Nkhani zina pamndandanda:
- Mbiri ya relay
- Mbiri yamakompyuta apakompyuta
- Mbiri ya transistor
- Mbiri ya intaneti
Mau oyamba
Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1970, AT&T, wolamulira wamkulu wapamatelefoni ku US, adabwera ndi chopereka chosangalatsa. Panthawiyo, anali mkulu wa dipatimenti ya computing ya Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), bungwe laling'ono mu Dipatimenti ya Chitetezo likuchita kafukufuku wanthawi yayitali, wopanda ntchito. M'zaka zisanu zomwe zikufika mpaka pano, Roberts adayang'anira kulengedwa kwa ARPANET, yoyamba mwa makompyuta akuluakulu omwe amagwirizanitsa makompyuta omwe ali m'madera osiyanasiyana a 25 m'dziko lonselo.
Maukondewa adachita bwino, koma kukhalapo kwake kwanthawi yayitali komanso maulamuliro onse ogwirizana nawo sanagwere pansi pa ulamuliro wa ARPA. Roberts anali kufunafuna njira yoperekera ntchitoyo kwa munthu wina. Ndipo kotero adalumikizana ndi owongolera a AT&T kuti awapatse "makiyi" adongosolo lino. Pambuyo poganizira mozama zomwe zaperekedwa, AT&T adazisiya. Akatswiri ndi mameneja a kampaniyo amakhulupirira kuti luso lamakono la ARPANET linali losatheka komanso losakhazikika, ndipo linalibe malo mu dongosolo lopangidwa kuti lipereke ntchito yodalirika komanso yapadziko lonse.
ARPANET mwachibadwa inakhala mbewu yomwe intaneti inkawoneka bwino; fanizo lachidziwitso chachikulu padziko lonse lapansi, chomwe luso lake lakaleidoscopic silingathe kuwerengera. Kodi AT&T sakanatha bwanji kuwona kuthekera kotere ndikukhala wokhazikika m'mbuyomu? Bob Taylor, yemwe adalemba ganyu Roberts kuti aziyang'anira ntchito ya ARPANET mu 1966, pambuyo pake adanena momveka bwino kuti: "Kugwira ntchito ndi AT&T kumakhala ngati kugwira ntchito ndi Cro-Magnons." Komabe, tisanakumane ndi kusadziwa kopanda nzeru koteroko kwa akuluakulu osadziwika amakampani ndi chidani, tiyeni tibwerere mmbuyo. Mutu wa nkhani yathu udzakhala mbiri ya intaneti, kotero choyamba ndi lingaliro labwino kuti mudziwe zambiri za zomwe tikukamba.
Mwa machitidwe onse aukadaulo omwe adapangidwa kumapeto kwa zaka za zana la XNUMX, intaneti yakhudza kwambiri anthu, chikhalidwe ndi chuma chamasiku ano. Mpikisano wake wapafupi kwambiri pankhaniyi angakhale maulendo a jet. Pogwiritsa ntchito intaneti, anthu amatha kugawana zithunzi, makanema ndi malingaliro nthawi yomweyo ndi anzawo komanso abale padziko lonse lapansi, zomwe zimafunidwa komanso zosafunikira. Achinyamata omwe amakhala pamtunda wa makilomita masauzande kuchokera kwa wina ndi mzake tsopano amakondana nthawi zonse ndipo amakwatirana m'dziko lenileni. Malo ogulitsira osatha amapezeka nthawi iliyonse masana kapena usiku mwachindunji kuchokera mamiliyoni anyumba zabwino.
Kwa mbali zambiri, zonsezi ndizodziwika bwino ndipo ndi momwe zilili. Koma monga momwe wolemba mwiniyo angachitire umboni, Intaneti yatsimikiziranso kukhala mwina chododometsa chachikulu kwambiri, chowonongera nthawi, ndi magwero a kuipa kwa maganizo m’mbiri ya anthu, kuposa wailesi yakanema—ndipo chimenecho sichinali chophweka. Iye analola mitundu yonse ya zitsiru, otengeka ndi okonda chiphunzitso chiwembu kufalitsa zopanda pake padziko lonse pa liwiro la kuwala - zina mwa mfundo imeneyi akhoza kuonedwa kuti alibe vuto lililonse, ndipo ena sangathe. Zalola mabungwe ambiri, achinsinsi komanso apagulu, kuti aziwunjikana pang'onopang'ono, ndipo nthawi zina mwachangu komanso mochititsa manyazi, kutaya mapiri akulu a data. Ponseponse, iye wakhala akukulitsa nzeru zaumunthu ndi kupusa, ndipo kuchuluka kwa zotsirizirazo n'koopsa.
Koma ndi chiyani chomwe tikukambirana, kapangidwe kake ka thupi, makina onsewa omwe adalola kuti kusintha kwa chikhalidwe ndi chikhalidwe ichi kuchitike? Kodi Intaneti ndi chiyani? Ngati titha kusefa chinthuchi pochiyika mu chotengera chagalasi, titha kuchiwona chikukhazikika m'magawo atatu. Network yolumikizirana padziko lonse lapansi idzayikidwa pansi. Chosanjikiza ichi chisanachitike intaneti pafupifupi zaka zana, ndipo idapangidwa koyamba ndi mawaya amkuwa kapena chitsulo, koma idasinthidwa ndi zingwe za coaxial, ma microwave repeaters, optical fiber, ndi mawayilesi apakompyuta.
