{"id":76347,"date":"2020-04-02T01:42:40","date_gmt":"2020-04-01T23:42:40","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/blog\/administrirovanie\/zhizn-bajta-dannyh"},"modified":"2020-04-02T01:42:40","modified_gmt":"2020-04-01T23:42:40","slug":"zhizn-bajta-dannyh","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/lv\/blog\/administrirovanie\/zhizn-bajta-dannyh","title":{"rendered":"Datu bytes dz\u012bve","gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"text"}]},"content":{"rendered":"

\"Datu
\n
\nIkviens m\u0101ko\u0146u pakalpojumu sniedz\u0113js pied\u0101v\u0101 datu glab\u0101\u0161anas pakalpojumus. Tie var b\u016bt aukstie un karstie kr\u0101jumi, Ice-cold utt. M\u0101kon\u012b glab\u0101t inform\u0101ciju ir pavisam \u0113rti. Bet k\u0101 visp\u0101r tika glab\u0101ti dati pirms 10, 20, 50 gadiem? Cloud4Y tulkoja interesantu rakstu, kas tie\u0161i par to st\u0101sta.<\/i><\/a><\/noindex><\/p>\n

Datu bits var tikt glab\u0101ts visda\u017e\u0101d\u0101kajos veidos, jo nemit\u012bgi par\u0101d\u0101s jauni, moderni un \u0101tr\u0101ki datu nes\u0113ji. Bits ir digit\u0101l\u0101s inform\u0101cijas glab\u0101\u0161anas un apstr\u0101des vien\u012bba, kas sast\u0101v no asto\u0146iem biti. Viens bit\u0101 var tikt ierakst\u012bts vai nu 0, vai 1.<\/p>\n

Perfokart\u0113s bits tiek glab\u0101ts k\u0101 cauruma kl\u0101tb\u016btne\/neaizpild\u012b\u0161ana kart\u0113 noteikt\u0101 viet\u0101. Ja atgrie\u017eas nedaudz t\u0101l\u0101k pag\u0101tn\u0113, pie Babbage anal\u012btisk\u0101s ma\u0161\u012bnas, tad re\u0123istri, kas glab\u0101ja skait\u013cus, sast\u0101v\u0113ja no zobenu rite\u0146iem. Magn\u0113tisk\u0101s glab\u0101\u0161anas iek\u0101rt\u0101s, piem\u0113ram, lent\u0113s un diskos, bits tiek att\u0113lots ar magn\u0113tisk\u0101 auduma noteiktas zonas polarit\u0101ti. M\u016bsdienu dinamiskaj\u0101 piek\u013cuves atmi\u0146\u0101 (DRAM) bits bie\u017ei tiek att\u0113lots divu l\u012bme\u0146u elektrisk\u0101 uzl\u0101d\u0113, kas tiek glab\u0101ta ier\u012bc\u0113, kas uzkr\u0101j elektrisko ener\u0123iju elektriskaj\u0101 lauk\u0101. Uzl\u0101d\u0113ta vai izl\u0101d\u0113ta kapacit\u0101te glab\u0101 datu bitu.<\/p>\n

1956. gada j\u016bnij\u0101 Verners Buholcs<\/a><\/noindex> izdom\u0101ja v\u0101rdu byte<\/a><\/noindex> lai apz\u012bm\u0113tu grupu bitu, kas tiek izmantoti, lai kod\u0113tu vienu simbolu teksta<\/a><\/noindex>. Apskat\u012bsim simbolu kod\u0113\u0161anas j\u0113dzienu. S\u0101ksim ar Amerikas standarta kodu inform\u0101cijas apmai\u0146ai, vai ASCII (ASCII - ang\u013cu valod\u0101 American Standard Code for Information Interchange). ASCII balst\u012bj\u0101s uz ang\u013cu alfab\u0113tu, t\u0101p\u0113c katra burts, skaitlis un simbols (a-z, A-Z, 0-9, +, -, \\\/, ",! uc.) tika att\u0113lots k\u0101 7 bitu vesels skaitlis no 32 l\u012bdz 127. Tas nebija \u012bsti<\/p>\n

UTF-8 ir standarts simbolu att\u0113lo\u0161anai asto\u0146bitu form\u0101t\u0101, \u013caujot katru kodu punktu diapazon\u0101 no 0 l\u012bdz 127 glab\u0101t vien\u0101 bait\u0101. Ja atceramies ASCII, tas ir piln\u012bgi norm\u0101li ang\u013cu simboliem, bet citu valodu simboli bie\u017ei tiek izteikti divos vai vair\u0101kos baitos. UTF-16 ir standarts simbolu att\u0113lo\u0161anai 16 bitu form\u0101t\u0101, bet UTF-32 \u2014 standarts simbolu att\u0113lo\u0161anai 32 bitu form\u0101t\u0101. ASCII katrs simbols ir baits, bet Unicode, kas bie\u017ei vien nav piln\u012bgi prec\u012bzi, simbols var aiz\u0146emt 1, 2, 3 vai vair\u0101k baitus. \u0160aj\u0101 rakst\u0101 tiks izmantoti da\u017e\u0101di bitu grup\u0113\u0161anas izm\u0113ri. Bitu skaits bait\u0101 var at\u0161\u0137irties atkar\u012bb\u0101 no nes\u0113ja konstrukcijas.<\/p>\n

\u0160aj\u0101 rakst\u0101 m\u0113s dosimies ce\u013cojum\u0101 laik\u0101 pa da\u017e\u0101diem inform\u0101cijas nes\u0113jiem, lai iedzi\u013cin\u0101tos datu glab\u0101\u0161anas v\u0113stur\u0113. M\u0113s nek\u0101d\u0101 gad\u012bjum\u0101 neizp\u0113t\u012bsim katru atsevi\u0161\u0137o inform\u0101cijas nes\u0113ju, kas jebkad ir izgudrots. Jums priek\u0161\u0101 ir izklaid\u0113jo\u0161s informat\u012bvs raksts, kur\u0161 nek\u0101d\u0101 m\u0113r\u0101 neizliekas par enciklop\u0113disku.<\/p>\n

S\u0101ksim. Pie\u0146emsim, ka mums ir dati par baitu glab\u0101\u0161anu: burts j, vai k\u0101 kod\u0113ts baits 6a, vai k\u0101 bin\u0101rs 01001010. Ce\u013cojuma laik\u0101 m\u016bsu dati tiks izmantoti da\u017e\u0101s glab\u0101\u0161anas tehnolo\u0123ij\u0101s, kas tiks aprakst\u012btas.<\/p>\n

1951<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n
\nM\u016bsu st\u0101sts s\u0101kas 1951. gad\u0101 ar lentu glab\u0101t\u0101ju UNIVAC UNISERVO datoram UNIVAC 1. Tas bija pirmais lentu glab\u0101t\u0101js, izveidots komerci\u0101lam datoram. Lenta tika ra\u017eota no pl\u0101nas ni\u0137el\u0113tas bronzas sloksnes, kuras platums ir 12,65 mm (saucama par Vicalloy) un garums gandr\u012bz 366 metri. M\u016bsu dati var\u0113ja tikt glab\u0101ti \u0101trum\u0101 7200 simboli sekund\u0113 uz lentes, kas p\u0101rvietoj\u0101s ar \u0101trumu 2,54 metri sekund\u0113. \u0160aj\u0101 v\u0113stures posm\u0101 j\u016bs var\u0113j\u0101t izm\u0113r\u012bt glab\u0101\u0161anas algoritma \u0101trumu, balstoties uz att\u0101lumu, ko p\u0101rvietoj\u0101s lente.<\/p>\n

1952<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n
\nP\u0101rvietosimies gada t\u0101l\u0101k, uz 1952. gada 21. maiju, kad IBM pazi\u0146oja par sava pirm\u0101 magn\u0113tisk\u0101 lentu bloka, IBM 726, izlai\u0161anu. Tagad m\u016bsu datu baits var tikt p\u0101rvietots no met\u0101la lenti UNISERVO uz magn\u0113tisko lenti IBM. \u0160\u012b jaun\u0101 m\u0101jas vieta izr\u0101d\u012bj\u0101s \u013coti \u0113rta m\u016bsu \u013coti mazajam datu baitam, jo uz lentes var uzglab\u0101t l\u012bdz 2 miljoniem ciparu. \u0160\u012b magn\u0113tisk\u0101 7-lentu lente kust\u0113j\u0101s ar \u0101trumu 1,9 metri sekund\u0113 un p\u0101rs\u016bt\u012b\u0161anas \u0101trumu 12 500 ciparu<\/a><\/noindex> vai 7500 simbolu<\/a><\/noindex> (taj\u0101 laik\u0101 saukt\u0101m par kop\u0113\u0161anas grup\u0101m) sekund\u0113. Sal\u012bdzin\u0101jumam: vid\u0113j\u0101 rakst\u0101 Habr\u0101 ir aptuveni 10 000 simbolu.<\/p>\n

