li lub xub ntiag / tsis muaj ib lub qhov nyob rau hauv daim npav ntawm ib qho chaw. Yog tias peb rov qab mus ntxiv me ntsis rau Babbage's Analytical Engine, cov ntawv sau npe uas khaws cov lej yog cov iav. Hauv cov khoom siv sib nqus xws li tapes thiab disks, me ntsis yog sawv cev los ntawm polarity ntawm ib cheeb tsam tshwj xeeb ntawm cov yeeb yaj kiab sib nqus. Nyob rau hauv niaj hnub dynamic random access memory (DRAM), me ntsis feem ntau yog sawv cev raws li ib tug ob-theem hluav taws xob nqi khaws cia nyob rau hauv ib tug ntaus ntawv uas khaws cov hluav taws xob hluav taws xob nyob rau hauv ib tug hluav taws xob teb. Ib lub thawv them los yog tso tawm khaws cia me ntsis ntawm cov ntaub ntawv.
Lub Rau Hli 1956 invented lo lus los qhia ib pawg ntawm cov khoom siv los encode ib tus cim . Wb tham me ntsis txog tus cwj pwm encoding. Cia peb pib nrog Asmeskas tus qauv code rau kev sib pauv ntaub ntawv, lossis ASCII. ASCII tau ua raws li cov tsiaj ntawv Askiv, yog li txhua tsab ntawv, tus lej thiab cim (az, AZ, 0-9, +, - , /, ", !, thiab lwm yam. ) tau sawv cev ua tus lej 7-ntsis ntawm 32 txog 127. Qhov no tsis yog "tus phooj ywg" rau lwm yam lus. Txhawm rau txhawb lwm hom lus, Unicode txuas ntxiv ASCII. Hauv Unicode txhua tus cim tau sawv cev ua tus lej taw tes, lossis cim, piv txwv li. , tus lej j yog U + 006A, qhov twg U sawv rau Unicode thiab tom qab ntawd tus lej hexadecimal.
UTF-8 yog tus qauv rau sawv cev rau cov cim raws li yim yam khoom, tso cai rau txhua tus lej taw tes hauv thaj tsam 0-127 khaws cia hauv ib lub byte. Yog tias peb nco txog ASCII, qhov no yog ib txwm zoo rau cov cim lus Askiv, tab sis lwm cov cim lus feem ntau qhia hauv ob lossis ntau dua bytes. UTF-16 yog tus qauv rau sawv cev cov cim raws li 16 khoom, thiab UTF-32 yog tus qauv rau sawv cev cov cim li 32 khoom. Hauv ASCII, txhua tus cim yog ib byte, tab sis hauv Unicode, uas feem ntau tsis muaj tseeb, tus cwj pwm tuaj yeem tuav 1, 2, 3 lossis ntau dua bytes. Cov kab lus yuav siv ntau qhov sib txawv pawg ntawm cov khoom. Tus naj npawb ntawm cov khoom hauv ib byte sib txawv nyob ntawm qhov tsim ntawm cov xov xwm.
Hauv tsab xov xwm no, peb yuav rov qab mus rau lub sijhawm dhau los ntawm ntau yam kev tshaj tawm khaws cia kom delve rau hauv keeb kwm ntawm cov ntaub ntawv khaws cia. Tsis muaj teeb meem peb yuav pib kawm tob txog txhua qhov chaw cia khoom uas tau tsim los lawm. Qhov no yog ib tsab xov xwm lom zem uas tsis muaj txoj hauv kev lees tias yog qhov tseem ceeb ntawm encyclopedic.
Cia peb pib. Cia peb hais tias peb muaj cov ntaub ntawv byte khaws cia: tsab ntawv j, xws li encoded byte 6a, lossis raws li binary 01001010. Thaum peb mus txog lub sijhawm, cov ntaub ntawv byte yuav siv ntau lub thev naus laus zis uas yuav tau piav qhia.
1951
Peb zaj dab neeg pib thaum xyoo 1951 nrog UNIVAC UNISERVO daim kab xev tsav rau UNIVAC 1 lub khoos phis tawj. Cov qhab no yog tsim los ntawm ib tug nyias strip ntawm npib tsib xee-plated bronze, 12,65 mm dav (hu ua Vicalloy) thiab yuav luag 366 meters ntev. Peb cov ntaub ntawv bytes tuaj yeem khaws cia ntawm 7 cim ib ob ntawm daim kab xev txav ntawm 200 meters ib ob. Nyob rau ntawm no hauv keeb kwm, koj tuaj yeem ntsuas qhov ceev ntawm kev khaws cia algorithm los ntawm qhov kev ncua deb ntawm daim kab xev mus.
1952
Ceev ceev rau ib xyoos mus rau lub Tsib Hlis 21, 1952, thaum IBM tshaj tawm qhov kev tso tawm ntawm nws thawj zaug sib nqus daim kab xev, IBM 726. Peb byte ntawm cov ntaub ntawv tam sim no tuaj yeem txav los ntawm UNISERVO hlau daim kab xev mus rau IBM magnetic daim kab xev. Lub tsev tshiab no tau ua kom zoo nkauj heev rau peb cov ntaub ntawv me me, vim tias daim kab xev tuaj yeem khaws tau txog 2 lab tus lej. Qhov no 7-khiav sib nqus daim kab xev txav ntawm 1,9 meters ib ob nrog baud tus nqi ntawm 12 lossis xnumx (thaum lub sijhawm ntawd hu ua cov pab pawg luam) ib ob. Rau kev siv: qhov nruab nrab kab lus ntawm Habre muaj kwv yees li 10 tus cim.
IBM 726 daim kab xev muaj xya txoj kab, rau qhov uas tau siv rau khaws cov ntaub ntawv, thiab ib qho rau kev tswj hwm kev sib raug zoo. Ib lub reel tuaj yeem ncav cuag 400 meters ntawm daim kab xev nrog qhov dav ntawm 1,25 cm. Cov ntaub ntawv hloov ceev theoretically mus txog 12,5 txhiab cim ib ob; Cov ntaub ntawv ceev yog 40 ntsis ib centimeter. Cov txheej txheem no tau siv txoj hauv kev "nqus channel" nyob rau hauv uas ib lub voj ntawm daim kab xev ncig ntawm ob lub ntsiab lus. Qhov no tso cai rau daim kab xev pib thiab nres hauv ib feem ntawm ib pliag. Qhov no tau ua tiav los ntawm kev tso cov kab txuas ntev ntev ntawm cov kab xev thiab cov ntawv nyeem / sau taub hau kom nqus tau qhov nrawm nrawm ntawm daim kab xev, yam tsis muaj daim kab xev feem ntau tawg. Lub nplhaib yas tshem tau nyob tom qab ntawm daim kab xev reel muab kev tiv thaiv kev sau ntawv. Ib daim kab xev tuaj yeem khaws cia txog 1,1 .