Gawo lotsatira limakhala ndi makompyuta omwe amalankhulana wina ndi mnzake kudzera munjira iyi pogwiritsa ntchito zilankhulo zodziwika bwino, kapena ma protocol. Zina mwazofunikira kwambiri mwa izi ndi Internet Protocol (IP), Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), ndi Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). Uwu ndiye pakatikati pa intaneti yokha, ndipo mawu ake a konkriti amabwera ngati makina apakompyuta apadera otchedwa ma routers, omwe ali ndi udindo wopeza njira yoti uthenga uyende kuchokera pakompyuta kupita ku kompyuta komwe ukupita.
Potsirizira pake, pamwamba pake pali mapulogalamu osiyanasiyana omwe anthu ndi makina amagwiritsa ntchito pogwira ntchito ndi kusewera pa intaneti, ambiri omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zilankhulo zapadera: asakatuli, mapulogalamu olankhulana, masewera a kanema, malonda a malonda, ndi zina zotero. Kuti mugwiritse ntchito intaneti, pulogalamuyo imangofunika kutsekereza uthengawo m'njira yomwe ma router angamvetsetse. Uthengawu ukhoza kukhala kusuntha kwa chess, gawo laling'ono la kanema, kapena pempho losamutsa ndalama kuchokera ku akaunti yakubanki kupita ku ina - oyendetsa sakusamala ndipo adzachita chimodzimodzi.
Nkhani yathu idzabweretsa ulusi atatuwa pamodzi kuti afotokoze nkhani ya intaneti. Choyamba, maukonde olumikizana padziko lonse lapansi. Pamapeto pake, kukongola konse kwa mapulogalamu osiyanasiyana omwe amalola ogwiritsa ntchito makompyuta kusangalala kapena kuchita zinthu zothandiza pamaneti. Pamodzi amalumikizidwa ndi matekinoloje ndi ma protocol omwe amalola makompyuta osiyanasiyana kulumikizana wina ndi mnzake. Opanga matekinoloje ndi ma protocol awa adatengera zomwe zidachitika m'mbuyomu (manetiweki) ndipo anali ndi lingaliro losavuta la tsogolo lomwe anali kuyang'ana (mapulogalamu amtsogolo).
Kuwonjezera pa olenga awa, mmodzi mwa anthu otchulidwa nthawi zonse mu nkhani yathu adzakhala boma. Izi zikhala zowona makamaka pamlingo wa njira zolumikizirana mafoni, zomwe mwina zidayendetsedwa ndi boma kapena zomwe boma limayang'anira. Zomwe zimatibweretsanso ku AT&T. Momwe amadana nazo kuvomereza, tsogolo la Taylor, Roberts ndi anzawo a ARPA anali omangika mopanda chiyembekezo kwa ogwiritsa ntchito matelefoni, gawo lalikulu la tsogolo la intaneti. Kagwiritsidwe ntchito ka maukonde awo kunali kodalira kotheratu pa mautumiki oterowo. Kodi timafotokozera bwanji chidani chawo, chikhulupiliro chawo chakuti ARPANET imayimira dziko latsopano lomwe mwachibadwa linkatsutsana ndi olamulira a retrograde omwe amayendetsa ma telecommunications?
Ndipotu, magulu awiriwa sanasiyanitsidwe ndi zakanthawi, koma ndi kusiyana kwafilosofi. Otsogolera ndi mainjiniya a AT&T adadziwona ngati osamalira makina akulu komanso ovuta omwe amapereka mauthenga odalirika komanso apadziko lonse lapansi kuchokera kwa munthu kupita kwa wina. Bell System inali ndi udindo pa zida zonse. Okonza mapulani a ARPANET adawona dongosololi ngati njira yopangira ma data osagwirizana, ndipo amakhulupirira kuti oyendetsa ake sayenera kusokoneza momwe detayo imapangidwira ndikugwiritsidwa ntchito kumapeto kwa waya.
Chifukwa chake tiyenera kuyamba ndi kunena momwe, kudzera mu mphamvu ya boma la US, mkanganowu pamtundu wa matelefoni aku America udathetsedwa.
Dongosolo limodzi, utumiki wapadziko lonse?
Intaneti inabadwira m'malo enieni a mauthenga aku America - ku United States opereka matelefoni ndi telegraph adachitidwa mosiyana kwambiri ndi dziko lonse lapansi - ndipo pali zifukwa zomveka zokhulupirira kuti chilengedwechi chinathandiza kwambiri pa chitukuko ndi mapangidwe. za mzimu wamtsogolo wa intaneti. Choncho tiyeni tione bwinobwino mmene zonsezi zinachitikira. Kuti tichite izi, tibwereranso ku kubadwa kwa telegraph yaku America.
