Nkhani zina pamndandanda:
- Mbiri ya relay
- Mbiri yamakompyuta apakompyuta
- Mbiri ya transistor
- Mbiri ya intaneti
Kugwiritsa ntchito ARPANET Robert Taylor ndi Larry Roberts mabungwe ambiri ofufuza osiyanasiyana, lililonse lomwe linali ndi kompyuta yakeyake, ya mapulogalamu ndi zida zomwe zidanyamula udindo wonse. Komabe, mapulogalamu ndi zida za netiweki palokha zinali mkatikati mwa chifunga, ndipo sizinali za malo awa. Kuyambira 1967 mpaka 1968, Roberts, wamkulu wa Information Processing Technology Office (IPTO) network project, anayenera kudziwa yemwe ayenera kumanga ndi kusunga maukonde, ndi kumene malire pakati pa maukonde ndi mabungwe ayenera kunama.
Okayikira
Vuto la kupanga maukonde linali landale monga momwe zinalili zaukadaulo. Otsogolera kafukufuku wa ARPA nthawi zambiri amatsutsa lingaliro la ARPANET. Ena adawonetsa momveka bwino kuti sakufuna kulowa nawo pa intaneti nthawi iliyonse; ochepa a iwo anali okondwa. Malo aliwonse ayenera kuyesetsa kuti alole ena kugwiritsa ntchito makompyuta awo okwera mtengo komanso osowa kwambiri. Kupereka mwayi wopeza kumeneku kunawonetsa kuipa koonekeratu (kutaya kwa chinthu chamtengo wapatali), pomwe zopindulitsa zake zidakhalabe zosamveka komanso zosamveka.
Kukayika komweko pankhani yogawana chuma kunamira projekiti ya UCLA zaka zingapo zapitazo. Komabe, pankhaniyi, ARPA inali ndi mwayi wochulukirapo, popeza idalipira mwachindunji zida zonse zapakompyuta zamtengo wapatalizi, ndipo idapitilirabe kukhala ndi dzanja pamayendedwe andalama okhudzana ndi kafukufukuyu. Ndipo ngakhale palibe ziwopsezo zachindunji zomwe zidachitika, palibe "kapena ayi" zomwe zidanenedwa, zinthu zidali zomveka bwino - mwanjira ina, ARPA idapanga maukonde ake kuti agwirizanitse makina omwe, pochita, akadali ake.
Nthawiyi inafika pamsonkhano wa otsogolera sayansi ku Att Arbor, Michigan, m'chaka cha 1967. Roberts anapereka ndondomeko yake yopanga makina ogwirizanitsa makompyuta osiyanasiyana pa malo aliwonse. Adalengeza kuti wamkulu aliyense azipatsa makompyuta ake amderali pulogalamu yapadera yolumikizira intaneti, yomwe ingagwiritse ntchito kuyimbira makompyuta ena pamaneti yafoni (izi zinali zisanachitike Roberts asanadziwe za lingalirolo. ). Yankho lake linali mikangano ndi mantha. Pakati pa omwe sanafune kutsatira lingaliro ili panali malo akuluakulu omwe anali akugwira kale ntchito zazikuluzikulu zothandizidwa ndi IPTO, zomwe MIT inali yaikulu. Ofufuza a MIT, omwe adalandira ndalama kuchokera ku polojekiti yawo yogawana nthawi ya Project MAC ndi labu yanzeru zopangira, sanaone phindu pogawana zomwe adapeza movutikira ndi Western riffraff.
Ndipo, mosasamala kanthu za udindo wake, likulu lililonse linkakonda kwambiri malingaliro akeake. Aliyense anali ndi mapulogalamu akeake ndi zida, ndipo zinali zovuta kumvetsetsa momwe angakhazikitsire kulumikizana kofunikira, osasiya kugwirira ntchito limodzi. Kungolemba ndikuyendetsa mapulogalamu apakompyuta pamakina awo kudzatengera nthawi yawo yambiri komanso zida zamakompyuta.
Zinali zododometsa komanso zodabwitsa kuti yankho la Roberts pazovuta za chikhalidwe ndi luso linachokera kwa Wes Clark, mwamuna yemwe sankakonda kugawana nthawi komanso maukonde. Clark, wochirikiza lingaliro la quixotic la kupatsa aliyense kompyuta yake, analibe cholinga chogawana zinthu zamakompyuta ndi aliyense, ndipo adasunga kampasi yake, University of Washington ku St. Louis, kutali ndi ARPANET kwa zaka zambiri. Choncho, n'zosadabwitsa kuti ndi iye amene anapanga kamangidwe maukonde, amene sawonjezera katundu kwambiri pa kompyuta chuma cha aliyense wa malo, ndipo safuna aliyense wa iwo kuyesetsa kupanga mapulogalamu apadera.