Nco ntsoov VHS daim kab xev. Koj yuav tau ua dab tsi los saib daim movie dua? Rov qab daim kab xev! Muaj pes tsawg zaus koj tau spun ib lub cassette rau koj cov neeg uas ua ntawv rau ntawm ib tug cwj mem, thiaj li tsis txhob nkim roj teeb thiab tau ib daim kab xev torn los yog jammed? Tib yam tuaj yeem hais txog tapes siv rau computers. Cov kev zov me nyuam tsis tuaj yeem dhia ib ncig ntawm daim kab xev los yog nkag mus rau cov ntaub ntawv, lawv tuaj yeem nyeem thiab sau cov ntaub ntawv nruj me ntsis raws li txoj cai.
1956
Ceev ceev rau pem hauv ntej ob peb xyoos rau xyoo 1956, thiab lub sijhawm ntawm kev sib nqus disk cia pib nrog IBM ua tiav ntawm RAMAC 305 lub khoos phis tawj, uas Zellerbach Ntawv muab rau . Lub computer no yog thawj zaug siv lub hard drive nrog lub taub hau txav. Lub RAMAC disk tsav muaj tsib caug hlau nplaum hlau platters nrog ib txoj kab uas hla ntawm 60,96 cm, muaj peev xwm khaws cia kwv yees li tsib lab tus cim ntawm cov ntaub ntawv, 7 khoom ib lub cim, thiab spinning ntawm 1200 revolutions ib feeb. Lub peev xwm cia yog li 3,75 megabytes.
RAMAC tso cai rau lub sijhawm nkag mus rau cov ntaub ntawv loj, tsis zoo li daim kab xev sib nqus lossis cov ntawv xuas nrig ntaus. IBM tshaj tawm RAMAC li muaj peev xwm khaws cia qhov sib npaug ntawm 64 . Yav dhau los, RAMRAC tau qhia txog lub tswv yim ntawm kev ua haujlwm tsis tu ncua thaum lawv tshwm sim, kom cov ntaub ntawv tuaj yeem rov qab tau tam sim ntawd thaum nws tseem tshiab. Peb cov ntaub ntawv hauv RAMAC tam sim no tuaj yeem nkag mus ntawm qhov nrawm ntawm 100 . Yav dhau los, thaum siv daim kab xev, peb yuav tsum tau sau thiab nyeem cov ntaub ntawv sib txuas, thiab peb tsis tuaj yeem dhia mus rau qhov sib txawv ntawm daim kab xev. Real-time random nkag mus rau cov ntaub ntawv yog tiag tiag revolutionary thaum lub sij hawm.
1963
Cia peb ceev ceev mus rau 1963 thaum DECtape tau qhia. Lub npe los ntawm Digital Equipment Corporation, hu ua DEC. DECtape yog pheej yig thiab txhim khu kev qha, yog li nws tau siv ntau tiam neeg ntawm DEC computers. Nws yog 19mm daim kab xev, laminated thiab sandwiched ntawm ob txheej ntawm Mylar ntawm plaub-nti (10,16 cm) reel.
Tsis zoo li nws hnyav, hnyav ua ntej, DECtape tuaj yeem nqa los ntawm tes. Qhov no ua rau nws yog qhov kev xaiv zoo tshaj plaws rau tus kheej lub computer. Tsis zoo li nws txoj kev sib tw 7-khiav, DECtape muaj 6 cov ntaub ntawv lem, 2 cue lem, thiab 2 rau moos pulses. Cov ntaub ntawv raug kaw ntawm 350 ntsis ib nti (138 ntsis ib cm). Peb cov ntaub ntawv byte, uas yog 8 ntsis tab sis tuaj yeem nthuav dav mus rau 12, tuaj yeem hloov mus rau DECtape ntawm 8325 12-ntsis lo lus ib ob ntawm daim kab xev ceev ntawm 93 (Β± 12) ntiv tes ib . Qhov no yog 8% ntau tus lej ib ob dua li UNISERVO hlau daim kab xev xyoo 1952.
1967
Plaub xyoos tom qab, xyoo 1967, ib pab pawg IBM me tau pib ua haujlwm ntawm IBM floppy drive, codenamed . Tom qab ntawd pab pawg tau ua haujlwm nrog tsim txoj hauv kev txhim khu kev qha thiab pheej yig los thauj cov microcodes rau hauv IBM System/370. Cov phiaj xwm tau rov qab ua dua thiab rov ua dua kom thauj khoom microcode rau hauv tus tswj hwm rau IBM 3330 Direct Access Storage Facility, codenamed Merlin.
Peb cov byte tam sim no tuaj yeem khaws cia ntawm kev nyeem nkaus xwb 8-nti magnetically coated Mylar floppy disks, paub niaj hnub no li floppy disks. Thaum lub sijhawm tso tawm, cov khoom tau hu ua IBM 23FD Floppy Disk Drive System. Cov disks tuaj yeem tuav 80 kilobytes ntawm cov ntaub ntawv. Tsis zoo li cov hard drives, tus neeg siv tau yooj yim txav lub floppy disk hauv lub plhaub tiv thaiv los ntawm ib lub tsav mus rau lwm qhov. Tom qab ntawd, xyoo 1973, IBM tau tso tawm cov ntawv nyeem / sau floppy disk, uas tom qab ntawd dhau los ua kev lag luam. .