American anomaly
M'chaka cha 1843 ndipo ogwirizana nawo adalimbikitsa Congress kuti iwononge $30 kuti ipange mzere wa telegraph pakati pa Washington D.C. ndi Baltimore. Iwo ankakhulupirira kuti ichi chikanakhala choyamba cholumikizira mu netiweki ya mizere ya telegraph yopangidwa ndi ndalama za boma zomwe zidzafalikira ku kontinenti yonse. M'kalata yopita ku House of Representatives, a Morse adanenanso kuti boma ligule maufulu onse ovomerezeka a telegraph ndikupangira makampani azinsinsi kuti amange mbali za netiweki, ndikusunga mizere yosiyana yolumikizirana ndi boma. Pachifukwa ichi, Morse analemba kuti, "sipadzakhala nthawi yaitali kuti dziko lonse lapansi likhale ndi mitsempha iyi, yomwe, ndi liwiro la kulingalira, idzafalitsa chidziwitso cha zonse zomwe zikuchitika padziko lapansi, kutembenuza dziko lonse lapansi. m’mudzi umodzi waukulu.”
Zinkawoneka kwa iye kuti njira yoyankhulirana yofunika kwambiri yoteroyo mwachibadwa inali yothandiza anthu, choncho inagwera m'mavuto a boma. Kupereka mauthenga pakati pa mayiko angapo kudzera mu ntchito za positi inali imodzi mwa ntchito zingapo za boma la federal zomwe zatchulidwa mu Constitution ya US. Komabe, zolinga zake sizinakhazikitsidwe kwathunthu ndi kutumikira anthu. Kulamulira kwa boma kunapatsa Morse ndi omutsatira mwayi womaliza ntchito yawo bwinobwino - kulandira malipiro amodzi, koma ofunika kuchokera ku ndalama za anthu. Mu 1845, Cave Johnson, Woyang’anira Positi wamkulu wa U.S. motsogozedwa ndi pulezidenti wa nambala 11 wa ku United States, James Polk, analengeza kuti akuchirikiza njira ya telegraph imene Morse ananena kuti: “Kugwiritsira ntchito chida champhamvu choterocho, chabwino kapena choipa, kaamba ka chitetezo cha anthu. sangasiyidwe m’manja mwaokha.” anthu,” analemba motero. Komabe, ndi pamene zonse zinathera. Mamembala ena a Polk's Democratic Administration sanafune chilichonse chochita ndi telegraph, monga momwe Democratic Congress idachitira. Chipanicho sichidakonde ziwembuzo , kukakamiza boma kuti liwononge ndalama pa “zotukuka za mkati” - iwo analingalira ziwembu zimenezi kulimbikitsa kukondera, kuchita zachinyengo ndi katangale.
Chifukwa chokana kuchitapo kanthu m'boma, m'modzi mwa mamembala a gulu la Morse, Amos Kendal, adayamba kupanga njira yolumikizira ma telegraph mothandizidwa ndi omwe adathandizira payekha. Komabe, chilolezo cha Morse sichinali chokwanira kuti ateteze yekha pa telegraph communications. Pazaka khumi, opikisana nawo ambiri adatulukira, akugula ziphaso zaukadaulo wina wa telegraph (makamaka telegraph yosindikizira ya Royal House) kapena kungochita bizinesi yovomerezeka pazifukwa zosavomerezeka. Milandu yambiri idaperekedwa, ndalama zamapepala zidakwera ndikuzimiririka, ndipo makampani olephera adagwa kapena kugulitsidwa kwa omwe akupikisana nawo atakweza mitengo mwachinyengo. Pa chipwirikiti chonsechi, wosewera wamkulu adatulukira chakumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1860: Western Union.
Mawu a mantha akuti "monopoly" anayamba kufalikira. Telegraph inali itayamba kale kukhala yofunika pazinthu zingapo za moyo waku America: zachuma, njanji, ndi manyuzipepala. Sipanakhalepo ndi kale lonse kuti bungwe lililonse lachinsinsi lakula mpaka kukula chonchi. Lingaliro lakuwongolera boma pa telegraph lidalandira moyo watsopano. M’zaka khumi pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yachibadwidwe, makomiti a positi a congressional anadza ndi malingaliro osiyanasiyana obweretsa telegraph mu njira ya Post Service. Njira zitatu zoyambira zidatulukira: 1) ma positi amathandizira mdani wina waku Western Union, ndikuwapatsa mwayi wapadera wopita ku ma positi ndi misewu yayikulu, pobwezera ziletso za msonkho. 2) Post Service ikuyambitsa telegraph yake kuti ipikisane ndi WU ndi ena ogwira ntchito payekha. 3) Boma lidzakhazikitsa ofesi yonse ya telegraph, ndikuyiyika pansi pa utsogoleri wa positi.
Mapulani a telegraph adapeza othandizira angapo ku Congress, kuphatikiza Alexander Ramsay, wapampando wa Senate Postal Committee. Komabe, mphamvu zambiri za kampeniyi zidaperekedwa ndi olimbikitsa anthu akunja, makamaka a Gardiner Hubbard, omwe anali ndi chidziwitso pantchito yaboma monga wokonza njira zowunikira madzi ndi gasi ku Cambridge (pambuyo pake adakhala wothandizira wamkulu kwa Alexander Bell komanso woyambitsa National Geographic Society). Hubbard ndi omuthandizira ake adanena kuti dongosolo la anthu lingapereke kufalitsa kothandiza kwachidziwitso monga momwe makalata amalembera amachitira pochepetsa mitengo. Iwo ati njira iyi ikhonza kuthandiza anthu bwino kuposa dongosolo la WU, lomwe cholinga chake ndi ochita bizinesi. WU, mwachibadwa, inatsutsa kuti mtengo wa telegalamu umatsimikiziridwa ndi mtengo wawo, komanso kuti dongosolo la anthu lomwe limachepetsa msonkho mwachinyengo lidzakumana ndi mavuto ndipo silingapindule aliyense.