Lent\u0113 IBM 726 bija septi\u0146as lentes, no kur\u0101m se\u0161as kalpoja inform\u0101cijas uzglab\u0101\u0161anai, bet viena \u2014 par parit\u0101tes kontroli. Uz vienas spoles var\u0113ja b\u016bt l\u012bdz 400 metriem lentes ar platumu 1,25 cm. Teor\u0113tiski datu p\u0101rs\u016bt\u012b\u0161anas \u0101trums sasniedza 12,5 t\u016bksto\u0161us simbolu sekund\u0113; ieraksta bl\u012bvums \u2014 40 biti centimetra. \u0160aj\u0101 sist\u0113m\u0101 tika izmantota \"vakumkan\u0101la\" metode, kur lent\u0113 cirkul\u0113ja starp div\u0101m punktiem. Tas \u013c\u0101va lentei uzs\u0101kt un apst\u0101ties da\u017eu sekun\u017eu da\u013c\u0101s. To izdev\u0101s sasniegt, izvietojot garas vakuma kolonnas starp lent\u0113m un las\u012b\u0161anas\/ieraksta galv\u0101m, lai absorb\u0113tu p\u0113k\u0161\u0146us spriedzes pieaugumus lent\u0113, bez kura lente parasti pl\u012bs\u012bs. No\u0146emams plastik\u0101ta gredzens aizmugur\u0113 lentas spol\u0113 nodro\u0161in\u0101ja aizsardz\u012bbu pret ierakst\u012b\u0161anu. Uz vienas lentes spoles var\u0113ja uzglab\u0101t apm\u0113ram 1,1 megabaitu<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/p>\n

Atcerieties VHS kasetes. Ko vajadz\u0113ja dar\u012bt, lai noskat\u012btos filmu v\u0113lreiz? Atgriezt lentu! Un cik reizes j\u016bs pagriez\u0101t kaseti ap z\u012bmu\u013ca, lai net\u0113r\u0113tu ener\u0123iju akumulatoriem un netiktu sapl\u0113sta vai sav\u012brusies lente? To pa\u0161u var teikt ar\u012b par lent\u0113m, ko izmantoja datoriem. Programmas nevar\u0113ja vienk\u0101r\u0161i p\u0101rl\u0113kt p\u0101ri k\u0101dai lentei vai nejau\u0161i piek\u013c\u016bt datiem, t\u0101s var\u0113ja las\u012bt un ierakst\u012bt datus stingri sec\u012bg\u0101 k\u0101rt\u012bb\u0101.<\/p>\n

1956<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n
\nJa p\u0101rvietosimies uz da\u017eiem gadiem t\u0101l\u0101k, uz 1956. gadu, tad magn\u0113tisko disku uzglab\u0101\u0161anas \u0113ra s\u0101k\u0101s, kad IBM pabeidza datoru sist\u0113mas RAMAC 305 izstr\u0101di, ko pieg\u0101d\u0101s komp\u0101nija Zellerbach Paper. Sanfrancisko<\/a><\/noindex>\u0160aj\u0101 dator\u0101 pirmo reizi tika izmantota ciet\u0101 diska tehnolo\u0123ija ar kust\u012bgu galvi\u0146u. Disku glab\u0101t\u0101js RAMAC sast\u0101v\u0113ja no piecdesmit magn\u0113tiskiem met\u0101la diskiem ar diametru 60,96 cm, kas sp\u0113ja glab\u0101t apm\u0113ram piecus miljonus simbolu datu, 7 bitus uz simbolu, un griezties ar \u0101trumu 1200 apgriezieni min\u016bt\u0113. Uzglab\u0101\u0161anas ietilp\u012bba bija apm\u0113ram 3,75 megabaiti.<\/p>\n

RAMAC \u013c\u0101va re\u0101llaik\u0101 piek\u013c\u016bt lieliem datu apjomiem, at\u0161\u0137ir\u012bb\u0101 no magn\u0113tiskaj\u0101m lent\u0113m vai caurumu kart\u0113m. Uz\u0146\u0113mums IBM reklam\u0113ja RAMAC k\u0101 ier\u012bci, kas sp\u0113j glab\u0101t ekvivalentu 64 000 perfor\u0113tu kartonu<\/a><\/noindex>. Agr\u0101k RAMAC tika ieviesta nep\u0101rtraukta dar\u012bjumu apstr\u0101de to veik\u0161anas laik\u0101, lai datus var\u0113tu iz\u0146emt nekav\u0113joties, kam\u0113r tie v\u0113l bija svaigi. Tagad piek\u013cuve m\u016bsu datiem RAMAC var\u0113ja notikt ar \u0101trumu 100 000 bitus sekund\u0113<\/a><\/noindex>. Agr\u0101k, izmantojot lentu, mums n\u0101c\u0101s rakst\u012bt un las\u012bt sec\u012bgus datus, un m\u0113s nevar\u0113j\u0101m nejau\u0161i l\u0113kt uz da\u017e\u0101d\u0101m lentu da\u013c\u0101m. Nejau\u0161a piek\u013cuve datiem re\u0101llaik\u0101 toreiz bija patiesi revol\u016bcijas mirklis.<\/p>\n

1963<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n
\nP\u0101riesim uz 1963. gadu, kad tika ieviests DECtape. Nosaukums n\u0101k no uz\u0146\u0113muma Digital Equipment Corporation, paz\u012bstama k\u0101 DEC. DECtape bija l\u0113ts un uzticams, t\u0101p\u0113c to izmantoja daudz\u0101s DEC datoru paaudzes. T\u0101 bija 19 mm lente, lamin\u0113ta un iespiesta starp diviem Mylar sl\u0101\u0146iem uz \u010detrinch (10,16 cm) spol\u0113m.<\/p>\n

At\u0161\u0137ir\u012bb\u0101 no t\u0101s smagajiem, lielajiem priek\u0161te\u010du mode\u013ciem, DECtape lentu var\u0113ja p\u0101rvietot ar rok\u0101m. Tas padar\u012bja to par lielisku izv\u0113li person\u0101lajiem datoriem. At\u0161\u0137ir\u012bb\u0101 no 7 ce\u013cu analogiem, DECtape bija 6 datu ce\u013ci, 2 z\u012bmju ce\u013ci un 2 taktu impulsi. Dati tika ierakst\u012bti ar \u0101trumu 350 bitu uz collu (138 bitus uz cm). M\u016bsu datu baits, kas sast\u0101v no 8 bitiem, bet var tikt papla\u0161in\u0101ts l\u012bdz 12, var\u0113ja tikt p\u0101rs\u016bt\u012bts uz DECtape ar \u0101trumu 8325 12 bitu v\u0101rdiem sekund\u0113 pie lentes \u0101truma 93 (\u00b112) collas sekund\u0113<\/a><\/noindex>. Tas ir par 8% vair\u0101k ciparu sekund\u0113 nek\u0101 met\u0101la lente UNISERVO 1952. gad\u0101.
\n\u00a0<\/p>\n

1967<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n
\n\u010cetrus gadus v\u0113l\u0101k, 1967. gad\u0101, neliela IBM komanda s\u0101ka str\u0101d\u0101t pie IBM diska, kura kodv\u0101rds bija Minnow<\/a><\/noindex>. Toreiz komandai tika uzdots izstr\u0101d\u0101t uzticamu un l\u0113tu veidu, k\u0101 iel\u0101d\u0113t mikrokod\u0113\u0161anas datus. maindfremi<\/a><\/noindex> IBM System\/370. V\u0113l\u0101k projekts tika p\u0101rcelts un p\u0101rprofil\u0113ts, lai iel\u0101d\u0113tu mikroprogrammat\u016bru kontrolier\u012b, kuru izstr\u0101d\u0101ja IBM 3330 Tie\u0161\u0101s piek\u013cuves datu glab\u0101\u0161anas iek\u0101rtai ar kod\u0113to nosaukumu Merlin.<\/p>\n

Tagad m\u016bsu baiti var\u0113ja glab\u0101t 8 collu elast\u012bgajos diskos ar magn\u0113tisku p\u0101rkl\u0101jumu, kas ir pieejami tikai las\u012b\u0161anai Mylar, kas m\u016bsdien\u0101s ir zin\u0101mi k\u0101 disketes. Izstr\u0101des br\u012bd\u012b produkts sa\u0146\u0113ma nosaukumu IBM 23FD Floppy Disk Drive System. Diski var\u0113ja ietilpt 80 kilobaitu datu. At\u0161\u0137ir\u012bb\u0101 no cietajiem diskiem, lietot\u0101jam bija viegli p\u0101rvietot disketi aizsarg\u0101jo\u0161\u0101 apvalk\u0101 no vienas ier\u012bces uz citu. V\u0113l\u0101k, 1973. gad\u0101, IBM izlaida disketi rakst\u012b\u0161anai\/nolas\u012b\u0161anai, kas k\u013cuva par nozares standartu<\/a><\/noindex>.
\n\u00a0<\/p>\n

1969<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n\u00a01969. gad\u0101 uz ku\u0123a \"Apollo-11\", kas p\u0101rvad\u0101ja amerik\u0101\u0146u astronautus uz M\u0113nesi un atpaka\u013c, tika palaists AGC (Apollo Guidance Computer) ar \"virvju atmi\u0146u\" (rope memory). \u0160\u012b virvju atmi\u0146a tika izgatavota manu\u0101li un var\u0113ja ietilpt 72 kilobaitos datu. Virvju atmi\u0146as ra\u017eo\u0161ana bija darbietilp\u012bga, l\u0113na un pras\u012bja prasmes, kas l\u012bdz\u012bgas au\u0161anas darbam; programmas ieaust\u012b\u0161ana virvju atmi\u0146\u0101 var\u0113ja aiz\u0146emt m\u0113ne\u0161us<\/a><\/noindex>. Bet t\u0101 bija pareiz\u0101 ier\u012bce tajos laikos, kad bija svar\u012bgi ietilpt maksim\u0101li ierobe\u017eot\u0101 telp\u0101. Kad stieple tika izvad\u012bta caur vienu no ri\u0146\u0137a dz\u012bsl\u0101m, t\u0101 p\u0101rst\u0101v\u0113ja 1. Stieple, kas apvija dz\u012bslu, p\u0101rst\u0101v\u0113ja 0. M\u016bsu dati baits pras\u012bja, lai cilv\u0113ks pavad\u012btu daudzas min\u016btes, ieaustot to virv\u0113.<\/p>\n