1969
Xyoo 1969, Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) nrog txoj hlua nco tau raug tso tawm rau hauv lub nkoj Apollo 11, uas nqa cov neeg caij nkoj Asmeskas mus rau lub hli thiab rov qab. Cov hlua khi no yog tsim los ntawm tes thiab tuaj yeem tuav 72 kilobytes ntawm cov ntaub ntawv. Kev tsim cov hlua nco tau siv zog ua haujlwm, qeeb, thiab xav tau kev txawj ntse zoo ib yam li kev xaws; nws tuaj yeem coj . Tab sis nws yog cov cuab yeej tsim nyog rau lub sijhawm ntawd thaum nws tseem ceeb kom haum qhov siab tshaj plaws rau hauv qhov chaw nruj nruj. Thaum cov hlau hla dhau ib qho ntawm cov voj voog, nws sawv cev rau ib qho 1. Cov hlau hla ib ncig ntawm lub strand sawv cev rau ib tug 0. Peb cov ntaub ntawv byte yuav tsum tau ib tug neeg los weave ob peb feeb rau hauv txoj hlua.
1977
Xyoo 1977, Commodore PET, thawj (ua tiav) tus kheej lub computer, raug tso tawm. Tus PET siv Commodore 1530 Datasette, uas txhais tau hais tias cov ntaub ntawv ntxiv rau cov ntawv xov xwm. PET hloov cov ntaub ntawv mus rau hauv cov cim suab analog, uas tau muab khaws cia rau hauv . Qhov no tso cai rau peb los tsim kom muaj txiaj ntsig zoo thiab txhim khu kev cia khoom, txawm tias qeeb heev. Peb cov ntaub ntawv me me tuaj yeem xa mus ntawm qhov nrawm ntawm 60-70 bytes ib . Cassettes tuaj yeem tuav txog 100 kilobytes ib sab 30-feeb, nrog ob sab ib daim kab xev. Piv txwv li, ib sab ntawm lub cassette tuaj yeem tuav txog ob 55 KB duab. Datasettes kuj tau siv hauv Commodore VIC-20 thiab Commodore 64.
1978
Ib xyoos tom qab, xyoo 1978, MCA thiab Philips tau qhia LaserDisc nyob rau hauv lub npe "Discovision". Lub puab tsaig yog thawj zaj duab xis muag ntawm LaserDisc hauv Tebchaws Meskas. Nws lub suab thiab yees duab zoo tau zoo dua li nws cov neeg sib tw, tab sis lub laserdisc kim heev rau cov neeg siv khoom feem ntau. Lub LaserDisc tsis tuaj yeem kaw, tsis zoo li VHS daim kab xev uas tib neeg kaw cov kev pabcuam hauv TV. Laserdiscs ua haujlwm nrog analog video, analog FM stereo audio thiab mem tes code , los yog PCM, digital audio. Cov discs muaj ib txoj kab uas hla ntawm 12 ntiv tes (30,47 cm) thiab muaj ob sab ntawm txhuas discs coated nrog yas. Niaj hnub no LaserDisc nco ntsoov ua lub hauv paus ntawm CDs thiab DVDs.
1979
Ib xyoos tom qab, xyoo 1979, Alan Shugart thiab Finis Conner tau tsim Seagate Technology nrog lub tswv yim ntawm kev ntsuas lub hard drive rau qhov loj ntawm 5 ΒΌ-inch floppy disk, uas yog tus qauv thaum lub sijhawm. Lawv thawj cov khoom lag luam hauv xyoo 1980 yog Seagate ST506 hard drive, thawj qhov nyuaj rau cov khoos phis tawj compact. Lub disk tuav tsib megabytes ntawm cov ntaub ntawv, uas thaum lub sij hawm yog tsib zaug loj dua tus qauv floppy disk. Cov tsim muaj peev xwm ua tiav lawv lub hom phiaj ntawm kev txo cov disk loj rau qhov loj ntawm 5ΒΌ-inch floppy disk. Cov ntaub ntawv khaws cia tshiab yog lub phaj hlau tsis sib xws ntawm ob sab nrog ib txheej nyias ntawm cov ntaub ntawv sib nqus cov ntaub ntawv khaws cia. Peb cov ntaub ntawv bytes tuaj yeem xa mus rau disk ntawm qhov nrawm ntawm 625 kilobytes ib . Nws yog kwv yees li .
1981
Ceev ceev rau ob peb xyoos rau xyoo 1981, thaum Sony qhia thawj 3,5-nti floppy disks. Hewlett-Packard tau dhau los ua thawj tus siv thev naus laus zis hauv xyoo 1982 nrog nws HP-150. Qhov no ua rau 3,5-nti floppy disks nto moo thiab muab lawv siv thoob plaws ntiaj teb. . Floppy disks yog ib leeg-sab nrog lub peev xwm ntawm 161.2 kilobytes thiab tsis muaj peev xwm ntawm 218.8 kilobytes. Nyob rau hauv 1982, ib tug ob-sided version raug tso tawm, thiab lub Microfloppy Industry Committee (MIC) consortium ntawm 23 xov xwm tuam txhab uas muag raws li 3,5-nti floppy specification ntawm Sony tus thawj tsim, cementing hom rau hauv keeb kwm raws li peb paub niaj hnub no. . Tam sim no peb cov ntaub ntawv bytes tuaj yeem khaws cia rau ntawm qhov ntxov ntawm ib qho ntawm cov khoom siv tshaj plaws: 3,5-nti floppy disk. Tom qab ntawd, ib khub ntawm 3,5-nti floppies nrog tau los ua qhov tseem ceeb tshaj plaws ntawm kuv thaum yau.
1984
Tsis ntev tom qab ntawd, xyoo 1984, kev tshaj tawm ntawm Compact Disc Read-Only Memory (CD-ROM) tau tshaj tawm. Cov no yog 550 megabyte CD-ROMs los ntawm Sony thiab Philips. Cov hom ntawv loj hlob tawm ntawm CDs nrog cov suab digital, lossis CD-DA, uas tau siv los faib suab paj nruag. CD-DA tau tsim los ntawm Sony thiab Philips hauv xyoo 1982 thiab muaj peev xwm ntawm 74 feeb. Raws li cov lus dab neeg, thaum Sony thiab Philips tab tom sib tham txog CD-DA tus qauv, ib qho ntawm plaub tus neeg tau hais tias nws tuaj yeem ua tau. tag nrho cuaj Symphony. Thawj cov khoom tso tawm hauv CD yog Grolier's Electronic Encyclopedia, luam tawm xyoo 1985. Phau ntawv encyclopedia muaj cuaj lab lo lus, uas tsuas yog 12% ntawm qhov chaw muaj disk, uas yog 553. . Peb yuav muaj ntau tshaj qhov chaw txaus rau ib lub encyclopedia thiab ib byte ntawm cov ntaub ntawv. Tsis ntev tom qab ntawd, xyoo 1985, cov tuam txhab khoos phis tawj tau ua haujlwm ua ke los tsim cov qauv rau disk drive kom txhua lub khoos phis tawj nyeem tau.