Clark adaganiza zoyika kakompyuta kakang'ono m'malo aliwonse kuti azigwira ntchito zonse zokhudzana ndi netiweki. Malo aliwonse adangoyenera kudziwa momwe angalumikizire ndi wothandizira wakomweko (omwe pambuyo pake adatchedwa ma processors message processors, kapena ), yomwe idatumiza uthengawo m'njira yolondola kuti ifike pa IMP yoyenera pamalo olandila. M'malo mwake, adaganiza kuti ARPA igawire makompyuta owonjezera aulere kumalo aliwonse, zomwe zingatenge zambiri zapaintaneti. Panthawi yomwe makompyuta anali osowa komanso okwera mtengo kwambiri, lingaliro ili linali lolimba mtima. Komabe, panthawiyo, makompyuta ang'onoang'ono anayamba kuwoneka omwe amawononga madola masauzande ochepa okha, m'malo mwa mazana angapo, ndipo pamapeto pake pempholi linakhala lotheka (IMP iliyonse inathera $ 45, kapena $ 000 mu). ndalama lero).
Njira ya IMP, ndikuchepetsa nkhawa za atsogoleri asayansi pa kuchuluka kwa maukonde pamagetsi awo apakompyuta, idayankhanso vuto lina, landale la ARPA. Mosiyana ndi ntchito zina za bungweli panthawiyo, maukondewo sanali owerengeka ku malo amodzi ofufuza, kumene amayendetsedwa ndi bwana mmodzi. Ndipo ARPA palokha inalibe kuthekera kopanga payokha ndikuwongolera ntchito yayikulu yaukadaulo. Ayenera kulemba ganyu makampani akunja kuti achite izi. Kukhalapo kwa IMP kudapangitsa kuti pakhale kugawanika kwaudindo pakati pa netiweki yoyendetsedwa ndi wothandizila wakunja ndi kompyuta yoyendetsedwa kwanuko. Kontrakitala amayang'anira ma IMP ndi chilichonse chomwe chili pakati, ndipo malowa azikhalabe ndi udindo pa hardware ndi mapulogalamu pamakompyuta awo.
IMP
Kenako Roberts anafunika kusankha kontrakitala ameneyo. Kachitidwe kachikale ka Licklider konyengerera lingaliro kuchokera kwa wofufuza yemwe amamukonda mwachindunji sizinagwire ntchito pankhaniyi. Ntchitoyi idayenera kugulitsidwa ndi anthu onse monga mapangano ena onse aboma.
Sizinafike mpaka July 1968 pamene Roberts adatha kufotokoza zomaliza za bid. Pafupifupi miyezi isanu ndi umodzi yadutsa kuchokera pomwe gawo lomaliza lachithunzichi lidayamba pomwe njira yosinthira paketi idalengezedwa pamsonkhano ku Gatlinburg. Awiri mwa opanga makompyuta akuluakulu, Control Data Corporation (CDC) ndi International Business Machines (IBM), nthawi yomweyo anakana kutenga nawo mbali chifukwa analibe makompyuta otsika mtengo oyenerera udindo wa IMP.
Honeywell DDP-516
Pakati pa otsalawo, ambiri adasankha kompyuta yatsopano kuchokera ku Honeywell, ngakhale kuti ena ankafuna . Chosankha cha Honeywell chinali chokongola kwambiri chifukwa chinali ndi mawonekedwe a I/O omwe amapangidwira machitidwe anthawi yeniyeni pamagwiritsidwe ntchito monga kuwongolera mafakitale. Kuyankhulana, ndithudi, kunkafunikanso kulondola koyenera - ngati kompyuta inaphonya uthenga wobwera pamene ikugwira ntchito ina, panalibe mwayi wachiwiri woigwira.