1977<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n
\n1977. gad\u0101 tika izlaists Commodore PET \u2014 pirmais (veiksm\u012bgais) person\u0101lais dators. PET izmantoja Commodore 1530 Datasette, kas noz\u012bm\u0113 dati plus kase\u0161u. PET p\u0101rveidoja datus analogos ska\u0146as sign\u0101los, kas tika glab\u0101ti kass\u0113s<\/a><\/noindex>. Tas \u013c\u0101va izveidot ekonomisku un uzticamu risin\u0101jumu datu glab\u0101\u0161anai, lai gan tas bija \u013coti l\u0113ns. M\u016bsu mazais baits datu var\u0113ja tikt p\u0101rs\u016bt\u012bts apm\u0113ram ar \u0101trumu 60-70 baitu sekund\u0113<\/a><\/noindex>. Kases var\u0113ja ietilpt apm\u0113ram 100 kilobaitus uz 30 min\u016b\u0161u pusi, ar div\u0101m pus\u0113m uz lentes. Piem\u0113ram, vien\u0101 pus\u0113 kases var\u0113ja uzglab\u0101t apm\u0113ram divas 55 kB bildes. Datasette tika izmantotas ar\u012b Commodore VIC-20 un Commodore 64.<\/p>\n

1978<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n
\nP\u0113c gada, 1978. gad\u0101, MCA un Philips prezent\u0113ja LaserDisc ar nosaukumu \u201eDiscovision\u201d. Filma \u201e\u017dok\u013ci\u201d k\u013cuva par pirmo filmu, kas tika p\u0101rdota uz LaserDisc ASV. T\u0101s ska\u0146as un att\u0113la kvalit\u0101te bija krietni lab\u0101ka nek\u0101 konkurentiem, ta\u010du l\u0101zera disks izr\u0101d\u012bj\u0101s p\u0101r\u0101k d\u0101rgs liel\u0101kajai da\u013cai pat\u0113r\u0113t\u0101ju. At\u0161\u0137ir\u012bb\u0101 no VHS kaset\u0113m, ko cilv\u0113ki izmantoja, lai ierakst\u012btu televizora raid\u012bjumus, uz LaserDisc nevar\u0113ja ierakst\u012bt. L\u0101zera diski str\u0101d\u0101ja ar analogajiem video, analogaj\u0101m FM stereo ska\u0146\u0101m un impulsu kod\u0113to modul\u0101ciju<\/a><\/noindex>, vai PCM, digit\u0101lo audio. Disku diametrs bija 12 collas (30,47 cm) un tie sast\u0101v\u0113ja no diviem vienpus\u0113jiem alum\u012bnija diskiem, kas p\u0101rkl\u0101ti ar plastmasu. \u0160odien LaserDisc atceras k\u0101 CD un DVD pamatu.<\/p>\n

1979<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n
\nGadu v\u0113l\u0101k, 1979. gad\u0101, Alans \u0160\u016bgarts un Finis Koners izveidoja uz\u0146\u0113mumu Seagate Technology ar ideju samazin\u0101t cieto disku l\u012bdz 5 \u00bc collu disketes izm\u0113ram, kas taj\u0101 laik\u0101 bija standarts. Vi\u0146u pirmais produkts 1980. gad\u0101 bija cietais disks Seagate ST506 \u2014 pirmais cietais disks kompaktajiem datoriem. Disk\u0101 bija piecu megabaitu datu ietilp\u012bba, kas taj\u0101 laik\u0101 bija piecas reizes liel\u0101ka nek\u0101 standarta disketes ietilp\u012bba. Dibin\u0101t\u0101jiem izdev\u0101s sasniegt savu m\u0113r\u0137i \u2014 samazin\u0101t diska izm\u0113ru l\u012bdz 5\u00bc collu disketes izm\u0113ram. Jaunais datu glab\u0101\u0161anas ier\u012bce bija cieta met\u0101la pl\u0101ksne, kas no ab\u0101m pus\u0113m p\u0101rkl\u0101ta ar pl\u0101nu magn\u0113tisk\u0101 materi\u0101la sl\u0101ni datu glab\u0101\u0161anai. M\u016bsu dati var\u0113ja tikt p\u0101rs\u016bt\u012bti uz disku ar \u0101trumu 625 kilobaiti sekund\u0113<\/a><\/noindex>. Tas ir aptuveni t\u0101da gif<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/p>\n

1981<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n
\nP\u0101riesim da\u017eus gadus uz priek\u0161u, uz 1981. gadu, kad Sony prezent\u0113ja pirm\u0101s 3,5 collu disketes. Uz\u0146\u0113mums Hewlett-Packard k\u013cuva par pirmo \u0161\u012bs tehnolo\u0123ijas sekot\u0101ju 1982. gad\u0101 ar savu HP-150. Tas populariz\u0113ja 3,5 collu diske\u0161u un deva t\u0101m pla\u0161u izplat\u012bbu nozar\u0113<\/a><\/noindex>. Disketes bija vienpus\u0113jas ar format\u0113to ietilp\u012bbu 161,2 kilobaiti un neformat\u0113to ietilp\u012bbu 218,8 kilobaiti. 1982. gad\u0101 tika izlaista divpus\u0113ja versija, un Microfloppy Industry Committee (MIC), kas sast\u0101v\u0113ja no 23 mediju uz\u0146\u0113mumiem, izveidoja 3,5 collu diske\u0161u specifik\u0101ciju, balstoties uz s\u0101kotn\u0113jo Sony dizainu, nostiprinot form\u0101tu v\u0113stur\u0113 t\u0101d\u0101 veid\u0101, k\u0101d\u0101 m\u0113s to zin\u0101m<\/a><\/noindex>. Tagad m\u016bsu dati var tikt glab\u0101ti uz vienas no visizplat\u012bt\u0101kaj\u0101m nes\u0113jier\u012bc\u0113m: 3,5 collu diskete. V\u0113l\u0101k divas 3,5 collu disketes ar Oregonas taku<\/a><\/noindex> ir k\u013cuvu\u0161i par svar\u012bg\u0101ko manas b\u0113rn\u012bbas da\u013cu.<\/p>\n

1984<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n
\nDr\u012bz p\u0113c tam, 1984. gad\u0101, tika pazi\u0146ots par datu kompaktdiska izdo\u0161anu, kas pieejams tikai las\u012b\u0161anai (ang\u013cu: Compact Disc Read-Only Memory, CD-ROM). Tie bija CD-ROM ar 550 megabaitu no uz\u0146\u0113mumiem Sony un Philips. Form\u0101ts izauga no kompaktdiskiem ar digit\u0101lo audio, vai CD-DA, kas tika izmantoti m\u016bzikas izplat\u012b\u0161anai. CD-DA tika izstr\u0101d\u0101ts Sony un Philips 1982. gad\u0101, t\u0101 ietilp\u012bba bija 74 min\u016btes. Saska\u0146\u0101 ar le\u0123endu, kad Sony un Philips diskut\u0113ja par CD-DA standartu, viens no \u010detriem cilv\u0113kiem uzst\u0101ja, lai tas var\u0113tu ietilpt<\/a><\/noindex> vis\u0101 \"Dev\u012btaj\u0101 simfonij\u0101\". Pirmais produkts, kas tika izlaists uz kompaktdiska, bija \"Grolier elektronisk\u0101 enciklop\u0113dija\", kas izn\u0101ca 1985. gad\u0101. Enciklop\u0113dija satur\u0113ja devi\u0146us miljonus v\u0101rdu, kas aiz\u0146\u0113ma tikai 12% no pieejam\u0101s diska vietas, proti, 553 mebibaiti<\/a><\/noindex>. Mums b\u016btu vair\u0101k nek\u0101 pietiekami vietas enciklop\u0113dijai un baitu datiem. Dr\u012bz p\u0113c tam, 1985. gad\u0101, datoru uz\u0146\u0113mumi sadarboj\u0101s, lai izstr\u0101d\u0101tu standartu diskiem, lai jebkur\u0161 dators var\u0113tu las\u012bt no tiem inform\u0101ciju.<\/p>\n

1984<\/h2>\n

\nT\u0101pat 1984. gad\u0101 Fujio Masuoka izstr\u0101d\u0101ja jaunu veidu atmi\u0146as ar peldo\u0161o aizvaru, ko sauc par flash atmi\u0146u, kas bija sp\u0113j\u012bga tikt dz\u0113sta un p\u0101rrakst\u012bta vair\u0101kk\u0101rt.<\/p>\n

