Nkhani zina pamndandanda:
- Mbiri ya relay
- Mbiri yamakompyuta apakompyuta
- Mbiri ya transistor
- Mbiri ya intaneti
Mu 1938, mkulu wa British Secret Intelligence anagula mwakachetechete malo a mahekitala 24 pamtunda wa makilomita 80 kuchokera ku London. Inali pamphambano za njanji zochokera ku London kupita kumpoto, ndi kuchokera ku Oxford kumadzulo kupita ku Cambridge kummawa, ndipo inali malo abwino kwa bungwe lomwe silikanawonedwa ndi aliyense, koma linali losavuta kufikira anthu ambiri. ndi malo ofunikira a chidziwitso. Katunduyu amadziwika kuti , linakhala likulu la ku Britain lophwanya malamulo pa nthawi ya nkhondo yachiwiri ya padziko lonse. Mwina awa ndi malo okhawo padziko lonse lapansi odziwika chifukwa chochita nawo zolemba zachinsinsi.
Tunney
M'chilimwe cha 1941, ntchito inali ikuchitika ku Bletchley kuti athyole makina otchuka a Enigma encryption omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi asilikali a Germany ndi apanyanja. Ngati munaonera filimu ya British codebreakers, iwo analankhula za Enigma, koma sitilankhula za izo - chifukwa atangoukira Soviet Union, Bletchley anapeza kufalitsidwa kwa mauthenga ndi mtundu watsopano wa kubisa.
Ma Cryptanalysts posakhalitsa adazindikira momwe makina amagwiritsidwira ntchito kutumiza mauthenga, omwe adawatcha "Tunny."
Mosiyana ndi Enigma, yemwe mauthenga ake amayenera kufotokozedwa ndi manja, Tunney adalumikizana mwachindunji ndi teletype. Teletype idatembenuza munthu aliyense yemwe adalowa ndi wogwiritsa ntchitoyo kukhala madontho ndi mitanda (yofanana ndi madontho ndi mitsetse ya Morse code) muyezo. yokhala ndi zilembo zisanu pa chilembo chilichonse. Anali mawu osabisika. Tunney adagwiritsa ntchito mawilo khumi ndi awiri nthawi imodzi kupanga madontho ndi mitanda yake yofananira: kiyi. Kenako anawonjezera makiyi a uthengawo, n'kupanga mawu achinsinsi oulutsidwa pamlengalenga. Kuwonjeza kunkachitika mu masamu a binary, pomwe madontho amafanana ndi ziro ndi mitanda yofanana ndi awa:
0 + 0 = 0
0 + 1 = 1
1 + 1 = 0
Tanny wina kumbali ya wolandirayo wokhala ndi zoikamo zomwezo adatulutsa kiyi yomweyo ndikuwonjezera pa uthenga wobisika kuti apange choyambiriracho, chomwe chidasindikizidwa pamapepala ndi teletype ya wolandirayo. Tinene kuti tili ndi uthenga: "dontho kuphatikiza kadontho kuphatikiza." Mu manambala idzakhala 01001. Tiyeni tiwonjezere fungulo losasintha: 11010. 1 + 0 = 1, 1 + 1 = 0, 0 + 0 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1, 1 + 0 = 1, kotero timapeza malemba 10011. Powonjezera fungulo kachiwiri, mukhoza kubwezeretsa uthenga wapachiyambi. Tiyeni tiwone: 1 + 1 = 0, 1 + 0 = 1, 0 + 0 = 0, 1 + 1 = 0, 0 + 1 = 1, timapeza 01001.
Ntchito ya Parsing Tunney inakhala yosavuta chifukwa chakuti m'miyezi yoyambirira ya kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwake, otumiza amadutsa magudumu kuti agwiritsidwe ntchito asanatumize uthenga. Pambuyo pake, Ajeremani adatulutsa mabuku a code okhala ndi mawilo okonzedweratu, ndipo wotumizayo adangotumiza code yomwe wolandirayo angagwiritse ntchito kuti apeze gudumu lolondola m'buku. Adatha kusintha mabuku a code tsiku lililonse, zomwe zikutanthauza kuti Bletchley amayenera kuthyola mawilo a code m'mawa uliwonse.