Pofika kumapeto kwa chaka, ataganizira mozama Raytheon, Roberts adapereka ntchitoyi ku kampani yomwe ikukula ya Cambridge yomwe idakhazikitsidwa ndi Bolt, Beranek ndi Newman. Mtengo wabanja wa makompyuta olumikizana panthawiyi unali wokhazikika kwambiri, ndipo Roberts akhoza kuimbidwa mlandu wokondana posankha BBN. Licklider adabweretsa ma computing ku BBN asanakhale director woyamba wa IPTO, kufesa mbewu za network yake ya intergalactic ndikulangiza anthu ngati Roberts. Popanda chikoka cha Leake, ARPA ndi BBN sakadakhala ndi chidwi kapena kutha kutumikira pulojekiti ya ARPANET. Kuphatikiza apo, gawo lalikulu la gulu lomwe linasonkhanitsidwa ndi BBN kuti lipange netiweki ya IMP idabwera mwachindunji kapena mwanjira ina kuchokera ku Lincoln Labs: Frank Hart (mtsogoleri wa gulu), Dave Walden, ndi North Ornstein. Munali m'ma laboratories omwe Roberts mwiniwake adapita kusukulu yomaliza maphunziro, ndipo m'pamene mwayi wa Leake wokumana ndi Wes Clark unamupangitsa chidwi chake pamakompyuta ochezera.
Koma ngakhale kuti zinthuzo zinkawoneka ngati kugwirizana, kwenikweni gulu la BBN linali loyenera ntchito yeniyeni yeniyeni monga Honeywell 516. Ku Lincoln, iwo anali akugwira ntchito pa makompyuta ogwirizana ndi machitidwe a radar - chitsanzo china cha ntchito yomwe deta sadzadikira mpaka kompyuta okonzeka. Hart, mwachitsanzo, adagwira ntchito pakompyuta ya Whirlwind monga wophunzira m'ma 1950, adalowa nawo polojekiti ya SAGE, ndipo adakhala zaka 15 ku Lincoln Laboratories. Ornstein anagwira ntchito pa SAGE cross-protocol, yomwe inasamutsa deta yolondolera radar kuchokera pa kompyuta imodzi kupita ku ina, ndipo pambuyo pake pa LINC ya Wes Clark, makompyuta opangidwa kuti athandize asayansi kugwira ntchito mwachindunji mu labu ndi deta pa intaneti. Crowther, yemwe tsopano amadziwika kuti ndi wolemba masewerawa , adakhala zaka khumi akumanga makina a nthawi yeniyeni, kuphatikizapo Lincoln Terminal Experiment, malo ochezera a pa satellite omwe ali ndi kompyuta yaing'ono yomwe inkayang'anira mlongoti ndikukonza zizindikiro zobwera.
Gulu la IMP ku BBN. Frank Hart ndi bambo wa mkulu wa likulu. Ornstein wayima m'mphepete kumanja, pafupi ndi Crowther.
IMP inali ndi udindo womvetsetsa ndi kuyang'anira kayendetsedwe ndi kutumiza mauthenga kuchokera pa kompyuta imodzi kupita pa ina. Kompyutayo imatha kutumiza ma byte okwana 8000 nthawi imodzi ku IMP yakomweko, pamodzi ndi adilesi yopita. IMP kenako idadula uthengawo m'mapaketi ang'onoang'ono omwe adatumizidwa paokha kupita ku chandamale cha IMP pa mizere 50-kbps yobwerekedwa kuchokera ku AT&T. IMP yomwe idalandirayo idalumikiza uthengawo ndikuupereka ku kompyuta yake. IMP iliyonse inkasunga tebulo lomwe limayang'anira kuti ndi ndani mwa oyandikana nawo omwe ali ndi njira yachangu kwambiri kuti akwaniritse cholinga chilichonse. Idasinthidwa kutengera zomwe adalandira kuchokera kwa anebawa, kuphatikiza zomwe nebayo sangafikiridwe (pamenepo kuchedwa kwa kutumiza komweko kudawonedwa kukhala kopanda malire). Kuti akwaniritse liwiro la a Roberts ndi zomwe amafunikira pakukonza zonsezi, gulu la Hart lidapanga ma code a luso. Pulogalamu yonse yokonza IMP idatenga ma byte 12 okha; mbali yomwe imagwira ntchito ndi matebulo oyendera idatenga 000 okha.
Gululi lidatenganso njira zingapo zodzitetezera, chifukwa sikunali kotheka kupereka gulu lothandizira ku IMP iliyonse m'munda.