Apskat\u012bsim nedaudz par flash atmi\u0146u, kas izmanto peldo\u0161o aizvaru tranzistoru. Tranzistori ir elektriskie aizvari, kurus var iesl\u0113gt un izsl\u0113gt pa vienam. T\u0101 k\u0101 katrs tranzistors var atrasties divos da\u017e\u0101dos st\u0101vok\u013cos (iesl\u0113gt\u0101 un izsl\u0113gt\u0101), tas var glab\u0101t divus da\u017e\u0101dus skait\u013cus: 0 un 1. Peldo\u0161ais aizvars attiecas uz otro aizvaru, kas pievienots vid\u0113jam tranzistoram. \u0160is otrais aizvars ir izol\u0113ts ar pl\u0101nu oks\u012bda sl\u0101ni. \u0160ie tranzistori izmanto nelielu spriegumu, kas pielietots tranzistora aizvaram, lai nor\u0101d\u012btu, vai tas ir iesl\u0113gts vai izsl\u0113gts, kas savuk\u0101rt tiek p\u0101rv\u0113rsts par 0 vai 1.
\n\u00a0
\nAr pl\u016bsto\u0161ajiem sl\u0113d\u017eiem, kad cauri oks\u012bda sl\u0101nim pieg\u0101d\u0101 atbilsto\u0161u spriegumu, elektroni iziet cauri un iespr\u016bst sl\u0113d\u017eos. T\u0101p\u0113c pat pie str\u0101vas izsl\u0113g\u0161anas elektroni paliek tajos. Kad pl\u016bsto\u0161ajos sl\u0113d\u017eos nav elektronus, tie reprezent\u0113 1, bet kad elektroni ir iespr\u016bdu\u0161i, tie att\u0113lo 0. Atpaka\u013cgaita \u0161aj\u0101 proces\u0101 un atbilsto\u0161a sprieguma piem\u0113ro\u0161ana cauri oks\u012bda sl\u0101nim pret\u0113j\u0101 virzien\u0101 liek elektroniem iziet cauri pl\u016bsto\u0161ajiem sl\u0113dz\u0113 un atjauno tranzistoru t\u0101 s\u0101kotn\u0113j\u0101 st\u0101vokl\u012b. T\u0101p\u0113c \u0161\u016bnas tiek veidotas programm\u0113jamas un ener\u0123ijai neatkar\u012bgas<\/a><\/noindex>. M\u016bsu baits var tikt programm\u0113ts tranzistor\u0101 k\u0101 01001010, ar elektroniem, kas iespr\u016bdu\u0161i pl\u016bsto\u0161ajos sl\u0113d\u017eos, lai att\u0113lotu nulles.<\/p>\n

Masuokas konstrukcija bija nedaudz pieejam\u0101ka, bet maz\u0101k elast\u012bga nek\u0101 elektriski dz\u0113\u0161amais PROM (EEPROM), jo t\u0101 pras\u012bja vair\u0101kas \u0161\u016bnu grupas, kuras bija j\u0101izdz\u0113\u0161 kop\u012bgi, ta\u010du tas ar\u012b tika skaidrots ar t\u0101s \u0101trumu.<\/p>\n

Taj\u0101 laik\u0101 Masuoka str\u0101d\u0101ja Toshiba. Galu gal\u0101 vi\u0146\u0161 dev\u0101s str\u0101d\u0101t Tohoku Universit\u0101t\u0113, jo bija neapmierin\u0101ts ar to, ka uz\u0146\u0113mums vi\u0146u neatalgoja par vi\u0146a darbu. Masuoka iesniedza ties\u0101\u0161an\u0101s pras\u012bbu pret Toshiba, pieprasot kompens\u0101ciju. 2006. gad\u0101 vi\u0146am tika izmaks\u0101ti 87 miljoni jua\u0146u, kas ir ekvivalents 758 t\u016bksto\u0161iem ASV dol\u0101ru. Tas joproj\u0101m \u0161\u0137iet nenoz\u012bm\u012bgs, \u0146emot v\u0113r\u0101, cik ietekm\u012bga ir bijusi flash atmi\u0146a r\u016bpniec\u012bb\u0101.<\/p>\n

Run\u0101jot par flash atmi\u0146u, ir v\u0113rts ar\u012b atz\u012bm\u0113t, k\u0101da ir at\u0161\u0137ir\u012bba starp NOR un NAND flash atmi\u0146u. K\u0101 m\u0113s jau zin\u0101m no Masuokas, flash saglab\u0101 inform\u0101ciju atmi\u0146as \u0161\u016bn\u0101s, kas sast\u0101v no pl\u016bsto\u0161a sl\u0113d\u017ea tranzistoriem. Tehnolo\u0123iju nosaukumi tie\u0161i saist\u012bti ar to, k\u0101 ir organiz\u0113tas atmi\u0146as \u0161\u016bnas.<\/p>\n

NOR flash atmi\u0146\u0101 atsevi\u0161\u0137\u0101s atmi\u0146as \u0161\u016bnas ir savienotas paral\u0113li, nodro\u0161inot izlases piek\u013cuvi. \u0160\u0101da arhitekt\u016bra samazina las\u012b\u0161anas laiku, kas nepiecie\u0161ams izlases piek\u013cuvei mikroprocesora instrukcij\u0101m. NOR flash atmi\u0146a ir ide\u0101li piem\u0113rota lietojumiem ar zem\u0101ku bl\u012bvumu, kas galvenok\u0101rt paredz\u0113ti tikai las\u012b\u0161anai. T\u0101p\u0113c liel\u0101k\u0101 da\u013ca CPU iel\u0101d\u0113 savu programmat\u016bru, parasti no NOR flash atmi\u0146as. Masuoka un vi\u0146a kol\u0113\u0123i prezent\u0113ja NOR flash izgudrojumu 1984. gad\u0101 un NAND flash 1987<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/p>\n

NAND Flash izstr\u0101d\u0101t\u0101ji atteic\u0101s no nejau\u0161as piek\u013cuves iesp\u0113jas, lai samazin\u0101tu atmi\u0146as \u0161\u016bnas izm\u0113ru. Tas nodro\u0161ina maz\u0101ku mikrosh\u0113mas izm\u0113ru un zem\u0101kas izmaksas uz bitu. NAND flash atmi\u0146as arhitekt\u016bra sast\u0101v no s\u0113rijveid\u0101 savienotiem atmi\u0146as tranzistoriem, kas sast\u0101v no asto\u0146\u0101m da\u013c\u0101m. Tas \u013cauj sasniegt augstu glab\u0101\u0161anas bl\u012bvumu, maz\u0101ku atmi\u0146as \u0161\u016bnas izm\u0113ru, k\u0101 ar\u012b \u0101tr\u0101ku datu ierakst\u012b\u0161anu un dz\u0113\u0161anu, jo t\u0101 var vienlaikus programm\u0113t datu blokus. Tas tiek pan\u0101kts, pateicoties nepiecie\u0161am\u012bbai p\u0101rrakst\u012bt datus, kad tie netiek ierakst\u012bti sec\u012bgi un dati jau past\u0101v blok\u0101. blok\u0101<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/p>\n

1991<\/h2>\n

\nP\u0101riesim uz 1991. gadu, kad SanDisk, tobr\u012bd zin\u0101ms k\u0101 SunDisk<\/a><\/noindex>, izveidoja pirmo prototipu solid-state diska (SSD). Konstrukcija apvienoja flash atmi\u0146as mas\u012bvu, ener\u0123ijas neatkar\u012bgus atmi\u0146as \u010dipus un intelektu\u0101lu kontrolieri, kas autom\u0101tiski atkl\u0101ja un laboja defekt\u012bg\u0101s \u0161\u016bnas. Diska ietilp\u012bba bija 20 megabaiti 2,5 collu form\u0101t\u0101, un t\u0101 cena tika l\u0113sta apm\u0113ram 1000 ASV dol\u0101ru apm\u0113r\u0101. \u0160o disku izmantoja uz\u0146\u0113mums IBM sav\u0101 dator\u0101 ThinkPad<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/p>\n

1994<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n
\nViens no maniem iecien\u012bt\u0101kajiem datu nes\u0113jiem kop\u0161 b\u0113rn\u012bbas bija Zip Diski. 1994. gad\u0101 uz\u0146\u0113mums Iomega izlaida Zip Disk, 100 megabaitu kasetni 3,5 collu form\u0101t\u0101, aptuveni nedaudz biez\u0101ku par standarta 3,5 collu disketi. V\u0113l\u0101k\u0101s disku versijas sp\u0113ja glab\u0101t l\u012bdz 2 gigabaitiem. \u0160o disku \u0113rta lieto\u0161ana bija t\u0101, ka tie bija disketes izm\u0113r\u0101, bet var\u0113ja uzglab\u0101t liel\u0101ku datu apjomu. M\u016bsu datu baidu var\u0113ja ierakst\u012bt uz Zip diska \u0101trum\u0101 l\u012bdz 1,4 megabaitiem sekund\u0113. Sal\u012bdzin\u0101jumam: taj\u0101 laik\u0101 1,44 megabaiti 3,5 collu disket\u0113s tika ierakst\u012btas \u0101trum\u0101 apm\u0113ram 16 kilobaiti sekund\u0113. Uz Zip diska galvi\u0146as kontakt\u012bgi las\u012bja\/ierakst\u012bja datus, it k\u0101 lidotu virs virsmas, kas atg\u0101dina cieto disku darb\u012bbu, bet at\u0161\u0137iras no citu disketes darb\u012bbas principa. Dr\u012bz Zip diski k\u013cuva novecoju\u0161i ilgsto\u0161\u0101s uzticam\u012bbas probl\u0113mu un pieejam\u012bbas d\u0113\u013c.<\/p>\n