Chochititsa chidwi n'chakuti, cryptanalysts anathetsa ntchito ya Tunny kutengera malo otumizira ndi kulandira. Inagwirizanitsa malo a mitsempha ya mkulu wa asilikali a Germany ndi akuluakulu a gulu lankhondo ndi magulu ankhondo pamagulu osiyanasiyana a asilikali a ku Ulaya, kuchokera ku France yolandidwa mpaka kumapiri a Russia. Inali ntchito yoyesa: kubera Tunney kunalonjeza mwayi wopita ku zolinga zapamwamba kwambiri za mdani ndi kuthekera kwake.
Kenako, mwa kuphatikiza zolakwa ndi German ntchito, mochenjera ndi kutsimikiza mtima, mnyamata masamu zinapita patsogolo kwambiri kuposa kungoganiza zosavuta za ntchito ya Tunney. Popanda kuwona makinawo, adatsimikiza kwathunthu mawonekedwe ake amkati. Anazindikira momveka bwino malo omwe gudumu lililonse liyenera kukhala (lirilonse linali ndi nambala yakeyake), komanso momwe mawilowo amapangira makiyiwo. Pokhala ndi chidziwitsochi, Bletchley adapanga zofananira za Tunney zomwe zitha kugwiritsidwa ntchito kumasulira mauthenga-mawilo akangosinthidwa bwino.
Mawilo 12 ofunikira a makina a Lorenz cipher otchedwa Tanny
Heath Robinson
Pofika kumapeto kwa 1942, Tat anapitirizabe kuukira Tanni, atapanga njira yapadera ya izi. Zinatengera lingaliro la delta: kuchuluka kwa modulo 2 kwa chizindikiro chimodzi mu uthenga (dontho kapena mtanda, 0 kapena 1) ndi wotsatira. Anazindikira kuti chifukwa cha kusuntha kwapang'onopang'ono kwa mawilo a Tunney, panali mgwirizano pakati pa ciphertext delta ndi malemba ofunikira delta: amayenera kusintha pamodzi. Chifukwa chake ngati mufananiza ciphertext ndi mawu ofunikira omwe amapangidwa pamawilo osiyanasiyana, mutha kuwerengera delta iliyonse ndikuwerengera kuchuluka kwa machesi. Mlingo wa machesi woposa 50% uyenera kuzindikiritsa munthu yemwe akufuna kukhala nawo makiyi enieni a uthenga. Lingalirolo linali labwino m'lingaliro, koma zinali zosatheka kugwiritsa ntchito, chifukwa zimafunika kupanga ma pass 2400 pa uthenga uliwonse kuti muwone zosintha zonse zomwe zingatheke.
Tat anabweretsa vutoli kwa katswiri wina wa masamu, Max Newman, yemwe ankatsogolera dipatimenti ya ku Bletchley yomwe aliyense ankaitcha kuti “Newmania.” Newman, poyang'ana koyamba, anali chisankho chosakayikitsa kuti atsogolere bungwe lazanzeru zaku Britain, popeza abambo ake anali ochokera ku Germany. Komabe, zikuwoneka kuti sizingatheke kuti akazonde Hitler popeza banja lake linali lachiyuda. Anadera nkhaŵa kwambiri za kupita patsogolo kwa ulamuliro wa Hitler ku Ulaya kotero kuti anasamutsira banja lake kumalo otetezeka ku New York atangogwa kumene France mu 1940, ndipo kwa kanthaŵi iye mwiniyo analingalira zosamukira ku Princeton.
Max Newman
Zinachitika kuti Newman anali ndi lingaliro la kugwira ntchito pa mawerengedwe ofunikira ndi njira ya Tata - popanga makina. Bletchley anali atagwiritsidwa ntchito kale kugwiritsa ntchito makina a cryptanalysis. Umu ndi momwe Enigma idasweka. Koma Newman adapanga chipangizo china chamagetsi kuti chigwire ntchito pa Tunney cipher. Nkhondo isanayambe, adaphunzitsa ku Cambridge (mmodzi mwa ophunzira ake anali Alan Turing), ndipo ankadziwa za makompyuta omwe anamangidwa ndi Wynne-Williams kuti awerenge particles ku Cavendish. Lingaliro linali loti: ngati mutagwirizanitsa mafilimu awiri otsekedwa mozungulira, akuyendayenda mofulumira, imodzi yomwe inali ndi kiyi, ndipo ina inali ndi uthenga wobisika, ndikuwona chinthu chilichonse ngati purosesa yomwe imawerengera deltas, ndiye kuti makina amagetsi amatha. onjezani zotsatira. Powerenga chigonjetso chomaliza kumapeto kwa liwiro lililonse, munthu amatha kusankha ngati kiyi iyi inali yotheka kapena ayi.