Mulimonsemo, telegraph ya positi sinapeze chithandizo chokwanira kuti ikhale nkhani yankhondo ku Congress. Malamulo onse operekedwawo anafa mwakachetechete. Kuchuluka kwa olamulira okha sikunafike pamlingo wotere womwe ungathetse mantha ozunzidwa ndi boma. Ma Democrat adayambiranso kulamulira Congress mu 1874, mzimu womanganso dziko pambuyo pa Nkhondo Yapachiweniweni unasiyidwa, ndipo zoyesayesa zofooka zopanga positi telegraph zidasokonekera. Lingaliro la kuika telegalamu (ndipo kenaka telefoni) pansi pa ulamuliro wa boma linayamba nthawi ndi nthawi m'zaka zotsatira, koma kupatula nthawi yochepa ya (mwadzina) kulamulira kwa telefoni pa nthawi ya nkhondo mu 1918, palibe chomwe chinakula.
Kunyalanyaza kwa boma kwa telegraph ndi lamya kumeneku kunali kodabwitsa padziko lonse lapansi. Ku France, telegraph idasinthidwa ngakhale isanakhazikitsidwe magetsi. Mu 1837, pamene kampani yapayekha idayesa kukhazikitsa telegraph ya optical (pogwiritsa ntchito nsanja zowonetsera) pafupi ndi dongosolo lomwe limayang'aniridwa ndi boma, nyumba yamalamulo yaku France idapereka lamulo loletsa kupanga telegraph yosaloledwa ndi boma. Ku Britain, ma telegraph achinsinsi adaloledwa kupitilira zaka makumi angapo. Komabe, kusakhutira kwa anthu ndi kuwirikiza kotsatirako kunachititsa kuti boma lilamulire mkhalidwewo mu 1868. Ku Ulaya konse, maboma anaika matelefoni ndi matelefoni pansi pa ulamuliro wa makalata a boma, monga momwe Hubbard ndi omutsatira ake anali atalingalira. [ku Russia, bizinesi ya boma "Central Telegraph" idakhazikitsidwa pa Okutobala 1, 1852 / pafupifupi. kumasulira].
Kunja kwa Ulaya ndi North America, mayiko ambiri padziko lapansi ankalamulidwa ndi akuluakulu atsamunda ndipo chifukwa chake analibe chonena pa chitukuko ndi kuwongolera ma telegraph. Kumene maboma odziyimira pawokha analipo, nthawi zambiri amapanga ma telegraph a boma pamtundu waku Europe. Machitidwewa nthawi zambiri analibe ndalama zowonjezera pamlingo womwe umawoneka ku United States ndi mayiko a ku Ulaya. Mwachitsanzo, kampani ya telegraph ya boma la Brazil, yomwe ikugwira ntchito pansi pa mapiko a Unduna wa Zaulimi, Zamalonda ndi Ntchito, inali ndi ma kilomita 1869 okha a telegraph pofika chaka cha 2100, pamene ku USA, m'dera lofananalo, kumene anthu ankakhala nthawi 4, pofika 1866 panali kale anatambasula 130 Km.
Zatsopano
N’chifukwa chiyani United States inatenga njira yapadera chonchi? Munthu atha kubweretsa ku izi dongosolo lakugawa kwa maudindo aboma pakati pa ochirikiza chipani chomwe chidapambana zisankho, chomwe chidakhalapo mpaka zaka zomaliza zazaka za XNUMXth. Ulamuliro wa boma, mpaka kwa oyang'anira positi, unali kuikidwa pa ndale kumene ogwirizana nawo okhulupirika akanatha kudalitsidwa. Maphwando awiriwa sanafune kupanga magwero akuluakulu atsopano othandizira adani awo - zomwe zikanadzachitika telegraph itayamba kuyang'aniridwa ndi boma. Komabe, kufotokozera kosavuta ndiko kusakhulupirira kwachikhalidwe cha America ku boma lapakati lamphamvu - pachifukwa chomwechi momwe chisamaliro chaumoyo waku America, maphunziro ndi mabungwe ena aboma ndi osiyana kwambiri ndi omwe akumayiko ena.
Popeza kufunikira kowonjezereka kwa mauthenga amagetsi pa moyo wa dziko ndi chitetezo, United States sinathe kudzipatula kwathunthu ku chitukuko cha mauthenga. M'zaka makumi angapo zoyambirira za zaka za zana la XNUMX, njira yosakanizidwa yomwe zida zolumikizirana zachinsinsi zidayesa mphamvu ziwiri: mbali imodzi, olamulira nthawi zonse amayang'anira mitengo yamakampani olumikizirana, kuwonetsetsa kuti sakhala ndi udindo wodziyimira pawokha komanso kuti sanachitepo kanthu. mapindu ochuluka; komano, pali chiwopsezo cha kugawikana pansi pa malamulo oletsa kudalirana ngati pachitika khalidwe losayenera. Monga momwe tionere, mphamvu ziwirizi zikhoza kutsutsana: chiphunzitso cha tariff chimakhulupirira kuti kulamulira ndi zochitika zachilengedwe nthawi zina, ndipo kubwereza mautumiki kungakhale kuwononga chuma kosafunikira. Oyang'anira nthawi zambiri amayesa kuchepetsa zinthu zoipa za monopoly poyang'anira mitengo. Nthawi yomweyo, malamulo a antimonopoly adafuna kuwononga olamulira mumphukira mwa kukakamiza mokakamiza msika wampikisano.