1994<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n
\nTaj\u0101 pa\u0161\u0101 gad\u0101 SanDisk pazi\u0146oja par CompactFlash, kas pla\u0161i tika izmantots digit\u0101laj\u0101s videokamer\u0101s. T\u0101pat k\u0101 kompaktdiskiem, CompactFlash \u0101trumu nosaka \"x\" reitingi, piem\u0113ram, 8x, 20x, 133x u.c. Maksim\u0101l\u0101 datu p\u0101rs\u016bt\u012b\u0161anas \u0101trums tiek apr\u0113\u0137in\u0101ts, balstoties uz ori\u0123in\u0101l\u0101 audio CD p\u0101rs\u016bt\u012b\u0161anas \u0101trumu, kas ir 150 kilobaiti sekund\u0113. P\u0101rs\u016bt\u012b\u0161anas \u0101trums izskat\u0101s k\u0101 R = Kx150 kB\/s, kur R ir p\u0101rs\u016bt\u012b\u0161anas \u0101trums, bet K ir nomin\u0101lais \u0101trums. T\u0101d\u0113j\u0101di, 133x CompactFlash, m\u016bsu datu baits tiks ierakst\u012bts pie 133x150 kB\/s vai aptuveni 19 950 kB\/s vai 19,95 MB\/s. CompactFlash asoci\u0101cija tika dibin\u0101ta 1995. gad\u0101 ar m\u0113r\u0137i izveidot r\u016bpniecisko standartu flash atmi\u0146as kart\u0113m.<\/p>\n

1997<\/h2>\n

\nP\u0101ris gadu v\u0113l\u0101k, 1997. gad\u0101, tika izlaists kompaktdisks ar p\u0101rrakst\u012b\u0161anas funkciju (CD-RW). \u0160is optiskais disks tika izmantots datu uzglab\u0101\u0161anai, k\u0101 ar\u012b failu kop\u0113\u0161anai un p\u0101rs\u016bt\u012b\u0161anai uz da\u017e\u0101d\u0101m ier\u012bc\u0113m. Compact disku var p\u0101rrakst\u012bt apm\u0113ram 1000 reizes, kas tolaik nebija ierobe\u017eojo\u0161s faktors, jo lietot\u0101ji reti p\u0101rrakst\u012bja datus.<\/p>\n

CD-RW balst\u0101s uz virsmas atstaro\u0161anas \u012bpa\u0161\u012bbu mai\u0146as tehnolo\u0123iju. CD-RW gad\u012bjum\u0101 f\u0101\u017eu izmai\u0146as speci\u0101laj\u0101 p\u0101rkl\u0101jum\u0101, kas sast\u0101v no sudraba, tel\u016bra un indija, izraisa sp\u0113ju atspogu\u013cot vai neatspogu\u013cot las\u012b\u0161anas staru, kas noz\u012bm\u0113 0 vai 1. Kad savienojums ir krist\u0101lisk\u0101 st\u0101vokl\u012b, tas ir puscaursp\u012bd\u012bgs, kas noz\u012bm\u0113 1. Kad savienojums izkaus\u0113jas amorf\u0101 st\u0101vokl\u012b, tas k\u013c\u016bst necaurredzams un neatspogu\u013cojo\u0161s, kas apz\u012bm\u0113<\/a><\/noindex> 0. T\u0101d\u0113j\u0101di m\u0113s var\u0113tu ierakst\u012bt m\u016bsu datu baitu k\u0101 01001010.<\/p>\n

DVD diski gala rezult\u0101t\u0101 ie\u0146\u0113ma liel\u0101ko da\u013cu tirgus ar CD-RW.<\/p>\n

1999<\/h2>\n

\nP\u0101riesim uz 1999. gadu, kad IBM pazi\u0146oja par pasaul\u0113 maz\u0101kajiem cietajiem diskiem taj\u0101 laik\u0101: IBM mikrodiskus ar ietilp\u012bbu 170 un 340 MB. Tie bija mazi cietie diski ar diametru 2,54 cm, kas bija paredz\u0113ti ievieto\u0161anai CompactFlash Type II slotos. Tika pl\u0101nota ier\u012bce, kas tiktu izmantota k\u0101 CompactFlash, bet ar liel\u0101ku atmi\u0146as ietilp\u012bbu. Tom\u0113r dr\u012bz vien tie tika aizst\u0101ti ar USB zibatmi\u0146\u0101m, k\u0101 ar\u012b liel\u0101k\u0101m CompactFlash kart\u0113m, kad t\u0101s k\u013cuva pieejamas. T\u0101pat k\u0101 citiem cietajiem diskiem, mikrodiskus bija meh\u0101niski un tie satur\u0113ja mazus pagrie\u017eamus diskus.<\/p>\n

2000<\/h2>\n

\nGadu v\u0113l\u0101k, 2000. gad\u0101, tika ieviesti USB zibatmi\u0146as. Zibatmi\u0146as sast\u0101v\u0113ja no flash atmi\u0146as, kas ietverta neliel\u0101 formfactor\u0101 ar USB saskarni. Atkar\u012bb\u0101 no izmantot\u0101s USB saskarnes versijas \u0101trums var\u0113ja at\u0161\u0137irties. USB 1.1 ir ierobe\u017eots l\u012bdz 1,5 megabitiem sekund\u0113, kam\u0113r USB 2.0 var apstr\u0101d\u0101t 35 megabitus sekun\u017eu laik\u0101. sekund\u0113<\/a><\/noindex>, bet USB 3.0 \u2014 625 megabiti sekund\u0113. Pirmie USB 3.1 tipa C zibatmi\u0146as tika pazi\u0146oti 2015. gada mart\u0101 un tiem bija las\u012b\u0161anas\/ieraksta \u0101trums 530 megabiti sekund\u0113. At\u0161\u0137ir\u012bb\u0101 no disket\u0113m un optiskajiem diskam, USB ier\u012bces ir gr\u016bt\u0101k saskr\u0101p\u0113t, bet t\u0101m ir t\u0101das pa\u0161as datu glab\u0101\u0161anas iesp\u0113jas k\u0101 ar\u012b failu p\u0101rs\u016bt\u012b\u0161anai un dubl\u0113\u0161anai. Diskdzi\u0146i disket\u0113m un kompaktajiem diskiem tika \u0101tri aizvietoti ar USB portiem.<\/p>\n

2005<\/h2>\n

\n\"Datu
\n
\n2005. gad\u0101 ciet\u0101 diska (HDD) ra\u017eot\u0101ji s\u0101ka pieg\u0101d\u0101t produktus, izmantojot perpendikul\u0101ro magnetisko ierakstu vai PMR. \u013boti interesanti, ka tas notika taj\u0101 pa\u0161\u0101 laik\u0101, kad IPod Nano pazi\u0146oja par flash atmi\u0146as izmanto\u0161anu, nevis 1 collu cietajiem diskiem iPod Mini.<\/p>\n

Tipisks cietais disks satur vienu vai vair\u0101kus cietos diskus, kas p\u0101rkl\u0101ti ar magn\u0113tiskai jut\u012bgai pl\u0113vei, kas sast\u0101v no s\u012bkiem magn\u0113tiskajiem graudiem. Dati tiek ierakst\u012bti, kad magn\u0113tisk\u0101 ierakst\u012b\u0161anas galvi\u0146a p\u0101rvietojas nedaudz virs griezo\u0161\u0101 diska. Tas ir \u013coti l\u012bdz\u012bgs tradicion\u0101lam gramofonam, at\u0161\u0137ir\u012bba ir t\u0101da, ka gramofon\u0101 adata ir fizisk\u0101 kontakt\u0101 ar plati. Griezes laik\u0101 gaiss, kas saskaras ar diskiem, rada vieglu v\u0113tru. L\u012bdz\u012bgi k\u0101 gaiss uz lidma\u0161\u012bnas sp\u0101rna rada pacel\u0161anas sp\u0113ku, gaiss \u0123ener\u0113 pacel\u0161anas sp\u0113ku uz aerodinamisk\u0101s virsmas. diska galvi\u0146a<\/a><\/noindex>. Galvi\u0146a \u0101tri maina magn\u0113tiskuma virzienu vien\u0101 magn\u0113tisko graudu apgabal\u0101, t\u0101 ka t\u0101s magn\u0113tiskais pols nor\u0101da uz aug\u0161u vai uz leju, apz\u012bm\u0113jot 1 vai 0.
\n\u00a0
\nPMR priek\u0161g\u0101j\u0113js bija garenisk\u0101 magn\u0113tisk\u0101 ieraksta tehnolo\u0123ija, vai LMR. PMR ieraksta bl\u012bvums var p\u0101rsniegt LMR ieraksta bl\u012bvumu vair\u0101k nek\u0101 tr\u012bs reizes. Galven\u0101 at\u0161\u0137ir\u012bba starp PMR un LMR ir t\u0101, ka PMR nes\u0113ju glab\u0101to datu graudu strukt\u016bra un magn\u0113tisk\u0101 orient\u0101cija ir stabi\u0146a, nevis gareniska. PMR nodro\u0161ina lab\u0101ku termisko stabilit\u0101ti un uzlabotu sign\u0101la attiec\u012bbu pret troksni (SNR), pateicoties lab\u0101kai graudu atdal\u012b\u0161anai un vienm\u0113r\u012bguma nodro\u0161in\u0101\u0161anai. T\u0101 ar\u012b izce\u013cas ar uzlabotu ierakst\u0101m\u012bbu, pateicoties sp\u0113c\u012bg\u0101kiem galvu laukiem un lab\u0101kai nes\u0113ju magn\u0113tiskajai izl\u012bdzin\u0101\u0161anai. T\u0101pat k\u0101 LMR, PMR fundament\u0101lie ierobe\u017eojumi ir saist\u012bti ar termisko stabilit\u0101ti, ierakstot magn\u0113tiskos datu bitus, un nepiecie\u0161am\u012bbu nodro\u0161in\u0101t pietiekamu SNR, lai nolas\u012btu ierakst\u012bto inform\u0101ciju.<\/p>\n