Zinachitika kuti gulu la mainjiniya odziwa bwino ntchito lidangokhalapo. Mmodzi mwa iwo anali Wynne-Williams mwiniwake. Turing adalemba Wynne-Williams kuchokera ku Malvern Radar Laboratory kuti athandize kupanga rotor yatsopano ya makina a Enigma, pogwiritsa ntchito zamagetsi kuwerengera mozungulira. Anathandizidwa ndi izi komanso pulojekiti ina ya Enigma ndi mainjiniya atatu ochokera ku Post Research Station ku Dollis Hill: William Chandler, Sidney Broadhurst ndi Tommy Flowers (ndiroleni ndikukumbutseni kuti British Post Office inali bungwe laukadaulo wapamwamba kwambiri, ndipo linali ndi udindo wosachitapo kanthu. kokha pamakalata, komanso pa telegraph ndi telephony). Ntchito zonse ziwirizi zidalephera ndipo amunawo adasiyidwa opanda ntchito. Newman adawasonkhanitsa. Anasankha Flowers kuti atsogolere gulu lomwe limapanga "chida chophatikizira" chomwe chingawerenge ma deltas ndikutumiza zotsatira ku kauntala yomwe Wynne-Williams ankagwira.
Newman adatenga mainjiniya pomanga makinawo ndi Dipatimenti Yamayi ya Royal Navy ndikugwiritsa ntchito makina ake opangira uthenga. Boma limangodalira amuna omwe ali ndi maudindo apamwamba, ndipo amayi adachita bwino ngati maofesala a Bletchley, kuyang'anira zolemba zonse zauthenga ndi kuyika ma decoding. Iwo adakwanitsa kuchoka pantchito yaukatswiri kupita kusamalira makina omwe amagwira ntchito yawo. Adatcha galimoto yawo mopusa"", British yofanana [onse anali ojambula zojambulajambula omwe amawonetsa zida zovuta kwambiri, zazikulu komanso zovuta kwambiri zomwe zimagwira ntchito zosavuta / pafupifupi. kumasulira].
Galimoto ya "Old Robinson", yofanana kwambiri ndi m'mbuyo mwake, "Heath Robinson" galimoto.
Zowonadi, Heath Robinson, ngakhale kuti anali wodalirika m'malingaliro, adakumana ndi zovuta zazikulu m'kuchita. Chinthu chachikulu chinali kufunika kogwirizanitsa bwino mafilimu awiriwa - malemba a cipher ndi malemba ofunikira. Kutambasula kulikonse kapena kutsetsereka kwa filimu iliyonse kumapangitsa kuti ndime yonseyo isagwiritsidwe ntchito. Pofuna kuchepetsa ngozi yolakwika, makinawo ankakonza zilembo zosapitirira 2000 pa sekondi imodzi, ngakhale kuti malamba ankatha kugwira ntchito mofulumira. Maluwa, omwe adagwirizana monyinyirika ndi ntchito ya polojekiti ya Heath Robinson, ankakhulupirira kuti pali njira yabwino: makina opangidwa pafupifupi kuchokera ku zipangizo zamagetsi.
Kolosasi
A Thomas Flowers adagwira ntchito ngati mainjiniya mu dipatimenti yofufuza ya British Post Office kuyambira 1930, komwe adagwira ntchito yofufuza za kulumikizana kolakwika ndi kolephera pakusinthana kwamafoni kwatsopano. Izi zidamupangitsa kuti aganizire za momwe angapangire njira yabwino yosinthira mafoni, ndipo pofika 1935 adayamba kulimbikitsa kusintha magawo amagetsi amagetsi monga ma relay ndi zamagetsi. Cholinga ichi chinatsimikizira ntchito yake yonse yamtsogolo.