Choyamba, anakonzekeretsa kompyuta iliyonse ndi zida zowonera ndi kuyang'anira kutali. Kuphatikiza pa kuyambiranso kwadzidzidzi komwe kunayamba pambuyo pa kutha kwa magetsi kulikonse, ma IMP adakonzedwa kuti athe kuyambitsanso oyandikana nawo powatumizira mapulogalamu atsopano. Kuti athandizire kukonza zolakwika ndi kusanthula, IMP ikhoza, pakulamula, kuyamba kujambula zithunzi za momwe ilili nthawi ndi nthawi. Komanso, phukusi lililonse la IMP limayika gawo kuti lizitsata, zomwe zidapangitsa kuti zitheke kulemba zipika zatsatanetsatane zantchito. Ndi mphamvu zonsezi, mavuto ambiri amatha kuthetsedwa mwachindunji kuchokera ku ofesi ya BBN, yomwe inkagwira ntchito ngati malo olamulira momwe maukonde onse amawonekera.
Chachiwiri, adapempha gulu lankhondo la 516 kuchokera ku Honeywell, lokhala ndi chikwama cholimba kuti chiteteze ku kugwedezeka ndi kuwopseza kwina. BBN imafuna kuti chikhale chizindikiro cha "osachokapo" kwa ophunzira omwe ali ndi chidwi chofuna kudziwa zambiri, koma palibe chomwe chinafotokozera malire pakati pa makompyuta am'deralo ndi BBN-run subnet ngati chipolopolo chankhondo ichi.
Makabati oyamba olimbikitsidwa, pafupifupi kukula kwa firiji, adafika pamalopo pa University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) pa Ogasiti 30, 1969, patangotha ββββmiyezi 8 BBN italandira mgwirizano wake.
Olandira alendo
Roberts adaganiza zoyambitsa maukonde ndi makamu anayi - kuphatikiza UCLA, IMP idzakhazikitsidwa pamphepete mwa nyanja ku yunivesite ya California, Santa Barbara (UCSB), ina ku Stanford Research Institute (SRI) kumpoto kwa California, ndi womaliza ku yunivesite ya Utah. Onsewa anali mabungwe achiwiri kuchokera ku West Coast, kuyesera kuti adziwonetsere okha pankhani ya sayansi yamakompyuta. Maubwenzi apabanja adapitilira kugwira ntchito ngati oyang'anira awiri asayansi, kuchokera ku UCLA ndi ochokera ku yunivesite ya Utah, analinso anzake akale a Roberts ku Lincoln Laboratories.
Roberts adapatsa makamu awiriwa ntchito zowonjezera zokhudzana ndi netiweki. Kubwerera ku 1967, Doug Englebart wochokera ku SRI adadzipereka kuti akhazikitse malo ochezera pa intaneti pamsonkhano wa utsogoleri. Pogwiritsa ntchito dongosolo lachidziwitso lachidziwitso la SRI, adayambitsa kupanga chikwatu cha ARPANET: mndandanda wazinthu zonse zomwe zilipo pamagulu osiyanasiyana, ndikupangitsa kuti aliyense akhale pa intaneti. Poganizira ukatswiri wa Kleinrock pakuwunika kuchuluka kwa magalimoto pamaneti, Roberts adasankha UCLA ngati malo oyezera maukonde (NMC). Kwa Kleinrock ndi UCLA, ARPANET idapangidwa kuti isakhale chida chothandiza, komanso kuyesa komwe deta ingatulutsidwe ndikuphatikizidwa kuti chidziwitso chomwe chapezedwa chigwiritsidwe ntchito kuti chithandizire kukonza maukonde ndi olowa m'malo mwake.
Koma chofunikira kwambiri pakukula kwa ARPANET kuposa kusankhidwa kuwiriku kunali gulu losakhazikika komanso lotayirira la ophunzira omaliza lotchedwa Network Working Group (NWG). Kaneti kakang'ono kochokera ku IMP amalola aliyense wolandila pa netiweki kuti apereke uthenga modalirika kwa wina aliyense; Cholinga cha NWG chinali kupanga chilankhulo chimodzi kapena zilankhulo zomwe omvera angagwiritse ntchito polumikizana. Iwo anawatcha iwo "host protocols." Dzina loti "protocol," lobwerekedwa kwa akazembe, lidagwiritsidwa ntchito koyamba pamanetiweki mu 1965 ndi Roberts ndi Tom Marill kuti afotokoze mawonekedwe amtundu wa data komanso ma algorithmic omwe amatsimikizira momwe makompyuta awiri amalankhulirana wina ndi mnzake.