1984
Tsis tas li ntawd nyob rau xyoo 1984, Fujio Masuoka tau tsim ib hom tshiab ntawm lub qhov rooj nkag siab hu ua flash nco, uas muaj peev xwm raug tshem tawm thiab rov sau ntau zaus.
Cia peb siv sijhawm ib pliag los saib flash nco siv lub rooj vag ntab transistor. Transistors yog lub rooj vag hluav taws xob uas tuaj yeem qhib thiab tawm ntawm tus kheej. Txij li txhua lub transistor tuaj yeem nyob hauv ob lub xeev sib txawv (rau thiab tawm), nws tuaj yeem khaws ob tus lej sib txawv: 0 thiab 1. Lub rooj vag ntab yog hais txog lub rooj vag thib ob ntxiv rau nruab nrab transistor. Qhov thib ob lub rooj vag no yog insulated nrog nyias oxide txheej. Cov transistors siv qhov hluav taws xob me me siv rau lub rooj vag ntawm lub transistor los qhia seb nws yog nyob rau lossis tawm, uas tig mus rau 0 lossis 1.
Nrog cov rooj vag ntab, thaum qhov tsim nyog voltage yog thov los ntawm oxide txheej, electrons ntws los ntawm nws thiab tau daig ntawm lub rooj vag. Yog li ntawd, txawm tias thaum lub hwj chim raug tua, cov electrons tseem nyob ntawm lawv. Thaum tsis muaj electrons ntawm lub rooj vag ntab, lawv sawv cev rau ib qho 1, thiab thaum cov hluav taws xob daig, lawv sawv cev rau 0. Rov qab cov txheej txheem no thiab siv cov hluav taws xob tsim nyog los ntawm cov txheej txheem oxide nyob rau sab nraud ua rau cov hluav taws xob ntws los ntawm lub rooj vag ntab. thiab restore lub transistor rov qab mus rau nws lub qub qub. Yog li ntawd, lub hlwb yog tsim programmable thiab . Peb cov byte tuaj yeem raug programmed rau hauv lub transistor li 01001010, nrog electrons, nrog electrons daig nyob rau hauv floating rooj vag los sawv cev zeros.
Masuoka tus tsim yog me ntsis pheej yig dua tab sis tsis hloov pauv ntau dua li hluav taws xob tshem tawm PROM (EEPROM), vim nws xav tau ntau pawg ntawm cov hlwb uas yuav tsum tau muab tshem tawm ua ke, tab sis qhov no kuj suav nrog nws qhov nrawm.
Thaum lub sijhawm, Masuoka ua haujlwm rau Toshiba. Thaum kawg nws tau tawm mus ua haujlwm hauv Tohoku University vim nws tsis zoo siab tias lub tuam txhab tsis muab nqi zog rau nws rau nws txoj haujlwm. Masuoka foob Toshiba, thov kom them nyiaj. Xyoo 2006, nws tau them 87 lab yuan, sib npaug li 758 txhiab US dollars. Qhov no tseem zoo li tsis tseem ceeb vim li cas lub cim xeeb flash tau dhau los hauv kev lag luam.
Thaum peb tab tom tham txog flash nco, nws tseem tsim nyog sau cia qhov txawv ntawm NOR thiab NAND flash nco. Raws li peb twb paub los ntawm Masuoka, flash khaws cov ntaub ntawv nyob rau hauv lub cim xeeb hlwb uas muaj cov rooj vag ntab transistors. Cov npe ntawm cov thev naus laus zis yog ncaj qha ntsig txog yuav ua li cas lub cim xeeb lub hlwb raug teeb tsa.
Hauv NOR flash, ib tus neeg lub cim xeeb txuas nrog tib lub sijhawm los muab kev nkag mus tsis tau. Cov qauv no txo ββcov sij hawm nyeem uas xav tau rau kev nkag mus rau cov lus qhia microprocessor. NOR flash nco yog qhov zoo tagnrho rau cov ntawv thov qis dua uas feem ntau nyeem nkaus xwb. Qhov no yog vim li cas feem ntau CPUs thauj lawv cov firmware, feem ntau los ntawm NOR flash nco. Masuoka thiab nws cov npoj yaig tau qhia txog kev tsim NOR flash hauv xyoo 1984 thiab NAND flash hauv .
NAND Flash cov tsim tawm tau tso tseg qhov kev nkag mus rau qhov tsis txaus ntseeg kom ua tiav lub cim xeeb me me ntawm tes. Qhov no ua rau lub nti me me thiab tus nqi qis dua ib ntsis. NAND flash nco architecture muaj yim-thooj nco transistors txuas nrog hauv koob. Qhov no ua tiav qhov ceev cia siab, me me nco cell loj, thiab ceev cov ntaub ntawv sau thiab tshem tawm vim tias nws tuaj yeem ua haujlwm thaiv cov ntaub ntawv ib txhij. Qhov no yog ua tiav los ntawm kev xav tau cov ntaub ntawv rov sau dua thaum nws tsis tau sau ua ntu zus thiab cov ntaub ntawv twb muaj nyob hauv .
1991
Cia peb txav mus rau xyoo 1991, thaum tus qauv tsim hluav taws xob-xeev tsav (SSD) tau tsim los ntawm SanDisk, tom qab ntawd hu ua . Cov qauv tsim ua ke nrog lub cim xeeb flash, cov cim xeeb tsis hloov pauv, thiab tus tswj hwm ntse kom pom thiab kho cov hlwb tsis zoo. Lub peev xwm disk yog 20 megabytes nrog 2,5-nti daim ntawv, thiab nws cov nqi kwv yees kwv yees li ntawm $ 1000. Cov disk no tau siv los ntawm IBM hauv lub computer .