Lingaliro la malamulo a tariff linayambika ndi njanji, ndipo linagwiritsidwa ntchito ku federal level kudzera mu Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), yomwe inakhazikitsidwa ndi Congress mu 1887. Cholinga chachikulu cha lamuloli chinali malonda ang'onoang'ono ndi alimi odziimira okha. Nthawi zambiri sakanachitira mwina koma kudalira njanji zomwe amagwiritsa ntchito ponyamula zokolola zawo kupita nazo kumsika, ndipo amati makampani a njanji adapezerapo mwayi powafinyira ndalama zomaliza pomwe amapereka chithandizo chambiri kumakampani akuluakulu. . Komiti ya anthu asanu inapatsidwa mphamvu zoyang'anira ntchito za njanji ndi mitengo ndikuletsa kugwiritsa ntchito molakwika mphamvu zolamulira njanji, makamaka poletsa njanji kupereka mitengo yapadera kwa makampani osankhidwa (chiyambi cha lingaliro lomwe masiku ano timatcha "kusalowerera ndale"). The Mann-Elkins Act ya 1910 inakulitsa ufulu wa ICC pa telegraph ndi telefoni. Komabe, a ICC, ngakhale akuyang'ana kwambiri zamayendedwe, sankachita chidwi ndi madera atsopanowa, osawanyalanyaza.
Panthaŵi imodzimodziyo, boma la federal linapanga chida chatsopano chothetsera kulamulira kwa boma. 1890 inapatsa maloya akuluakulu mphamvu zotsutsa m’khoti “mgwirizano” uliwonse wamalonda woganiziridwa kuti ndi “woletsa malonda”—ndiko kuti, kupondereza mpikisano mwa ulamuliro wolamulira okha. Lamuloli linagwiritsidwa ntchito kuphwanya mabungwe akuluakulu angapo pazaka makumi awiri zikubwerazi, kuphatikiza chigamulo cha Khothi Lalikulu mu 1911 chophwanya Standard Oil kukhala zidutswa 34.
Octopus ya Standard Oil kuchokera ku zojambula za 1904, asanagawikane
Panthawiyo, telefoni, ndi wothandizira wamkulu wa AT&T, anali atakwanitsa kuphimba matelefoni ndi WU pakufunika komanso kuthekera, kotero kuti mu 1909 AT&T idagula chidwi chowongolera ku WU. Theodore Vail adakhala purezidenti wamakampani ophatikizidwawo ndipo adayamba njira yowalumikiza kukhala gulu limodzi. Vail ankakhulupirira motsimikiza kuti kulamulira kwabwino kwa matelefoni kungathandize bwino anthu, ndipo analimbikitsa mawu atsopano a kampaniyo: "One Policy, One System, One-Stop Service." Chotsatira chake, Vale anali atakhwima kuti aziyang'anira ma busters a monopoly.
Theodore Vail, c. 1918
Kutenga udindo wa Woodrow Wilson mu 1913 kunapatsa mamembala ake Ino ndi nthawi yabwino kuwopseza anti-monopoly cudgel. Woyang'anira Ntchito Yoyang'anira Mapositi Sidney Burleson adakondera mafoni amtundu wonse motsatira njira yaku Europe, koma lingaliro ili, monga mwanthawi zonse, silinapeze chithandizo. M'malo mwake, Woyimira milandu wamkulu a George Wickersham adaganiza kuti kutenga kwa AT&T kwamakampani odziyimira pawokha kumaphwanya lamulo la Sherman Act. M'malo mopita kukhoti, Vail ndi wachiwiri wake, Nathan Kingsbury, adachita mgwirizano ndi kampaniyo, yomwe imadziwika kuti "Kingsbury Agreement," pomwe AT&T idavomereza kuti:
- Lekani kugula makampani odziimira okha.
- Gulitsani gawo lanu ku WU.
- Lolani makampani amafoni odziyimira pawokha kuti alumikizane ndi netiweki yakutali.
Koma pambuyo pa mphindi yowopsa ya olamulira okha, bata la zaka makumi angapo linafika. Nyenyezi yodekha ya malamulo a tariff yakwera, kutanthauza kukhalapo kwa ma monopolies achilengedwe pazolumikizana. Pofika kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1920, mpumulo unali utapangidwa ndipo AT&T inayambiranso kupeza makampani ang'onoang'ono amafoni odziimira okha. Njira iyi idakhazikitsidwa mumchitidwe wa 1934 womwe unakhazikitsa Federal Communications Commission (FCC), m'malo mwa ICC ngati wowongolera mitengo yolumikizirana mawayilesi. Pofika nthawi imeneyo, Bell System, mwa muyeso uliwonse, inkalamulira osachepera 90% ya malonda a telefoni ku America: 135 ya makilomita 140 miliyoni a waya, 2,1 ya 2,3 biliyoni mwezi uliwonse, 990 miliyoni madola biliyoni phindu la pachaka. Komabe, cholinga chachikulu cha FCC sichinali kukonzanso mpikisano, koma "kupangitsa kupezeka, momwe zingathere kwa anthu onse okhala ku United States, kulumikizana mwachangu, moyenera, m'dziko komanso padziko lonse lapansi kudzera pawaya ndi ma airwaves, momasuka komanso moyenera. mtengo." Ngati bungwe limodzi lingapereke chithandizo choterocho, zikhale choncho.