2007<\/h2>\n

\n2007. gad\u0101 tika pazi\u0146ots par pirm\u0101 1 TB ciet\u0101 diska izn\u0101k\u0161anu no Hitachi Global Storage Technologies. Hitachi Deskstar 7K1000 izmantoja piecus 3,5 collu 200 gigabaitus pl\u0101k\u0161\u0146u un griez\u0101s ar \u0101trumu 7200<\/a><\/noindex> ap\u013ci\/min. Tas ir iev\u0113rojams uzlabojums sal\u012bdzin\u0101jum\u0101 ar pirm\u0101 pasaul\u0113 ciet\u0101 diska IBM RAMAC 350, kura jauda bija aptuveni 3,75 megabaiti. Ak, k\u0101 t\u0101lu m\u0113s esam tiku\u0161i p\u0113d\u0113jo 51 gadu laik\u0101! Bet pagaidiet, ir v\u0113l kaut kas.<\/p>\n

2009<\/h2>\n

\n2009. gad\u0101 s\u0101k\u0101s tehniskie darbi pie ener\u0123ijas neatkar\u012bg\u0101s ekspresatmi\u0146as, vai NVMe<\/a><\/noindex>. Ener\u0123ijas neatkar\u012bga atmi\u0146a (NVM) ir t\u0101da veida atmi\u0146a, kas var saglab\u0101t datus past\u0101v\u012bgi, at\u0161\u0137ir\u012bb\u0101 no ener\u0123ijas atkar\u012bg\u0101s atmi\u0146as, kurai nepiecie\u0161ama past\u0101v\u012bga baro\u0161ana, lai saglab\u0101tu datus. NVMe apmierina vajadz\u012bbu p\u0113c m\u0113rogojama hosta kontroliera saskarnes perif\u0113rijas komponentiem, kas balst\u0101s uz pusvad\u012bt\u0101ju ier\u012bc\u0113m ar PCIe tehnolo\u0123ijas atbalstu, no k\u0101 ar\u012b nosaukums NVMe. Vair\u0101k nek\u0101 90 uz\u0146\u0113mumu piedal\u012bj\u0101s darba grup\u0101 projekta izstr\u0101dei. Viss tas bija balst\u012bts uz darba rezult\u0101tiem, lai noteiktu ener\u0123ijas neatkar\u012bg\u0101s atmi\u0146as hosta kontroliera saskarnes specifik\u0101ciju (NVMHCIS). Lab\u0101kie \u0161odien pieejamie NVMe diski var apstr\u0101d\u0101t apm\u0113ram 3500 megabaitus sekund\u0113, nolasot, un 3300 megabaitus sekund\u0113, ierakstot. Ierakst\u012bt datus j, ar kuriem m\u0113s s\u0101k\u0101m, ir \u013coti \u0101tri sal\u012bdzin\u0101jum\u0101 ar p\u0101ris min\u016bt\u0113m roku darbin\u0101t\u0101s stieples atmi\u0146as veido\u0161anai Apollo Guidance Computer.<\/p>\n

Tagadne un n\u0101kotne<\/h2>\n

<\/p>\n

Storage Class Memory<\/h3>\n

\nTagad, kad esam veiku\u0161i laika ce\u013cojumu (ha!), apl\u016bkosim m\u016bsdienu Storage Class Memory st\u0101vokli. SCM, t\u0101pat k\u0101 NVM, ir notur\u012bga, ta\u010du SCM pied\u0101v\u0101 veiktsp\u0113ju, kas p\u0101rsniedz vai ir sal\u012bdzin\u0101ma ar galveno atmi\u0146u, k\u0101 ar\u012b baitu adres\u0113jam\u012bba<\/a><\/noindex>. SCM m\u0113r\u0137is ir risin\u0101t da\u017eas \u0161odienas ke\u0161atmi\u0146as probl\u0113mas, piem\u0113ram, zemo statisk\u0101s nejau\u0161\u0101s piek\u013cuves atmi\u0146as (SRAM) bl\u012bvumu. Izmantojot dinamisko darb\u012bbas atmi\u0146u (DRAM), m\u0113s varam sasniegt lab\u0101ku bl\u012bvumu, ta\u010du tas tiek pan\u0101kts, samazinot piek\u013cuves \u0101trumu. DRAM ar\u012b cie\u0161 no nepiecie\u0161am\u012bbas past\u0101v\u012bgi nodro\u0161in\u0101t jaudu atmi\u0146as atjaunin\u0101\u0161anai. Apskat\u012bsim \u0161o jaut\u0101jumu detaliz\u0113t\u0101k. Baro\u0161ana ir nepiecie\u0161ama, jo elektriskais l\u0101di\u0146\u0161 uz kondensatoriem pamaz\u0101m izpl\u016bst, t\u0101tad, bez iejauk\u0161an\u0101s dati no mikrosh\u0113mas dr\u012bz tiks zaud\u0113ti. Lai nov\u0113rstu \u0161\u0101du izpl\u016bdi, DRAM prasa \u0101r\u0113ju atmi\u0146as atjaunin\u0101\u0161anas sh\u0113mu, kas periodiski p\u0101rraksta datus kondensatoros, atjaunojot tos s\u0101kotn\u0113j\u0101 l\u0101di\u0146\u0101.<\/p>\n

F\u0101z\u0113 main\u012bg\u0101 atmi\u0146a (Phase-change memory, PCM)<\/h3>\n

\nIepriek\u0161 esam apspriedu\u0161i, k\u0101 main\u0101s f\u0101ze CD-RW. PCM ir l\u012bdz\u012bgs. F\u0101zes mai\u0146as materi\u0101ls parasti ir Ge-Sb-Te, paz\u012bstams ar\u012b k\u0101 GST, kas var past\u0101v\u0113t div\u0101s da\u017e\u0101d\u0101s st\u0101vok\u013cos: amorf\u0101 un krist\u0101lisk\u0101. Amorf\u0101 st\u0101vok\u013ca pretest\u012bba ir augst\u0101ka, nor\u0101dot 0, nek\u0101 krist\u0101lisk\u0101 st\u0101vok\u013ca, kas nor\u0101da 1. Pie\u0161\u0137irot datu v\u0113rt\u012bbas starppretest\u012bb\u0101m, PCM var izmantot, lai uzglab\u0101tu daudzus st\u0101vok\u013cus form\u0101 MLC<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/p>\n

Spin-transfer torque random access memory (STT-RAM)<\/h3>\n

\nSTT-RAM sast\u0101v no diviem feromagn\u0113tiskiem, past\u0101v\u012bgiem magn\u0113tiskajiem sl\u0101\u0146iem, kas ir atdal\u012bti ar dielektri\u0137i, proti, izolatoru, kas var p\u0101rvad\u012bt elektrisko sp\u0113ku bez vad\u012b\u0161anas. T\u0101 uzglab\u0101 datu bitus, pamatojoties uz magn\u0113tisko virzienu at\u0161\u0137ir\u012bb\u0101m. Viens magn\u0113tiskais sl\u0101nis, ko sauc par atbalsta sl\u0101ni, ir ar fiks\u0113tu magn\u0113tisko virzienu, savuk\u0101rt otrs magn\u0113tiskais sl\u0101nis, ko sauc par br\u012bvo, ir ar magn\u0113tisko virzienu, ko kontrol\u0113 p\u0101rnesamais str\u0101vas. 1 gad\u012bjum\u0101 divu sl\u0101\u0146u magn\u0113tisk\u0101 orient\u0101cija ir izl\u012bdzin\u0101ta. 0 gad\u012bjum\u0101 abi sl\u0101\u0146i ir ar pret\u0113j\u0101m magn\u0113tisk\u0101m orient\u0101cij\u0101m.<\/p>\n

Rezist\u012bv\u0101 atmi\u0146a ar nejau\u0161o piek\u013cuvi (Resistive random access memory, ReRAM)
\nReRAM \u0161\u016bna sast\u0101v no div\u0101m met\u0101la elektrodu k\u0101rt\u0101m, kas ir atdal\u012btas ar met\u0101la oks\u012bda sl\u0101ni. Nedaudz l\u012bdz\u012bgi k\u0101 Masuoka izstr\u0101d\u0101t\u0101s flash atmi\u0146as dizain\u0101, kur elektroni iek\u013c\u016bst oks\u012bda sl\u0101n\u012b un iestr\u0113gst peldo\u0161ajos v\u0101rtos vai otr\u0101di. Tom\u0113r, izmantojot ReRAM, \u0161\u016bnas st\u0101voklis tiek noteikts, pamatojoties uz br\u012bv\u0101 sk\u0101bek\u013ca koncentr\u0101ciju met\u0101la oks\u012bda sl\u0101n\u012b.<\/p>\n