1994
Ib qho ntawm kuv tus kheej nyiam tshaj tawm xov xwm txij thaum yau yog Zip Disks. Xyoo 1994, Iomega tso tawm Zip Disk, 100-megabyte cartridge nyob rau hauv daim ntawv 3,5-nti, txog me ntsis thicker dua tus qauv 3,5-nti tsav. Tom qab versions ntawm cov tsav yuav khaws cia txog 2 gigabytes. Qhov yooj yim ntawm cov disks no yog tias lawv yog qhov loj ntawm floppy disk, tab sis muaj peev xwm khaws cov ntaub ntawv ntau dua. Peb cov ntaub ntawv bytes tuaj yeem sau rau hauv Zip disk ntawm 1,4 megabytes ib ob. Rau kev sib piv, lub sijhawm ntawd, 1,44 megabytes ntawm 3,5-nti floppy disk tau sau ntawm qhov ceev ntawm 16 kilobytes ib ob. Ntawm Zip disk, lub taub hau nyeem / sau cov ntaub ntawv yam tsis muaj kev sib cuag, zoo li ya saum npoo av, uas zoo ib yam li kev ua haujlwm ntawm lub hard drive, tab sis txawv ntawm lub hauv paus ntsiab lus ntawm kev ua haujlwm ntawm lwm cov floppy disks. Zip disks sai sai dhau los lawm vim muaj kev ntseeg siab thiab muaj teeb meem.
1994
Tib lub xyoo, SanDisk tau qhia txog CompactFlash, uas tau siv dav hauv cov koob yees duab digital. Raws li nrog CDs, CompactFlash speeds yog raws li "x" ratings xws li 8x, 20x, 133x, thiab lwm yam. Qhov siab tshaj plaws cov ntaub ntawv hloov tsheb yog xam raws li tus nqi me ntsis ntawm cov thawj audio CD, 150 kilobytes ib ob. Tus nqi hloov pauv zoo li R = Kx150 kB / s, qhov twg R yog qhov hloov pauv thiab K yog qhov ceev nominal. Yog li rau 133x CompactFlash, peb cov ntaub ntawv byte yuav raug sau ntawm 133x150 kB / s lossis txog 19 kB / s lossis 950 MB / s. Lub koom haum CompactFlash tau tsim nyob rau xyoo 19,95 nrog lub hom phiaj ntawm kev tsim cov qauv kev lag luam rau flash nco phaib.
1997
Ob peb xyoos tom qab, xyoo 1997, Compact Disc Rewritable (CD-RW) tau tso tawm. Qhov no optical disk tau siv los khaws cov ntaub ntawv thiab luam thiab xa cov ntaub ntawv mus rau ntau yam khoom siv. CDs tuaj yeem rov sau dua txog 1000 zaug, uas tsis yog qhov txwv tsis pub dhau lub sijhawm txij li cov neeg siv tsis tshua sau cov ntaub ntawv.
CD-RWs yog ua raws li kev siv tshuab uas hloov qhov kev xav ntawm qhov chaw. Nyob rau hauv cov ntaub ntawv ntawm CD-RW, theem hloov nyob rau hauv ib tug tshwj xeeb txheej muaj xws li nyiaj, tellurium thiab indium ua rau lub peev xwm los cuam tshuam los yog tsis muaj kev cuam tshuam cov nyeem beam, uas txhais tau tias 0 los yog 1. Thaum lub compound nyob rau hauv lub crystalline xeev, nws yog. translucent, uas txhais tau tias 1. Thaum lub compound melts mus rau hauv lub xeev amorphous, nws yuav opaque thiab tsis-reflective, uas 0. Yog li peb tuaj yeem sau peb cov ntaub ntawv byte li 01001010.
DVDs nws thiaj li coj mus rau feem ntau ntawm kev ua lag luam los ntawm CD-RWs.
1999
Cia peb txav mus rau xyoo 1999, thaum IBM tau qhia txog lub ntiaj teb cov hard drives me tshaj plaws thaum lub sijhawm: IBM 170MB thiab 340MB microdrives. Cov no yog me me 2,54 cm hard drives tsim kom haum rau hauv CompactFlash Type II slots. Nws tau npaj los tsim ib lub cuab yeej uas yuav siv tau zoo li CompactFlash, tab sis nrog lub cim xeeb loj dua. Txawm li cas los xij, lawv tau hloov sai sai los ntawm USB flash drives thiab tom qab ntawd los ntawm CompactFlash phaib loj dua li lawv tau muaj. Zoo li lwm cov hard drives, microdrives yog txhua yam thiab muaj cov me me spinning disks.
2000
Ib xyoos tom qab, xyoo 2000, USB flash drive tau qhia. Cov drives muaj flash nco nyob rau hauv ib daim ntawv me me nrog ib tug USB interface. Nyob ntawm qhov version ntawm USB interface siv, qhov ceev yuav txawv. USB 1.1 txwv rau 1,5 megabits ib ob, thaum USB 2.0 tuaj yeem ua 35 megabits ib ob , thiab USB 3.0 yog 625 megabits ib ob. Thawj USB 3.1 Hom C drives tau tshaj tawm thaum Lub Peb Hlis 2015 thiab tau nyeem / sau nrawm ntawm 530 megabits ib ob. Tsis zoo li floppy disks thiab optical drives, USB li nyuaj rau khawb, tab sis tseem muaj tib lub peev xwm khaws cia cov ntaub ntawv, nrog rau kev hloov thiab thaub qab cov ntaub ntawv. Floppy thiab CD drives tau hloov pauv sai los ntawm USB chaw nres nkoj.
2005
Xyoo 2005, cov chaw tsim khoom lag luam hard disk drive (HDD) tau pib xa khoom siv perpendicular magnetic kaw, lossis PMR. Interestingly txaus, qhov no tshwm sim nyob rau tib lub sij hawm uas lub iPod Nano tshaj tawm kev siv flash nco es tsis txhob ntawm 1-nti hard drives nyob rau hauv lub iPod Mini.
Ib qho nyuaj tsav muaj ib lossis ntau lub hard drive coated nrog ib zaj duab xis magnetic rhiab ua los ntawm cov hlau nplaum me me. Cov ntaub ntawv raug kaw thaum lub taub hau kaw lus sib nqus ya saum toj kawg nkaus ntawm lub tshuab spinning. Qhov no zoo ib yam li ib txwm gramophone record player, qhov txawv tsuas yog tias nyob rau hauv gramophone lub stylus yog nyob rau hauv lub cev sib cuag nrog cov ntaub ntawv. Raws li cov discs tig, huab cua nyob rau hauv kev sib cuag nrog lawv tsim ib tug maj mam cua. Ib yam li huab cua ntawm lub dav hlau tis tsim tsa, huab cua tsim nqa ntawm lub taub hau airfoil . Lub taub hau sai hloov cov hlau nplaum ntawm ib cheeb tsam sib nqus ntawm cov nplej kom nws cov ncej hlau nplaum nce lossis nqis, qhia 1 lossis 0.