Tommy Flowers, pafupifupi 1940
Mainjiniya ambiri amadzudzula zida zamagetsi kuti ndi zopanda pake komanso zosadalirika zikagwiritsidwa ntchito pamlingo waukulu, koma Maluwa adawonetsa kuti akagwiritsidwa ntchito mosalekeza komanso pamphamvu pansi pa kapangidwe kawo, machubu opumira amawonetsa moyo wautali modabwitsa. Anatsimikizira malingaliro ake mwa kusintha ma terminals onse a dial-tone pa 1000-line switch ndi machubu; onse analipo 3-4 zikwi. Kukhazikitsa uku kunayambika ntchito yeniyeni mu 1939. Panthaŵi imodzimodziyo, iye anayesa kuloŵetsamo ma relay relay omwe amasunga manambala a telefoni ndi makina otumizirana mauthenga a pakompyuta.
Maluwa ankakhulupirira kuti Heath Robinson yemwe analembedwa ntchito kuti amange anali ndi vuto lalikulu, komanso kuti akhoza kuthetsa vutoli bwino kwambiri pogwiritsa ntchito machubu ambiri ndi ziwalo zochepa zamakina. Mu February 1943, adabweretsa makina ena ku Newman. Maluwa mochenjera adachotsa tepi yofunikira, ndikuchotsa vuto la kulunzanitsa. Makina ake adayenera kupanga mawu ofunikira pa ntchentche. Amatha kutengera Tunney pakompyuta, ndikumawongolera mawilo onse ndikufanizira chilichonse ndi mawu achinsinsi, kujambula zomwe zingafanane. Ananena kuti njira imeneyi ingafunike kugwiritsa ntchito machubu pafupifupi 1500 a vacuum.
Newman ndi oyang'anira ena onse a Bletchley anali kukayikira lingaliro ili. Mofanana ndi anthu ambiri a m’nthaŵi ya Flowers, iwo ankakayikira ngati zipangizo zamagetsi zingagwiritsidwe ntchito pamlingo woterowo. Komanso, ngakhale atapangidwa kuti azigwira ntchito, ankakayikira kuti makina oterowo angapangidwe panthaŵi yake kuti athandize pankhondo.
Bwana wa Flowers ku Dollis Hill adamupatsa mwayi woti asonkhanitse gulu lopanga chilombo chamagetsi ichi - Maluwa mwina sanakhale wowona mtima pomufotokozera momwe malingaliro ake adakondera ku Bletchley (Malinga ndi Andrew Hodges, Flowers adauza bwana wake, Gordon Radley, kuti ntchitoyi inali ntchito yovuta kwa Bletchley, ndipo Radley anali atamva kale kuchokera ku Churchill kuti ntchito ya Bletchley inali yofunika kwambiri). Kuphatikiza pa Maluwa, Sidney Broadhurst ndi William Chandler adathandizira kwambiri pakupanga dongosololi, ndipo ntchito yonseyo idalemba anthu pafupifupi 50, theka lazinthu za Dollis Hill. Gululi lidalimbikitsidwa ndi zitsanzo zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pa telefoni: mita, malingaliro a nthambi, zida zosinthira ndi kumasulira ma siginecha, ndi zida zoyezera momwe zida ziliri nthawi ndi nthawi. Broadhurst anali katswiri wa mabwalo oterowo a electromechanical, ndipo Flowers ndi Chandler anali akatswiri a zamagetsi omwe amamvetsetsa momwe angasamutsire malingaliro kuchokera kudziko la ma relay kupita kudziko la mavavu. Pofika kumayambiriro kwa 1944 gululo linali litapereka chitsanzo chogwirira ntchito kwa Bletchley. Makina akuluakulu adatchedwa "Colossus," ndipo adatsimikizira kuti amatha kupambana Heath Robinson pokonza zilembo 5000 pamphindikati.
Newman ndi oyang'anira ena onse ku Bletchley adazindikira mwachangu kuti adalakwitsa pokana Flowers. Mu February 1944, adayitanitsa Kolose ina 12, yomwe imayenera kugwira ntchito pofika pa June 1 - tsiku limene France idakonzekera, ngakhale kuti izi sizinali zodziwika kwa Flowers. Flowers adanena momveka bwino kuti izi sizingatheke, koma ndi khama lamphamvu gulu lake lidakwanitsa kupereka galimoto yachiwiri pofika Meyi 31, pomwe membala watsopano wa timu Alan Coombs adasintha zambiri.