Chapakati pa zaka za m'ma XNUMX, oyang'anira matelefoni am'deralo ndi aboma ku United States adapanga njira yolumikizirana mitundu ingapo kuti ipititse patsogolo chitukuko cha ntchito zapadziko lonse lapansi. Makomiti olamulira amaika mitengo yotengera mtengo wa netiweki kwa kasitomala aliyense, osati pamtengo wopereka chithandizo kwa kasitomalayo. Chifukwa chake, ogwiritsa ntchito mabizinesi omwe adadalira telefoni kuti achite bizinesi amalipira ndalama zambiri kuposa anthu (omwe ntchitoyi idapereka mwayi wocheza nawo). Makasitomala m'misika ikuluikulu ya m'matauni, omwe ali ndi mwayi wofikira kwa ogwiritsa ntchito ena ambiri, amalipira ndalama zambiri kuposa omwe ali m'mizinda yaying'ono, ngakhale kuti ma telefoni akuluakulu amagwira ntchito bwino. Ogwiritsa ntchito maulendo ataliatali anali kulipira mochulukira, ngakhale kuti ukadaulo udatsitsa pang'onopang'ono mtengo wamafoni akutali komanso phindu la masiwichi akumaloko linakwera kwambiri. Dongosolo lovuta la kugawanso ndalama lidagwira ntchito bwino bola ngati panali wopereka monolithic m'modzi momwe zonsezi zitha kugwira ntchito.
Tekinoloje yatsopano
Tidazolowera kuwona kuti monopoly ndi mphamvu yochedwetsa yomwe imayambitsa ulesi komanso ulesi. Tikuyembekeza kuti wolamulira yekhayo ateteze mwansanje udindo wake ndi momwe alili m'malo mokhala ngati injini yakusintha kwaukadaulo, zachuma ndi chikhalidwe. Komabe, ndizovuta kugwiritsa ntchito lingaliro ili ku AT&T pachimake, popeza idayambitsa zatsopano pambuyo pakupanga zatsopano, kuyembekezera ndikufulumizitsa kufalikira kwatsopano kulikonse.
Mwachitsanzo, mu 1922, AT&T inaika wailesi youlutsira zamalonda panyumba yake ya Manhattan, patangotha chaka chimodzi ndi theka kuchokera pamene siteshoni yaikulu yoteroyo, KDKA ya ku Westinghouse, itatsegulidwa. Chaka chotsatira, idagwiritsa ntchito maukonde ake akutali kuti iwonetsenso adilesi ya Purezidenti Warren Harding kumawayilesi ambiri amderali kuzungulira dzikolo. Zaka zingapo pambuyo pake, AT&T adapezanso gawo mumakampani opanga mafilimu, pambuyo poti akatswiri a Bell Labs adapanga makina omwe amaphatikiza makanema ndi mawu ojambulidwa. Studio ya Warner Brothers idagwiritsa ntchito izi "»kutulutsa filimu yoyamba yaku Hollywood yokhala ndi nyimbo zolumikizidwa , yomwe inatsatiridwa ndi filimu yoyamba yautali yomwe imagwiritsa ntchito mawu omveka "".
Vitaphone
Walter Gifford, yemwe adakhala purezidenti wa AT&T mu 1925, adaganiza zosiya kufalitsa nkhani ndi zithunzi zoyenda, mwa zina kuti apewe kufufuza kosakhulupirira. Ngakhale kuti Dipatimenti ya Chilungamo ku United States inali isanaopseze kampaniyo kuyambira pamene Kingsbury anakhazikika, sizinali zoyenera kukopa chidwi chosayenera kuzinthu zomwe zingawoneke ngati kuyesa kugwiritsa ntchito molakwa udindo wake wodzilamulira pa telephony kuti iwonjezere misika ina mopanda chilungamo. Chifukwa chake, m'malo mokonzekera mawayilesi ake, AT&T idakhala opereka ma siginecha a RCA ndi ma wayilesi ena, kutumiza mapulogalamu kuchokera kuma studio awo aku New York ndi mizinda ina yayikulu kupita kumawayilesi ogwirizana kuzungulira dzikolo.
Panthaŵiyo, mu 1927, msonkhano wa wailesi yakanema unafalikira pa nyanja ya Atlantic, unayambika ndi funso laling’ono limene Gifford anafunsa kwa wolankhula naye kuchokera ku ofesi ya positi ya ku Britain: “Kodi nyengo ili bwanji ku London?” Izi, ndithudi, si "Izi ndi zomwe Mulungu amachita!" [mawu oyamba ofalitsidwa mwalamulo mu Morse code ndi telegraph / pafupifupi. transl.], komabe idakhala chinthu chofunikira kwambiri, kuwonekera kwa kuthekera kwa zokambirana zapakati pamayiko makumi angapo zaka zambiri tisanayike zingwe za telefoni zapansi pa nyanja, ngakhale pamtengo wokwera komanso wosakhala bwino.