Neskatoties uz to, ka \u0161\u012bs tehnolo\u0123ijas ir daudzsolo\u0161as, t\u0101m joproj\u0101m ir tr\u016bkumi. PCM un STT-RAM rakst\u012b\u0161anas laik\u0101 ir augsta latentuma. PCM latentums ir desmit reizes augst\u0101ks nek\u0101 DRAM, savuk\u0101rt STT-RAM latentums ir desmit reizes augst\u0101ks nek\u0101 SRAM. PCM un ReRAM ir ierobe\u017eojumi rakst\u012b\u0161anas ilgum\u0101 l\u012bdz nopietnu k\u013c\u016bdu ra\u0161an\u0101s br\u012bdim, kas noz\u012bm\u0113, ka atmi\u0146as elements iestr\u0113gst pie noteiktas v\u0113rt\u012bbas<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/p>\n

2015. gada august\u0101 uz\u0146\u0113mums Intel pazi\u0146oja par Optane izlai\u0161anu, savu produktu, kas balst\u012bts uz 3DXPoint. Optane apgalvo, ka t\u0101 veiktsp\u0113ja ir 1000 reizes augst\u0101ka nek\u0101 NAND SSD, bet cena \u010detras l\u012bdz piecas reizes augst\u0101ka nek\u0101 flash atmi\u0146ai. Optane ir pier\u0101d\u012bjums tam, ka SCM nav vienk\u0101r\u0161i eksperiment\u0101la tehnolo\u0123ija. B\u016bs interesanti nov\u0113rot \u0161o tehnolo\u0123iju att\u012bst\u012bbu.<\/p>\n

Cietie diski (HDD)<\/h2>\n

<\/p>\n

Helija cietais disks (HHDD)<\/h3>\n

\nHelija disks ir liela apjoma cietais disks (HDD), kas ir piepild\u012bts ar heliju un herm\u0113tiski nosl\u0113gts ra\u017eo\u0161anas proces\u0101. T\u0101pat k\u0101 citi cietie diski, k\u0101 jau iepriek\u0161 min\u0113ts, tas l\u012bdz\u012bgs atska\u0146ot\u0101jam ar griezo\u0161u disku ar magn\u0113tisku p\u0101rkl\u0101jumu. Tipiski cietie diski vienk\u0101r\u0161i satur gaisu iek\u0161pus\u0113, tom\u0113r \u0161is gaiss rada zin\u0101mu pretest\u012bbu disku grie\u0161anai.<\/p>\n

Helija baloni lido, jo helijs ir viegl\u0101ks par gaisu. Faktiski helijs veido 1\/7 no gaisa bl\u012bvuma, kas \u013cauj samazin\u0101t pretest\u012bbu disku grie\u0161anai, samazinot nepiecie\u0161amo ener\u0123iju disku grie\u0161anai. Tom\u0113r \u0161\u012b \u012bpa\u0161\u012bba ir sekund\u0101ra, galven\u0101 helija at\u0161\u0137ir\u012bba ir t\u0101, ka tas \u013cauj iepakot 7 diskus taj\u0101 pa\u0161\u0101 form\u0101t\u0101, kur\u0101 parasti atrad\u0101s tikai 5. Ja atceramies m\u016bsu lidma\u0161\u012bnas sp\u0101rna analo\u0123iju, tas ir ide\u0101ls piem\u0113rs. T\u0101 k\u0101 helijs samazina pretest\u012bbu, turbulencija tiek izsl\u0113gta.<\/p>\n

Mums ar\u012b ir zin\u0101ms, ka heliuma baloni p\u0113c da\u017e\u0101m dien\u0101m s\u0101k zust, jo no tiem izn\u0101k helijs. To pa\u0161u var teikt ar\u012b par diskiem. Pag\u0101ju\u0161i gadi, l\u012bdz ra\u017eot\u0101ji sp\u0113ja izstr\u0101d\u0101t konteineru, kas nov\u0113r\u0161 helija izn\u0101k\u0161anu no formas faktora visas diska kalpo\u0161anas laik\u0101. Uz\u0146\u0113mums Backblaze veica eksperimentus un atkl\u0101ja, ka cietajiem diskiem ar heliju gada k\u013c\u016bdu l\u012bmenis bija 1,03%, kam\u0113r standarta cietajiem diskiem - 1,06%. Protams, \u0161\u012b at\u0161\u0137ir\u012bba ir tik maza, ka no t\u0101s ir gr\u016bti izdar\u012bt nopietnus secin\u0101jumus. pietiekami sare\u017e\u0123\u012bti<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/p>\n

Helij\u0101 piepild\u012bts formas faktors var satur\u0113t cieto disku, kas ir enkapsul\u0113ts, izmantojot PMR, par kuru m\u0113s run\u0101j\u0101m iepriek\u0161, vai mikrovi\u013c\u0146u magn\u0113tisko ierakstu (MAMR) vai siltuma magn\u0113tisko ierakstu (HAMR). Jebkuru magn\u0113tisko datu glab\u0101\u0161anas tehnolo\u0123iju var apvienot ar heliju, nevis gaisu. 2014. gad\u0101 uz\u0146\u0113mums HGST apvienoja divas progres\u012bvas tehnolo\u0123ijas sav\u0101 10 TB helij\u0101 piepild\u012btaj\u0101 cietaj\u0101 disk\u0101, kur\u0101 tika izmantota ar hostu vad\u012bta \u0161inde\u013cu magn\u0113tisk\u0101 ierakst\u012b\u0161ana, vai SMR (Shingled magnetic recording). Nedaudz piev\u0113rs\u012bsimies SMR, un p\u0113c tam apl\u016bkosim MAMR un HAMR.<\/p>\n

\u0160inde\u013cu magn\u0113tisk\u0101 ierakst\u012b\u0161ana<\/h3>\n

\nIepriek\u0161 m\u0113s apl\u016bkoj\u0101m perpendikul\u0101ro magn\u0113tisko ierakst\u012b\u0161anu (PMR), kas bija SMR priek\u0161g\u0101j\u0113ja. At\u0161\u0137ir\u012bb\u0101 no PMR, SMR ieraksta jaunas l\u012bnijas, kas p\u0101rkl\u0101jas ar da\u013cu iepriek\u0161 ierakst\u012bt\u0101s magn\u0113tisk\u0101s l\u012bnijas. Tas, savuk\u0101rt, padara iepriek\u0161\u0113jo l\u012bniju \u0161aur\u0101ku, nodro\u0161inot augst\u0101ku l\u012bniju bl\u012bvumu. Tehnolo\u0123ijas nosaukums saist\u012bts ar to, ka p\u0101rkl\u0101t\u0101s l\u012bnijas ir \u013coti l\u012bdz\u012bgas \u0161inde\u013cu kl\u0101jumiem uz jumta.<\/p>\n

SMR rada daudz sare\u017e\u0123\u012bt\u0101ku rakst\u012b\u0161anas procesu, jo ierakstot uz vienas l\u012bnijas, tiek p\u0101rrakst\u012bta blakus eso\u0161\u0101 l\u012bnija. Tas neizpau\u017eas, kad diska pamatne ir tuk\u0161a un dati ir sec\u012bgi. Ta\u010du, tikl\u012bdz j\u016bs ierakst\u0101t s\u0113riju l\u012bniju, kuras jau satur datus, eso\u0161ie blakus eso\u0161ie dati tiek izdz\u0113sti. Ja blakus eso\u0161\u0101 l\u012bnija satur datus, tai j\u0101b\u016bt p\u0101rrakst\u012btai. Tas ir diezgan l\u012bdz\u012bgi NAND zibatmi\u0146ai, par kuru m\u0113s run\u0101j\u0101m iepriek\u0161.<\/p>\n

SMR ier\u012bces \u013cauj sl\u0113pt \u0161o sare\u017e\u0123\u012bt\u012bbu, izmantojot programmat\u016bras p\u0101rvald\u012bbu, t\u0101d\u0113j\u0101di ieg\u016bstot saskarni, kas ir l\u012bdz\u012bga jebkuram citam cietajam diskam. No otras puses, SMR ier\u012bces, kuras p\u0101rvalda host, bez \u012bpa\u0161as piel\u0101go\u0161anas lietojumprogramm\u0101m un oper\u0113t\u0101jsist\u0113m\u0101m ne\u013caus izmantot \u0161os diskus. Hostam ir j\u0101veic ieraksts uz ier\u012bc\u0113m stingri sec\u012bgi. Taj\u0101 pa\u0161\u0101 laik\u0101 ier\u012b\u010du veiktsp\u0113ja ir 100% paredzama. Uz\u0146\u0113mums Seagate s\u0101ka pieg\u0101d\u0101t SMR diskus 2013. gad\u0101, apgalvojot, ka to bl\u012bvums p\u0101rsniedz par 25%<\/a><\/noindex> PMR bl\u012bvumu.<\/p>\n

Mikrovien\u012bbu magn\u0113tisk\u0101 ierakst\u012b\u0161ana (MAMR)<\/h3>\n

\nMikrovien\u012bbu magn\u0113tisk\u0101 ierakst\u012b\u0161ana (MAMR) ir magn\u0113tisk\u0101s atmi\u0146as tehnolo\u0123ija, kas izmanto ener\u0123iju, l\u012bdz\u012bgu HAMR (apskat\u012bsim v\u0113l\u0101k). Svar\u012bga MAMR sast\u0101vda\u013ca ir Spin Torque Oscillator (STO) jeb \"spin torque \u0123enerators\". Pats STO atrodas tuvu ieraksta galvi\u0146ai. Pieliekot str\u0101vu STO, rodas ap\u013cveida elektromagn\u0113tisk\u0101 lauka \u0123ener\u0101cija ar frekvenci 20-40 GHz, kas rodas elektronspinu polariz\u0101cijas rezult\u0101t\u0101.<\/p>\n