Mapangidwe okonzedwanso, omwe amadziwika kuti Mark II, adapitiliza kupambana kwa galimoto yoyamba. Kuphatikiza pa njira yoperekera mafilimu, inali ndi nyali 2400, masiwichi 12 ozungulira, ma relay 800 ndi taipi yamagetsi.
Colossus Mark II
Zinali zosinthika komanso zosinthika mokwanira kuti zitha kugwira ntchito zosiyanasiyana. Pambuyo kukhazikitsa, gulu lililonse la azimayi lidapanga "Colossus" yawo kuti athetse mavuto ena. Chigamba, chofanana ndi cha opangira matelefoni, chinafunika kuti akhazikitse mphete zamagetsi zomwe zimafanizira mawilo a Tunney. Seti ya masinthidwe amalola ogwiritsa ntchito kukonza nambala iliyonse ya zida zogwirira ntchito zomwe zimakonza mitsinje iwiri ya data: filimu yakunja ndi chizindikiro chamkati chopangidwa ndi mphete. Pophatikiza zinthu zosiyanasiyana zomveka, Colossus amatha kuwerengetsera ntchito za Boolean motsatizana ndi data, ndiye kuti, magwiridwe antchito omwe angatulutse 0 kapena 1. Chigawo chilichonse chinawonjezera chowerengera cha Colossus. Chida chowongolera chosiyana chinapanga zisankho za nthambi kutengera momwe kauntala - mwachitsanzo, imani ndi kusindikiza zomwe zatuluka ngati mtengo wowerengera udaposa 1000.
Sinthani gulu kuti mukhazikitse "Colossus"
Tiyeni tiyerekeze kuti Colossus inali makompyuta omwe angakonzedwenso masiku ano. Ikhoza kugwirizanitsa mitsinje iwiri ya deta-imodzi pa tepi, ndi imodzi yopangidwa ndi zowerengera za mphete-ndi kuwerengera chiwerengero cha ma XNUMX omwe anakumana nawo, ndipo ndizomwezo. Zambiri za "mapulogalamu" a Colossus zidachitika pamapepala, pomwe ogwira ntchito akuchita mtengo wachigamulo wokonzedwa ndi akatswiri: nenani, "ngati kutulutsa kwadongosolo kuli kochepa kuposa X, khazikitsani kasinthidwe B ndikuchita Y, apo ayi chitani Z."
Chithunzi chojambula chapamwamba cha Colossus
Komabe, "Colossus" anali wokhoza kuthetsa ntchito yomwe anapatsidwa. Mosiyana ndi kompyuta ya Atanasoff-Berry, Colossus inali yachangu kwambiri - imatha kupanga zilembo 25000 pa sekondi iliyonse, iliyonse yomwe ingafune ma opaleshoni angapo a Boolean. Mark II adachulukitsa liwiro kasanu kuposa Mark I powerenga ndikukonza magawo asanu afilimu nthawi imodzi. Idakana kulumikiza dongosolo lonse ndi zida zotulutsa pang'onopang'ono za electromechanical, pogwiritsa ntchito ma photocell (otengedwa kuchokera ku anti-ndege). ) powerenga matepi omwe akubwera ndi kaundula wa makina osindikizira a buffering. Mtsogoleri wa gulu lomwe linabwezeretsa Colossus m'zaka za m'ma 1990 adawonetsa kuti adatha kupambana mosavuta ndi makompyuta a 1995 Pentium pa ntchito yake.
Makina opanga mawu amphamvu awa adakhala likulu la polojekitiyo kuti aswe kachidindo ka Tunney. Zina khumi za Mark II zinamangidwa nkhondo isanathe, mapanelo omwe adathamangitsidwa pamlingo wa mwezi umodzi ndi ogwira ntchito pafakitale ya positi ku Birmingham, omwe samadziwa zomwe amapanga, kenako adasonkhanitsidwa ku Bletchley. . Mkulu wina wokwiyitsidwa wa Unduna wa Zamgululi, atalandira pempho lina la mavavu apadera chikwi chimodzi, anafunsa ngati ogwira ntchito ku positi “akuwawombera Ajeremani.” Mwanjira yamakampani iyi, m'malo mosonkhanitsa pulojekiti pamanja, kompyuta yotsatira sikanapangidwa mpaka m'ma 1950. Pansi pa malangizo a Flowers oteteza mavavu, Colossus iliyonse inkagwira ntchito usana ndi usiku mpaka kutha kwa nkhondo. Anaima mwakachetechete akuwala mumdima, akuwotha m’nyengo yachisanu yachinyontho ya ku Britain ndi kudikira moleza mtima malangizo kufikira tsiku linafika pamene sanafunikirenso.