Komabe, zochitika zofunika kwambiri m'mbiri yathu zikuphatikizapo kutumiza deta yambiri pamtunda wautali. AT&T nthawi zonse inkafuna kuwonjezera kuchuluka kwa magalimoto pama network ake aatali, omwe adakhala mwayi wopikisana nawo makampani ochepa omwe akukhalabe odziyimira pawokha, komanso kupereka phindu lalikulu. Njira yosavuta yokopa makasitomala inali kupanga umisiri watsopano womwe umachepetsa mtengo wotumizira - nthawi zambiri izi zikutanthauza kutha kukanikiza zokambirana zambiri mu mawaya kapena zingwe zomwezo. Koma, monga taonera kale, zopempha zoyankhulirana patali zinapitilira mauthenga akale a telegraph ndi matelefoni ochokera kwa munthu wina kupita kwa wina. Mawayilesi amafunikira matchanelo awoawo, ndipo wailesi yakanema inali itatsala pang'ono kuyandikira, ndi pempho lalikulu kwambiri la bandwidth.
Njira yodalirika kwambiri yokwaniritsira zofuna zatsopanozi inali kuyala chingwe cha coaxial chopangidwa ndi masilindala achitsulo [coaxial, co-axial - okhala ndi axis / pafupifupi. kumasulira ]. The katundu wa kondakitala anaphunzira m'zaka za m'ma 1920 ndi zimphona za sayansi yakale: Maxwell, Heaviside, Rayleigh, Kelvin ndi Thomson. Zinali ndi zabwino zambiri zongoyerekeza ngati chingwe chotumizira, chifukwa chimatha kutumizira chizindikiro cha bandeji yayikulu, ndipo kapangidwe kake kake kamateteza kotheratu kuyankhulana ndi kusokonezedwa ndi ma sign akunja. Popeza chitukuko cha wailesi yakanema chinayamba m'zaka za m'ma 1936, palibe teknoloji yomwe ilipo yomwe ingapereke bandwidth ya megahertz (kapena yochulukirapo) yofunikira pamawayilesi apamwamba kwambiri. Chifukwa chake mainjiniya a Bell Labs adayamba kusintha maubwino aukadaulo wa chingwecho kukhala chingwe cholumikizira mtunda wautali komanso wotambasula, kuphatikiza kupanga zida zonse zofunikira popanga, kukulitsa, kulandira, ndi kukonza ma sign ena. Mu 160, AT&T, ndi chilolezo chochokera ku FCC, idayesa mtunda wamakilomita opitilira 27 kuchokera ku Manhattan kupita ku Philadelphia. Atayesa kachitidwe koyamba ndi mabwalo a mawu 1937, mainjiniya adaphunzira bwino kutumiza vidiyo kumapeto kwa XNUMX.
Panthawiyo, pempho lina la kulankhulana kwakutali ndi maulendo apamwamba, mauthenga otumizirana mawailesi, anayamba kuonekera. Radiotelephony, yomwe idagwiritsidwa ntchito mu 1927 transatlantic communications, idagwiritsa ntchito ma siginecha apawailesi ndipo idapanga njira ziwiri zamawu pashortwave. Kulumikiza ma wayilesi awiri ndi olandila pogwiritsa ntchito gulu lonse la ma frequency pamacheza amodzi patelefoni sikunali kopindulitsa pazachuma kuchokera pamawonekedwe apadziko lapansi. Zikanakhala zotheka kukakamiza kukambirana zambiri pawailesi imodzi, kukanakhala kukambirana mosiyana. Ngakhale kuti wailesi iliyonse ingakhale yokwera mtengo kwambiri, masiteshoni zana oterowo angakhale okwanira kuulutsa zikwangwani ku United States konse.
Magulu awiri a ma frequency adapikisana paufulu wogwiritsa ntchito pamakina otere: mafunde apamwamba kwambiri (mafunde a decimeter) UHF ndi ma microwave (mafunde atali masentimita). Ma microwave okwera pafupipafupi adalonjeza kutulutsa kwakukulu, koma adawonetsanso zovuta zaukadaulo. M'zaka za m'ma 1930, malingaliro odalirika a AT&T adatsamira njira yotetezeka ya UHF.
Komabe, ukadaulo wa microwave udapita patsogolo kwambiri pa Nkhondo Yachiwiri Yapadziko Lonse chifukwa chogwiritsa ntchito kwambiri radar. Bell Labs adawonetsa kuthekera kwa wayilesi ya microwave ndi AN/TRC-69, foni yam'manja yomwe imatha kutumizira mizere isanu ndi itatu kupita ku mlongoti wina wowonekera. Izi zinapangitsa kuti likulu la asilikali libwezeretse mwamsanga mauthenga a mawu pambuyo pa kusamuka, popanda kuyembekezera kuti zingwe zikhazikitsidwe (komanso popanda chiopsezo chosiyidwa popanda kulankhulana pambuyo podula chingwe, mwangozi kapena ngati gawo la mdani).