Ietekm\u0113jot \u0161\u0101du lauku ferromagn\u0113tiskaj\u0101 materi\u0101l\u0101, kas tiek izmantots MAMR, notiek rezonanse, kas noved pie magn\u0113tisko momentu precesijas \u0161aj\u0101 lauk\u0101. Paties\u012bb\u0101 magn\u0113tiskais moments novirz\u0101s no savas ass, un ieraksta galvi\u0146ai ir nepiecie\u0161ama krietni maz\u0101ka ener\u0123ija, lai main\u012btu t\u0101 virzienu (apg\u0101z\u012btu).<\/p>\n

MAMR tehnolo\u0123ijas izmanto\u0161ana \u013cauj \u0146emt ferromagn\u0113tisk\u0101s vielas ar liel\u0101ku koercit\u012bvo sp\u0113ku, t\u0101p\u0113c var samazin\u0101t magn\u0113tisko dom\u0113nu izm\u0113ru, nebaidoties izrais\u012bt superparamagn\u0113tisko efektu. STO \u0123enerators pal\u012bdz samazin\u0101t ieraksta galvi\u0146as izm\u0113rus, kas \u013cauj ierakst\u012bt inform\u0101ciju maz\u0101ku magn\u0113tisko dom\u0113nu iek\u0161ien\u0113, t\u0101d\u0113j\u0101di palielinot ieraksta bl\u012bvumu.<\/p>\n

Uz\u0146\u0113mums Western Digital, paz\u012bstams ar\u012b k\u0101 WD, \u0161\u0101du tehnolo\u0123iju prezent\u0113ja 2017. gad\u0101. Dr\u012bz p\u0113c tam, 2018. gad\u0101, uz\u0146\u0113mums Toshiba atbalst\u012bja \u0161o tehnolo\u0123iju. Kam\u0113r uz\u0146\u0113mumi WD un Toshiba ir aiz\u0146emti ar MAMR tehnolo\u0123ijas mekl\u0113jumiem, uz\u0146\u0113mums Seagate veic likmes uz HAMR.<\/p>\n

Termomagn\u0113tisk\u0101 ierakst\u012b\u0161ana (HAMR)<\/h3>\n

\nSiltuma pal\u012bgtehnolo\u0123ija magn\u0113tiskaj\u0101 ierakst\u0101 (HAMR) ir energoefekt\u012bva magn\u0113tisk\u0101 datu glab\u0101\u0161anas tehnolo\u0123ija, kas b\u016btiski palielina datu apjomu, ko var uzglab\u0101t magn\u0113tiskaj\u0101 ier\u012bc\u0113, piem\u0113ram, cietaj\u0101 disk\u0101, izmantojot l\u0101zera rad\u012btu siltumu, lai pal\u012bdz\u0113tu ierakst\u012bt datus uz ciet\u0101 diska pamatnes virsmas. Mitinot atdz\u012bvin\u0101tos bitus tuv\u0101k kop\u0101 uz diska pamatnes, siltumprocess palielina datu bl\u012bvumu un jaudu.<\/p>\n

\u0160o tehnolo\u0123iju ir diezgan gr\u016bti \u012bstenot. 200 mW jaudas l\u0101zers \u0101tri uzsilda<\/a><\/noindex> nelielu teritoriju l\u012bdz 400 \u00b0C pirms ieraksta, neradot trauc\u0113jumus vai boj\u0101jot atliku\u0161os datus disk\u0101. Siltuma uzsild\u012b\u0161anas, datu ierakst\u012b\u0161anas un atdzi\u0161anas procesam j\u0101beidzas maz\u0101k nek\u0101 vien\u0101 nanosekund\u0113. \u0160o uzdevumu risin\u0101\u0161anai bija nepiecie\u0161ama nanoizm\u0113ra virsmas plazmonu izstr\u0101de, ko sauc par virsmas l\u0101zeru, nevis tie\u0161a siltumapg\u0101de ar l\u0101zeru, k\u0101 ar\u012b jaunu veidu stikla pl\u0101ksnes un termoregul\u0113jo\u0161u p\u0101rkl\u0101jumu izstr\u0101de, kas sp\u0113j iztur\u0113t \u0101trus punktveida sasild\u012bjumus bez boj\u0101jumiem ieraksta galvi\u0146ai vai tuv\u0113jiem datiem, k\u0101 ar\u012b da\u017e\u0101das citas tehniskas probl\u0113mas, kas bija j\u0101atrisina.<\/p>\n

Neskatoties uz daudziem skeptiskiem koment\u0101riem, uz\u0146\u0113mums Seagate pirmo reizi demonstr\u0113ja \u0161o tehnolo\u0123iju 2013. gad\u0101. Pirmie diski s\u0101ka tikt pieg\u0101d\u0101ti 2018. gad\u0101.<\/p>\n

Filmas beigas, velc atpaka\u013c uz s\u0101kumu!<\/h2>\n

\nM\u0113s s\u0101k\u0101m ar 1951. gadu un nosl\u0113dzam rakstu, raugoties n\u0101kotn\u0113 uz datu glab\u0101\u0161anas tehnolo\u0123ij\u0101m. Datu glab\u0101\u0161anas metodes laika gait\u0101 ir iev\u0113rojami main\u012bju\u0161\u0101s: no pap\u012bra lent\u0101m l\u012bdz met\u0101la un magn\u0113tisk\u0101m lent\u0101m, virvju atmi\u0146ai, rot\u0113jo\u0161iem diskiem, optiskajiem diskiem, flash atmi\u0146ai un cit\u0101m. Progres\u0113jot, ir par\u0101d\u012bju\u0161ies \u0101tr\u0101ki, kompakti un jaud\u012bg\u0101ki datu glab\u0101\u0161anas risin\u0101jumi.<\/p>\n

Sal\u012bdzino\u0161i ar NVMe un 1951. gada UNISERVO met\u0101la lenti, NVMe var nolas\u012bt par 486 111% vair\u0101k datu sekund\u0113. Sal\u012bdzino\u0161i ar manu b\u0113rn\u012bbas favorit, Zip diskiem, NVMe var nolas\u012bt par 213,623% vair\u0101k datu sekund\u0113.<\/p>\n

Vien\u012bgais, kas paliek nemain\u012bgs, ir 0 un 1 izmanto\u0161ana. Veidi, k\u0101 m\u0113s to dar\u0101m, \u013coti at\u0161\u0137iras. Es ceru, ka n\u0101kamreiz, kad ierakst\u012bsit CD-RW ar dziesm\u0101m draugam vai saglab\u0101siet m\u0101jas video Optisk\u0101 diska arh\u012bv\u0101, j\u016bs dom\u0101siet par to, k\u0101 neatspogu\u013cojo\u0161a virsma p\u0101rv\u0113r\u0161 v\u0113rt\u012bbu par 0, bet atspogu\u013cojo\u0161a \u2014 par 1. Vai, ja j\u016bs veidojat mikst\u0113ipu uz kasetes, atcerieties, ka tas ir \u013coti cie\u0161i saist\u012bts ar Datasette, kas tika izmantota Commodore PET. Un, protams, neaizmirstiet b\u016bt laipni un p\u0101rvilin\u0101t atpaka\u013c.<\/p>\n

Paldies Roberts Mustaka<\/a><\/noindex> un Riks Alterrs<\/a><\/noindex> par gar\u0161\u012bg\u0101m s\u012bkdatn\u0113m (es neko nevaru ar sevi izdar\u012bt) vis\u0101 rakst\u0101!<\/p>\n

Ko v\u0113l noder\u012bgu var izlas\u012bt emu\u0101r\u0101 Cloud4Y<\/a><\/noindex><\/b><\/p>\n

\u2192 Lieldienu olas \u0160veices topogr\u0101fiskaj\u0101s kart\u0113s<\/a><\/noindex>
\n\u2192 90. gadu datori, 1. da\u013ca<\/a><\/noindex>
\n\u2192 K\u0101 hakeru m\u0101te iek\u013cuva cietum\u0101 un infic\u0113ja priek\u0161nieka datoru <\/a><\/noindex>
\n\u2192 T\u012bklu savienojumu diagnostika virtu\u0101laj\u0101 mar\u0161rut\u0113t\u0101j\u0101 EDGE.<\/a><\/noindex>
\n\u2192 K\u0101 'sal\u016bza' banka<\/a><\/noindex><\/p>\n

Piesakieties m\u016bsu Telegram<\/a><\/noindex>-kan\u0101ls, lai nepalaistu gar\u0101m n\u0101kamo rakstu! Rakst\u0101m ne bie\u017e\u0101k k\u0101 divas reizes ned\u0113\u013c\u0101 un tikai b\u016btiskus jaut\u0101jumus. Un atg\u0101din\u0101m, ka Cloud4Y var nodro\u0161in\u0101t dro\u0161u un uzticamu att\u0101lin\u0101tu piek\u013cuvi biznesa lietotn\u0113m un inform\u0101cijai, kas nepiecie\u0161ama biznesa nep\u0101rtraukt\u012bbas nodro\u0161in\u0101\u0161anai. Att\u0101lin\u0101ts darbs ir papildu barjera koronav\u012brusa izplat\u012bbai. S\u012bk\u0101ka inform\u0101cija \u2014 pie m\u016bsu mened\u017eeriem. vietn\u0113<\/a><\/noindex>.
\n
Avots: habr.com<\/a> <\/p>","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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