NWG, motsogozedwa mwamwambo koma wogwira mtima wa Steve Crocker wa UCLA, adayamba kusonkhana pafupipafupi mchaka cha 1969, pafupifupi miyezi isanu ndi umodzi isanachitike IMP yoyamba. Wobadwira ndikukulira mdera la Los Angeles, Crocker adapita ku Van Nuys High School ndipo anali ndi zaka zofananira ndi anzake awiri am'tsogolo a NWG, Vint Cerf ndi Jon Postel. Kuti alembe zotsatira za misonkhano ina ya gulu, Crocker adapanga chimodzi mwa maziko a chikhalidwe cha ARPANET (ndi tsogolo la intaneti), pempho la ndemanga [ntchito yogwira ntchito] (). RFC 1 yake, yomwe idasindikizidwa pa Epulo 7, 1969, ndikugawidwa ku ma node onse amtsogolo a ARPANET kudzera pamakalata akale, adasonkhanitsa zokambirana zoyamba za gululo za mapangidwe apulogalamu yamapulogalamu. Mu RFC 3, Crocker adapitiliza kufotokozera, kutanthauzira momveka bwino mapangidwe a RFCs onse amtsogolo:
Ndi bwino kutumiza ndemanga pa nthawi yake kusiyana ndi kumveketsa bwino. Malingaliro afilosofi opanda zitsanzo kapena zina zenizeni, malingaliro enieni kapena matekinoloje ogwiritsira ntchito popanda kufotokozera koyambirira kapena kufotokozera zochitika, mafunso apadera popanda kuyesa kuyankha amavomerezedwa. Utali wochepera wa cholemba kuchokera ku NWG ndi chiganizo chimodzi. Tikuyembekeza kuti titsogolere kusinthana ndi kukambirana pamalingaliro osakhazikika.
Monga pempho la quotation (RFQ), njira yodziwika yofunsira mabizinesi pamakontrakitala aboma, RFC idalandira mayankho, koma mosiyana ndi RFQ, idapemphanso zokambirana. Aliyense mdera la NWG lomwe lagawidwa atha kutumiza RFC, ndikugwiritsa ntchito mwayiwu kukangana, kukayikira, kapena kutsutsa malingaliro am'mbuyomu. Inde, monga mβdera lililonse, maganizo ena anali ofunika kwambiri kuposa ena, ndipo mβmasiku oyambirira maganizo a Crocker ndi gulu lake lalikulu la anzake anali ndi ulamuliro waukulu kwambiri. Mu Julayi 1971, Crocker adachoka ku UCLA akadali wophunzira womaliza kuti akakhale woyang'anira pulogalamu ku IPTO. Ndi thandizo lofunikira lofufuza kuchokera ku ARPA lomwe anali nalo, iye, modziwa kapena mosadziwa, anali ndi chikoka chosatsutsika.
Jon Postel, Steve Crocker ndi Vint Cerf ndi anzake a m'kalasi ndi ogwira nawo ntchito ku NWG; Patapita zaka
Dongosolo loyambirira la NWG lidafuna ma protocol awiri. Kulowa kwakutali (telnet) kunalola kompyuta imodzi kukhala ngati cholumikizira cholumikizidwa ndi makina ogwiritsira ntchito wina, kukulitsa malo olumikizirana amtundu uliwonse wolumikizidwa ndi ARPANET ndi nthawi yogawana ma kilomita masauzande kwa aliyense wogwiritsa ntchito pa intaneti. Protocol yotengera mafayilo a FTP idalola kompyuta imodzi kusamutsa fayilo, monga pulogalamu yothandiza kapena seti ya data, kupita kapena kuchokera kosungirako makina ena. Komabe, pakuumirira kwa Roberts, NWG idawonjezera njira yachitatu yotsimikizira ziwirizi, kukhazikitsa kulumikizana koyambira pakati pa omwe akukhala nawo awiri. Imatchedwa Network Control Program (NCP). Maukonde tsopano anali ndi zigawo zitatu zotsatiridwa - kagawo kakang'ono ka paketi komwe kamayang'aniridwa ndi IMP pansi kwambiri, mauthenga olandila alendo operekedwa ndi NCP pakati, ndi ma protocol (FTP ndi telnet) pamwamba.
Kulephera?