Tus thawj coj ntawm PMR yog qhov ntev sib nqus kaw, lossis LMR. Cov ntaub ntawv ceev ntawm PMR tuaj yeem ntau dua peb npaug ntawm LMR. Qhov sib txawv tseem ceeb ntawm PMR thiab LMR yog tias cov qauv nplej thiab cov kev taw qhia sib nqus ntawm cov ntaub ntawv khaws cia ntawm PMR media yog columnar es tsis yog longitudinal. PMR muaj kev ruaj ntseg zoo dua thermal thiab txhim kho teeb liab-rau- suab nrov piv (SNR) vim yog cov nplej sib cais zoo dua thiab sib xws. Nws kuj tseem muaj kev txhim kho kev sau cia ua tsaug rau lub taub hau muaj zog thiab kev sib nqus xov xwm zoo dua. Zoo li LMR, cov kev txwv tseem ceeb ntawm PMR yog nyob ntawm qhov thermal stability ntawm cov ntaub ntawv cov khoom uas tau sau los ntawm cov hlau nplaum thiab qhov yuav tsum muaj SNR txaus los nyeem cov ntaub ntawv sau.
2007
Nyob rau hauv 2007, thawj 1 TB hard drive los ntawm Hitachi Ntiaj teb no Storage Technologies tau tshaj tawm. Hitachi Deskstar 7K1000 siv tsib 3,5-nti 200GB platters thiab spun ntawm rpm ua Qhov no yog qhov kev txhim kho tseem ceeb tshaj lub ntiaj teb thawj lub zog tsav, IBM RAMAC 350, uas muaj peev xwm kwv yees li 3,75 megabytes. Auj, peb nyob deb npaum li cas hauv 51 xyoo! Tab sis tos, muaj qee yam ntxiv.
2009
Nyob rau hauv 2009, kev ua hauj lwm tau pib ntawm kev tsim tsis-volatile express nco, los yog . Non-volatile memory (NVM) yog ib hom kev nco uas tuaj yeem khaws cov ntaub ntawv mus tas li, tsis yog lub cim xeeb tsis hloov pauv, uas yuav tsum muaj lub zog tas li los khaws cov ntaub ntawv. NVMe hais txog qhov xav tau rau tus tswj hwm tus tswj hwm tus lej sib txuas rau PCIe-enabled semiconductor-based peripheral Cheebtsam, yog li lub npe NVMe. Ntau tshaj 90 lub tuam txhab tau suav nrog hauv pab pawg ua haujlwm los tsim qhov project. Qhov no yog tag nrho raws li kev ua haujlwm los txhais qhov Tsis-Volatile Memory Host Controller Interface Specification (NVMHCIS). Niaj hnub no qhov zoo tshaj plaws NVMe drives tuaj yeem daws txog 3500 megabytes ib ob ntawm kev nyeem ntawv thiab 3300 megabytes ib ob ntawm kev sau ntawv. Sau cov j cov ntaub ntawv byte peb pib nrog yog ceev heev piv rau ob peb feeb ntawm tes-txoj hlua nco rau Apollo Kev Taw Qhia Computer.
Tam sim no thiab yav tom ntej
Storage Class Memory
Tam sim no peb tau rov qab mus rau lub sijhawm (ha!), cia peb saib lub xeev tam sim no ntawm Cia Chav Nco. SCM, zoo li NVM, muaj zog, tab sis SCM kuj muab kev ua tau zoo tshaj lossis piv rau lub cim xeeb loj, thiab . Lub hom phiaj ntawm SCM yog los daws qee qhov teeb meem niaj hnub no hauv cache, xws li qis qis random nkag tau nco (SRAM) ntom ntom. Nrog Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM), peb tuaj yeem ua tiav qhov ceev dua, tab sis qhov no los ntawm tus nqi qis dua. DRAM kuj raug kev txom nyem los ntawm kev xav tau lub zog tas li los kho lub cim xeeb. Cia peb nkag siab qhov no me ntsis. Lub zog xav tau vim tias cov nqi hluav taws xob ntawm lub capacitors xau tawm me ntsis, txhais tau hais tias tsis muaj kev cuam tshuam, cov ntaub ntawv ntawm cov nti yuav sai sai ploj. Txhawm rau tiv thaiv cov dej xau, DRAM yuav tsum muaj lub cim xeeb sab nraud rov ua dua tshiab uas ib ntus rov sau cov ntaub ntawv hauv lub capacitors, rov ua kom lawv rov qab rau lawv cov nqi qub.
Phase-hloov nco (PCM)
Yav dhau los, peb tau saib yuav ua li cas cov theem hloov rau CD-RW. PCM zoo ib yam. Cov khoom hloov theem feem ntau yog Ge-Sb-Te, tseem hu ua GST, uas tuaj yeem muaj nyob hauv ob lub xeev sib txawv: amorphous thiab crystalline. Lub xeev amorphous muaj kev tiv thaiv siab dua, denoting 0, dua li lub xeev crystalline, denoting 1. Los ntawm kev muab cov ntaub ntawv muaj nuj nqis rau nruab nrab tsis kam, PCM tuaj yeem siv los khaws ntau lub xeev raws li .
Spin-transfer torque random access memory (STT-RAM)
STT-RAM muaj ob lub ferromagnetic, cov hlau nplaum ruaj khov sib cais los ntawm dielectric, ib qho insulator uas tuaj yeem xa hluav taws xob quab yuam yam tsis ua. Nws khaws cov ntaub ntawv me me raws li qhov sib txawv ntawm cov lus qhia sib nqus. Ib txheej hlau nplaum, hu ua cov txheej txheem siv, muaj cov kev taw qhia sib nqus ruaj khov, thaum lwm txheej hlau nplaum, hu ua txheej dawb, muaj cov kev taw qhia sib nqus uas tswj tau los ntawm kev hla dhau tam sim no. Rau 1, cov kev taw qhia magnetization ntawm ob txheej yog ua raws. Rau 0, ob txheej muaj cov lus qhia sib nqus sib nqus.