Malo otumizira mawayilesi a microwave AN/TRC-6
Nkhondo itatha, Harold T. Friis, mkulu wa Bell Labs wobadwira ku Denmark, adatsogolera chitukuko cha mauthenga a microwave radio relay. Mzere woyeserera wa 350 km kuchokera ku New York kupita ku Boston unatsegulidwa kumapeto kwa 1945. Mafundewo adalumphira magawo aatali a 50 km pakati pa nsanja zozikidwa pansi - pogwiritsa ntchito mfundo yofanana ndi telegraphy ya kuwala, kapenanso nyali zingapo. Kumtunda kupita ku Hudson Highlands, kudutsa mapiri a Connecticut, kupita ku Mount Ashnebamskit kumadzulo kwa Massachusetts, kenako mpaka ku Boston Harbor.
AT&T sinali kampani yokhayo yomwe imakonda kulumikizana ndi ma microwave komanso kudziwa zankhondo pakuwongolera ma siginecha a microwave. Philco, General Electric, Raytheon, ndi owulutsa pawailesi yakanema adapanga kapena kukonza njira zawo zoyeserera zaka zankhondo itatha. Philco adamenya AT&T pomanga ulalo pakati pa Washington ndi Philadelphia kumapeto kwa 1945.
AT&T microwave radio relay station ku Creston (Wyoming), gawo la mzere woyamba wodutsa, 1951.
Kwa zaka zopitilira 30, AT&T yapewa zovuta ndi oyang'anira antitrust ndi owongolera ena aboma. Zambiri mwa izo zidatetezedwa ndi lingaliro la kulamulira kwachilengedwe - lingaliro lakuti sikungakhale kothandiza kwambiri kupanga makina ambiri opikisana komanso osagwirizana omwe amayendetsa mawaya awo m'dziko lonselo. Kuyankhulana kwa ma microwave kunali koyambilira kwakukulu pa zida izi, zomwe zinalola makampani ambiri kupereka mauthenga akutali popanda ndalama zosafunikira.
Kutumiza kwa ma microwave kwatsitsa kwambiri chotchinga cholowera kwa omwe angapikisane nawo. Popeza ukadaulo umangofunika masiteshoni angapo otalikirana ndi 50 km, kupanga njira yothandiza sikunafune kugula malo amtunda wamakilomita masauzande ndikusunga zingwe zamakilomita masauzande. Kuphatikiza apo, bandwidth ya ma microwaves inali yokulirapo kuposa ya zingwe zophatikizika zachikhalidwe, chifukwa siteshoni iliyonse yotumizirana mauthenga imatha kufalitsa masauzande ambiri akulankhula patelefoni kapena mawayilesi angapo apawailesi yakanema. Ubwino wampikisano wamakina amtundu wa AT&T omwe analipo kale anali akutha.
Komabe, FCC idateteza AT&T ku zotsatira za mpikisano wotero kwa zaka zambiri, ndikupereka zisankho ziwiri m'ma 1940 ndi 1950. Poyamba, bungweli linakana kupereka zilolezo, kupatula zongoyembekezera komanso zoyeserera, kwa opereka mauthenga atsopano omwe sanapereke ntchito zawo kwa anthu onse (koma, mwachitsanzo, amapereka mauthenga mkati mwa bizinesi imodzi). Chifukwa chake, kulowa mumsikawu kunawopseza kutaya chilolezo. Ma commissioners akuda nkhawa ndi vuto lomwelo lomwe lidavutitsa kuwulutsa zaka makumi awiri m'mbuyomo ndikupangitsa kuti FCC ikhazikitsidwe yokha: cacophony ya kusokonezedwa ndi ma transmitters osiyanasiyana omwe amayipitsa bandwidth yochepa ya wailesi.
Chigamulo chachiwiri chinali chokhudza kugwiritsa ntchito intaneti. Kumbukirani kuti Mgwirizano wa Kingsbury unkafuna kuti AT&T ilole makampani amafoni am'deralo kulumikizana ndi netiweki yake yakutali. Kodi zofunika izi zinali zogwirizana ndi ma microwave radio relay communications? FCC idagamula kuti zimagwira ntchito m'malo omwe njira zolumikizirana ndi anthu kulibe. Chifukwa chake mpikisano aliyense womanga ma network amdera kapena amderali amakhala pachiwopsezo chodulidwa mwadzidzidzi mdziko lonse pomwe AT&T idaganiza zolowa m'gawo lake. Njira yokhayo yosunga zolumikizirana inali kupanga netiweki yatsopano yadziko lathu, zomwe zinali zowopsa kuchita pansi pa chilolezo choyesera.
Pofika kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1950, panali wosewera wamkulu m'modzi yekha pamsika wamatelefoni akutali: AT&T. Netiweki yake ya ma microwave inkakhala ndi matelefoni 6000 panjira iliyonse, yofikira kumayiko onse.
AT&T microwave radio network mu 1960
Komabe, chopinga choyamba chofunikira pakuwongolera kwathunthu komanso kokwanira kwa AT&T pamanetiweki yamatelefoni zidachokera mbali ina.
Chinanso choti muwerenge
- Gerald W. Brock, The Telecommunications Industry (1981) The telecommunications industry: the dynamics of market structure / Gerald W. Brock
- John Brooks, Telefoni: Zaka zana limodzi (1976)
- M. D. Fagen, ed., Mbiri ya Engineering ndi Sayansi mu Bell System: Transmission Technology (1985)
- Joshua D. Wolff, Western Union ndi Creation of the American Corporate Order (2013)
Source: www.habr.com