Chophimba cha Chete
Chisangalalo chachibadwidwe cha sewero lochititsa chidwi lomwe linachitika ku Bletchley chinadzetsa kukokomeza kwakukulu kwa kupambana kwa gulu lankhondo. Ndizosamveka kunena, monga momwe filimuyi imachitira." [The Imitation Game] kuti chitukuko cha Britain chitha kukhalapo ngati sichoncho kwa Alan Turing. "Colossus", mwachiwonekere, inalibe mphamvu pa nkhondo ya ku Ulaya. Kupambana kwake kodziwika kwambiri kunali kutsimikizira kuti chinyengo chofika ku 1944 Normandy chinagwira ntchito. Mauthenga omwe analandira kudzera mwa Tanny adanena kuti Allies adatsimikizira Hitler ndi lamulo lake kuti nkhonya yeniyeni idzafika kummawa, ku Pas de Calais. Chidziwitso cholimbikitsa, koma n'zokayikitsa kuti kuchepetsa mlingo wa cortisol m'magazi a ogwirizana nawo anathandiza kupambana nkhondo.
Kumbali ina, kupita patsogolo kwaukadaulo komwe Colossus adapereka kunali kosatsutsika. Koma dziko silidzadziwa zimenezi posachedwa. Churchill adalamula kuti onse "Colossi" omwe analipo panthawi yomaliza masewerawa achotsedwe, ndipo chinsinsi cha mapangidwe awo chiyenera kutumizidwa limodzi nawo kumalo otayirako. Magalimoto awiri mwanjira ina adapulumuka chigamulo chakupha ichi, ndipo adakhalabe muutumiki wanzeru waku Britain mpaka m'ma 1960. Koma ngakhale pamenepo boma la Britain silinachotse chophimba chokhudza ntchito ku Bletchley. Munali m’ma 1970 okha pamene kukhalapo kwake kunadziwika kwa anthu.
Chigamulo choletsa kukambitsirana kulikonse kwa ntchito yomwe ikuchitika ku Bletchley Park chingatchedwe kuchenjeza mopambanitsa kwa boma la Britain. Koma kwa Flowers zinali zomvetsa chisoni. Atachotsedwa mbiri ndi kutchuka kwake kukhala woyambitsa Colossus, sanakhutire ndi kukhumudwitsidwa pamene kuyesa kwake kosalekeza kuti m'malo mwa ma relay ndi zamagetsi mumayendedwe amafoni aku Britain kumatsekeka mosalekeza. Ngati akanatha kuwonetsa kupambana kwake kudzera mu chitsanzo cha "Colossus", akanakhala ndi chikoka chofunikira kuti akwaniritse maloto ake. Koma podzafika nthawi imene zimene anachitazo zinadziwika, Flowers anali atapuma pantchito ndipo sanathe kukhudza chilichonse.
Ambiri okonda makompyuta apakompyuta omwe anamwazikana padziko lonse lapansi adakumana ndi mavuto ofanana ndi chinsinsi chozungulira Colossus komanso kusowa kwa umboni wotsimikizira kuti njirayi ndi yotheka. Electromechanical computing ikhoza kukhalabe mfumu kwa nthawi yayitali. Koma panali pulojekiti ina yomwe ingatsegule njira yopangira makompyuta kuti apite patsogolo. Ngakhale zinalinso zotsatira za zochitika zachinsinsi zankhondo, sizinabisike pambuyo pa nkhondo, koma m'malo mwake, zidawululidwa kudziko lapansi ndi aplomb wamkulu, pansi pa dzina la ENIAC.
Zomwe mungawerenge:
• Jack Copeland, ed. Colossus: Zinsinsi za Bletchley Park's Codebreaking Computers (2006)
• Thomas H. Flowers, “The Design of Colossus,” Annals of the History of Computing, July 1983
• Andrew Hodges, Alan Turing: The Enigma (1983)
Source: www.habr.com