Resistive Random Access Memory (ReRAM)
Lub cell ReRAM muaj ob lub hlau electrodes sib cais los ntawm cov hlau oxide txheej. Ib me ntsis zoo li Masuoka lub flash nco tsim, qhov twg electrons nkag mus rau hauv oxide txheej thiab tau daig nyob rau hauv lub qhov rooj ntab, los yog vice versa. Txawm li cas los xij, nrog ReRAM, lub xeev ntawm tes tau txiav txim siab raws li qhov concentration ntawm cov pa dawb hauv cov hlau oxide txheej.
Txawm hais tias cov thev naus laus zis no tau cog lus tseg, lawv tseem muaj qhov tsis zoo. PCM thiab STT-RAM muaj siab sau latency. PCM latencies yog kaum npaug siab dua DRAM, thaum STT-RAM latencies yog kaum npaug siab dua SRAM. PCM thiab ReRAM muaj qhov txwv ntev npaum li cas kev sau ntawv tuaj yeem tshwm sim ua ntej qhov yuam kev loj tshwm sim, txhais tau tias lub cim xeeb tau daig rau .
Thaum Lub Yim Hli 2015, Intel tshaj tawm qhov kev tso tawm ntawm Optane, nws cov khoom siv 3DXPoint. Optane thov 1000 npaug ntawm qhov ua tau zoo ntawm NAND SSDs ntawm tus nqi plaub mus rau tsib zaug siab dua flash nco. Optane yog pov thawj tias SCM yog ntau tshaj li kev sim tshuab. Nws yuav nthuav kom pom kev txhim kho ntawm cov thev naus laus zis no.
Hard drives (HDD)
Helium HDD (HHDD)
Lub helium disk yog lub peev xwm siab hard disk drive (HDD) uas tau ntim nrog helium thiab hermetically kaw thaum lub sijhawm tsim khoom. Zoo li lwm cov hard drives, raws li peb tau hais ua ntej, nws zoo ib yam li lub turntable nrog cov hlau nplaum coated spinning platter. Hom hard drives tsuas muaj cua hauv cov kab noj hniav, tab sis cov cua no ua rau qee qhov kev tawm tsam thaum lub platters tig.
Helium balloons ntab vim helium yog sib dua li huab cua. Qhov tseeb, helium yog 1/7 qhov ceev ntawm huab cua, uas txo cov braking quab yuam raws li daim hlau tig, ua rau txo qis ntawm lub zog yuav tsum tau tig cov discs. Txawm li cas los xij, qhov tshwj xeeb no yog qhov thib ob, qhov tseem ceeb ntawm qhov sib txawv ntawm helium yog tias nws tso cai rau koj ntim 7 wafers hauv tib daim ntawv uas feem ntau tsuas yog tuav 5. Yog tias peb nco qab qhov piv txwv ntawm peb lub dav hlau tis, qhov no yog qhov zoo tshaj plaws analogue. . Vim tias helium txo qis qis, kev kub ntxhov tau raug tshem tawm.
Peb kuj paub tias helium balloons pib dab dej tom qab ob peb hnub vim tias helium tawm ntawm lawv. Tib yam tuaj yeem hais txog cov khoom siv cia. Nws tau siv ntau xyoo ua ntej cov neeg tsim khoom tuaj yeem tsim lub thawv uas tiv thaiv helium los ntawm kev khiav tawm ntawm daim ntawv foos thoob plaws lub neej ntawm tus tsav. Backblaze tau ua qhov kev sim thiab pom tias helium hard drives muaj qhov yuam kev txhua xyoo ntawm 1,03%, piv rau 1,06% rau cov qauv tsav. Tau kawg, qhov sib txawv no me me uas ib tus tuaj yeem kos qhov xaus ntawm nws .
Lub helium-filled form factor tuaj yeem muaj lub hard drive encapsulated siv PMR, uas peb tau tham saum toj no, los yog microwave magnetic recording (MAMR) los yog heat-pab magnetic recording (HAMR). Txhua qhov sib nqus cia tshuab tuaj yeem ua ke nrog helium tsis yog cua. Xyoo 2014, HGST tau ua ke ob lub thev naus laus zis thev naus laus zis hauv nws 10TB helium hard drive, uas siv tus tswv tsev tswj hwm shingled sib nqus kaw, lossis SMR (Shingled magnetic recording). Wb tham me ntsis txog SMR ces saib MAMR thiab HAMR.
Pobzeb Magnetic Recording Technology
Yav dhau los, peb tau saib ntawm cov ntaub ntawv sib nqus sib nqus (PMR), uas yog tus thawj ntawm SMR. Tsis zoo li PMR, SMR sau cov lem tshiab uas sib tshooj ntawm cov ntawv sau ua ntej sib nqus. Qhov no nyob rau hauv lem ua rau yav dhau los txoj kev nqaim, tso cai rau siab dua khiav ceev. Lub npe ntawm cov cuab yeej siv los ntawm qhov tseeb tias lap lem zoo ib yam li cov pobzeb ru tsev.
SMR ua rau cov txheej txheem sau ntawv nyuaj ntau dua, txij li kev sau ntawv mus rau ib qho kev sau sau cov kab uas nyob ib sab. Qhov no tsis tshwm sim thaum lub disk substrate yog khoob thiab cov ntaub ntawv ua ntu zus. Tab sis sai li sai tau thaum koj sau rau cov kab ke uas twb muaj cov ntaub ntawv, cov ntaub ntawv uas nyob ib sab tau muab tshem tawm. Yog hais tias ib txoj kab uas nyob ib sab muaj cov ntaub ntawv, nws yuav tsum rov sau dua. Qhov no zoo ib yam li NAND flash peb tau tham txog ua ntej.
SMR cov cuab yeej zais qhov nyuaj no los ntawm kev tswj hwm firmware, ua rau muaj kev sib cuam tshuam zoo ib yam li lwm lub hard drive. Ntawm qhov tod tes, tus tswv tsev tswj hwm SMR cov cuab yeej, yam tsis muaj kev hloov pauv tshwj xeeb ntawm cov ntawv thov thiab kev ua haujlwm, yuav tsis tso cai siv cov tsav no. Tus tswv tsev yuav tsum sau ntawv rau cov khoom siv nruj me ntsis raws li cov qauv. Nyob rau tib lub sijhawm, kev ua haujlwm ntawm cov cuab yeej yog 100% kwv yees. Seagate pib xa SMR tsav hauv xyoo 2013, thov 25% siab dua PMR ceev.