Sizinafike mu Ogasiti 1971 pomwe NCP idafotokozedwa bwino ndikukhazikitsidwa pamaneti onse, omwe panthawiyo anali ndi mfundo khumi ndi zisanu. Kugwiritsiridwa ntchito kwa protocol ya telnet posakhalitsa kunatsatira, ndipo tanthawuzo loyamba lokhazikika la FTP linawonekera patatha chaka chimodzi, m'chilimwe cha 1972. Ngati tiyesa dziko la ARPANET panthawiyo, patatha zaka zingapo litangoyamba kumene, zikhoza kukhala. adawona kulephera poyerekeza ndi maloto olekanitsa zida zomwe Licklider adaziwona ndikugwiritsiridwa ntchito ndi protΓ©gΓ© wake, Robert Taylor.
Poyamba, zinali zovuta kudziwa zomwe zilipo pa intaneti zomwe tingagwiritse ntchito. Malo azidziwitso a netiweki adagwiritsa ntchito njira yodzifunira yotenga nawo mbali - node iliyonse idayenera kupereka zidziwitso zosinthidwa za kupezeka kwa data ndi mapulogalamu. Ngakhale kuti aliyense angapindule ndi izi, panalibe chilimbikitso chochepa kwa node iliyonse kulengeza kapena kupereka mwayi kuzinthu zake, osasiyapo kupereka zolemba zamakono kapena malangizo. Chifukwa chake, NIC yalephera kukhala chikwatu pa intaneti. Mwina ntchito yake yofunika kwambiri m'zaka zoyambirira inali kupereka kuchititsa pakompyuta pakukula kwa ma RFC.
Ngakhale, tinene, Alice waku UCLA adadziwa za kukhalapo kwa chida chothandiza ku MIT, chopinga chachikulu chidawoneka. Telnet idalola Alice kuti afike pazithunzi zolowera ku MIT, koma osapitilira. Kuti Alice azitha kupeza pulogalamu ku MIT, amayenera kukambirana ndi MIT kuti akhazikitse akaunti pakompyuta yawo, yomwe nthawi zambiri imafunikira kudzaza mafomu pamabungwe onse ndi mgwirizano wandalama kuti amulipire. Kugwiritsa ntchito zida zamakompyuta a MIT. Ndipo chifukwa chosagwirizana pakati pa hardware ndi pulogalamu yamapulogalamu pakati pa ma node, kusamutsa mafayilo nthawi zambiri sikunali kwanzeru chifukwa simunathe kuyendetsa mapulogalamu kuchokera pamakompyuta akutali anu.
Chodabwitsa n'chakuti, kupambana kwakukulu kwa kugawana zinthu sikunali kugawana nthawi komwe ARPANET idapangidwira, koma m'dera lachikale losagwiritsa ntchito deta. UCLA idawonjezera makina ake osagwira ntchito a IBM 360/91 pa netiweki ndikupereka kulumikizana kwafoni kuti zithandizire ogwiritsa ntchito akutali, zomwe zimabweretsa ndalama zambiri pamakompyuta. Makompyuta apamwamba a ILLIAC IV omwe amathandizidwa ndi ARPA ku yunivesite ya Illinois ndi Datacomputer ku Computer Corporation of America ku Cambridge adapezanso makasitomala akutali kudzera pa ARPANET.
Koma mapulojekiti onsewa sanayandikire kugwiritsa ntchito bwino maukonde. Chakumapeto kwa 1971, ndi 15 makamu pa intaneti, netiweki yonse inali kutumiza pafupifupi ma bits 45 miliyoni pa node, kapena 520 bps pa netiweki ya 50 bps yobwereketsa mizere kuchokera ku AT&T. Kuphatikiza apo, ambiri mwa magalimotowa anali magalimoto oyesa, opangidwa ndi malo oyezera maukonde ku UCLA. Kupatula chidwi cha ogwiritsa ntchito ena oyambirira (monga Steve Cara, wogwiritsa ntchito PDP-000 tsiku ndi tsiku ku yunivesite ya Utah ku Palo Alto), sizinachitike pa ARPANET. Kuchokera pamalingaliro amakono, mwinamwake chitukuko chosangalatsa kwambiri chinali kukhazikitsidwa kwa laibulale ya digito ya Project Guttenberg mu December 10, yokonzedwa ndi Michael Hart, wophunzira ku yunivesite ya Illinois.
Koma posakhalitsa ARPANET idapulumutsidwa ku zifukwa zowola ndi protocol yachitatu yogwiritsira ntchito - chinthu chaching'ono chotchedwa imelo.
Chinanso choti muwerenge
β’ Janet Abbate, Kupanga Intaneti (1999)
β’ Katie Hafner ndi Matthew Lyon, Kumene Wizards Amakhala Mochedwa: The Origins of the Internet (1996)
Source: www.habr.com