Microwave magnetic kaw (MAMR)
Microwave-assisted magnetic recording (MAMR) yog cov cuab yeej sib nqus sib nqus uas siv lub zog zoo ib yam li HAMR (sib tham tom ntej) Ib qho tseem ceeb ntawm MAMR yog Spin Torque Oscillator (STO). Lub STO nws tus kheej yog nyob ze rau ntawm lub taub hau kaw. Thaum tam sim no siv rau STO, lub voj voog electromagnetic teb nrog zaus ntawm 20-40 GHz yog tsim los ntawm polarization ntawm electron spin.
Thaum raug cov teb no, resonance tshwm sim nyob rau hauv ferromagnet siv rau MAMR, uas ua rau precession ntawm lub sij hawm sib nqus ntawm cov thawj nyob rau hauv daim teb no. Qhov tseem ceeb, lub sijhawm sib nqus sib txawv ntawm nws qhov axis thiab hloov nws cov kev taw qhia (flip), lub taub hau kaw yuav tsum muaj zog tsawg dua.
Kev siv MAMR thev naus laus zis ua rau nws muaj peev xwm coj cov tshuaj ferromagnetic nrog kev quab yuam ntau dua, uas txhais tau hais tias qhov loj ntawm cov hlau nplaum tuaj yeem raug txo kom tsis txhob ntshai ua rau muaj kev cuam tshuam superparamagnetic. Lub tshuab hluav taws xob STO pab txo qhov loj ntawm lub taub hau kaw, uas ua rau nws muaj peev xwm sau cov ntaub ntawv ntawm cov sib nqus me me, thiab yog li ua kom cov ntaub ntawv ceev ceev.
Western Digital, tseem hu ua WD, tau tshaj tawm cov thev naus laus zis no hauv xyoo 2017. Tsis ntev tom qab ntawd, xyoo 2018, Toshiba tau txhawb nqa cov thev naus laus zis no. Thaum WD thiab Toshiba tab tom nrhiav MAMR thev naus laus zis, Seagate tab tom twv ntawm HAMR.
Thermomagnetic kaw lus (HAMR)
Thaum tshav kub kub-pab magnetic recording (HAMR) yog lub zog txuag cov ntaub ntawv sib nqus cov ntaub ntawv uas tuaj yeem ua kom cov ntaub ntawv khaws cia hauv cov khoom sib nqus, xws li lub hard drive, los ntawm kev siv cov cua sov los ntawm lub laser los pab sau ntawv. cov ntaub ntawv mus rau saum npoo hard drive substrates. Cov cua kub ua rau cov ntaub ntawv muab tso rau ze dua ua ke ntawm lub disk substrate, tso cai rau cov ntaub ntawv ntau ntxiv thiab muaj peev xwm.
Cov tshuab no yog qhov nyuaj heev los siv. 200 mW laser ceev thaj tsam me me txog li 400 Β° C ua ntej kaw, tsis muaj kev cuam tshuam lossis ua rau cov ntaub ntawv seem ntawm lub disk puas. Cov txheej txheem cua sov, cov ntaub ntawv kaw thiab cua txias yuav tsum ua kom tiav hauv tsawg dua ib nanosecond. Hais txog cov kev cov nyom no xav tau kev txhim kho ntawm nanoscale nto plasmons, tseem hu ua nto-guided lasers, es tsis txhob ntawm cov laser cua sov ncaj qha, nrog rau cov tshiab hom iav phaj thiab thermal tswj txheej kom tiv taus qhov chaw kub ceev yam tsis muaj kev puas tsuaj rau lub taub hau kaw lossis ib qho nyob ze. cov ntaub ntawv, thiab ntau lwm yam kev cov nyom uas yuav tsum tau kov yeej.
Txawm hais tias muaj ntau cov lus tsis txaus ntseeg, Seagate thawj zaug pom cov thev naus laus zis no hauv xyoo 2013. Thawj cov discs pib xa khoom hauv 2018.
Xaus zaj duab xis, mus rau qhov pib!
Peb pib xyoo 1951 thiab xaus tsab xov xwm nrog saib mus rau yav tom ntej ntawm kev cia khoom. Cov ntaub ntawv khaws cia tau hloov pauv ntau lub sijhawm, los ntawm daim kab xev rau hlau thiab hlau nplaum, hlua nco, spinning disks, optical disks, flash nco thiab lwm yam. Kev nce qib tau ua rau cov khoom siv ceev dua, me dua, thiab muaj zog ntau dua.
Yog tias koj piv NVMe rau UNISERVO hlau daim kab xev los ntawm 1951, NVMe tuaj yeem nyeem 486% ntau tus lej ib ob. Thaum muab piv NVMe rau qhov kuv nyiam thaum yau, Zip drives, NVMe tuaj yeem nyeem 111% ntau tus lej ib ob.
Tib yam uas tseem muaj tseeb yog kev siv 0 thiab 1. Txoj hauv kev uas peb ua qhov no txawv heev. Kuv vam tias lub sijhawm tom ntej koj hlawv CD-RW ntawm cov nkauj rau ib tus phooj ywg lossis khaws cov yeeb yaj kiab hauv tsev rau Optical Disc Archive, koj xav txog yuav ua li cas lub ntsej muag uas tsis muaj qhov cuam tshuam txhais tau rau 0 thiab qhov cuam tshuam qhov chaw txhais mus rau 1. Los yog yog tias koj kaw ib daim ntawv sib xyaw rau hauv cov ntawv xov xwm, nco ntsoov tias nws muaj feem cuam tshuam nrog Datasette siv hauv Commodore PET. Thaum kawg, tsis txhob hnov ββqab ua siab zoo thiab rov qab.
Π‘ΠΏΠ°ΡΠΈΠ±ΠΎ ΠΈ rau tidbits (Kuv pab tsis tau nws) thoob plaws hauv tsab xov xwm!
Dab tsi ntxiv koj tuaj yeem nyeem ntawm blog?
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