Nkhani zina pamndandanda:
- Mbiri ya relay
- Mbiri yamakompyuta apakompyuta
- Mbiri ya transistor
- Mbiri ya intaneti
Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1960, makina ogwiritsira ntchito makompyuta, kuchokera ku mbewu zanthete zomwe zinaleredwa ku Lincoln Laboratory ndi MIT, pang'onopang'ono anayamba kufalikira paliponse, m'njira ziwiri zosiyana. Choyamba, makompyutawo adakulitsa njira zomwe zimafikira ku nyumba zapafupi, masukulu, ndi mizinda, kulola ogwiritsa ntchito kuti azilumikizana nawo patali, ndi ogwiritsa ntchito angapo nthawi imodzi. Njira zatsopano zogawirana nthawi zidakula kukhala nsanja zamagulu oyambira pa intaneti. Chachiwiri, mbewu za kuyanjana zinafalikira m'maiko onse ndikuzika mizu ku California. Ndipo munthu mmodzi ndiye anali ndi udindo pa mbande yoyamba, katswiri wa zamaganizo wotchedwa .
Yosefe "mbewu ya apulo"*
*Kunena za munthu wina waku America yemwe amadziwika kuti ndi nthano , kapena "Johnny Apple Seed," wotchuka chifukwa chodzala mwachangu mitengo ya maapulo ku Midwest kwa United States (mbewu ya apulo - mbewu ya apulo) / pafupifupi. kumasulira
Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider - "Lick" kwa abwenzi ake - apadera , gawo limene limagwirizanitsa mikhalidwe yongoyerekezera ya chikumbumtima, kuyeza maganizo, ndi physics of sound. Tidamutchulapo mwachidule - anali mlangizi pamisonkhano ya FCC pa Hush-a-Phone m'ma 1950s. Analemekeza luso lake ku Harvard Psychoacoustic Laboratory panthawi ya nkhondo, ndikupanga matekinoloje omwe adathandizira kumveka bwino kwa mawailesi pamabomba aphokoso.
Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider, yemwenso amadziwika kuti Lick
Monga asayansi ambiri a ku America a m'badwo wake, adapeza njira zophatikizira zofuna zake ndi zosowa zankhondo pambuyo pa nkhondo, koma osati chifukwa chakuti anali ndi chidwi makamaka ndi zida kapena chitetezo cha dziko. Panali magwero awiri okha a anthu wamba omwe amapereka ndalama zothandizira kafukufuku wa sayansi - awa anali mabungwe apadera omwe adakhazikitsidwa ndi zimphona zamakampani kumayambiriro kwa zaka za zana lino: Rockefeller Foundation ndi Carnegie Institution. National Institutes of Health inali ndi madola mamiliyoni ochepa okha, ndipo National Science Foundation idakhazikitsidwa kokha mu 1950, ndi bajeti yocheperako. M'zaka za m'ma 1950, malo abwino kwambiri opezera ndalama zothandizira ntchito zosangalatsa za sayansi ndi zamakono anali Dipatimenti ya Chitetezo.
Kotero mu 1950s, Lick adalowa nawo MIT Acoustics Laboratory, yoyendetsedwa ndi akatswiri a sayansi ya zakuthambo Leo Beranek ndi Richard Bolt ndipo adalandira pafupifupi ndalama zake zonse kuchokera ku US Navy. Pambuyo pake, zomwe adakumana nazo polumikiza mphamvu zamunthu ndi zida zamagetsi zidamupangitsa kukhala woyimira pagulu lachitetezo cha MIT chatsopano. Kutenga nawo gawo mugulu lachitukuko "", atatenga nawo gawo pakukwaniritsa lipoti lachitetezo cha ndege la Valley Committee, Leake adalimbikira kuphatikiza kafukufuku wazinthu zaumunthu mu polojekitiyi, zomwe zidapangitsa kuti asankhidwe kukhala m'modzi mwa oyang'anira chitukuko cha radar ku Lincoln Laboratory.
Kumeneko, nthawi ina chapakati pa zaka za m'ma 1950, adadutsa njira ndi Wes Clark ndi TX-2, ndipo nthawi yomweyo adagwidwa ndi makompyuta. Anachita chidwi ndi lingaliro la kulamulira kwathunthu pa makina amphamvu, omwe amatha kuthetsa nthawi yomweyo ntchito iliyonse yomwe wapatsidwa. Anayamba kukhala ndi lingaliro lopanga "symbiosis ya munthu ndi makina", mgwirizano pakati pa munthu ndi kompyuta, wokhoza kupititsa patsogolo nzeru za munthu mofanana ndi momwe makina opanga mafakitale amapangira mphamvu zake ( Dziwani kuti Leake adawona kuti iyi ndi gawo lapakati, ndikuti makompyuta pambuyo pake amaphunzira kuganiza okha). Anazindikira kuti 85% ya nthawi yake yogwira ntchito
... inali yoperekedwa makamaka ku ntchito zaubusa kapena zamakina: kufufuza, kuwerengera, kujambula, kusintha, kuzindikira zotsatira zomveka kapena zosinthika zamagulu amalingaliro kapena malingaliro, kukonzekera kupanga chisankho. Komanso, zosankha zanga pa zomwe zinali ndi zomwe sizinali zoyenera kuyesa zinali, mochititsa manyazi, zotsimikiziridwa ndi mikangano ya mwayi waubusa osati luso laluntha. Ntchito zomwe zimatenga nthawi yambiri zomwe zimaganiziridwa kuti ndi zaukadaulo zitha kuchitidwa bwino ndi makina kuposa ndi anthu.
Lingaliro lalikulu silinapite kutali ndi zomwe Vannevar Bush anafotokoza "" - amplifier wanzeru, dera lomwe adajambula mu 1945 m'buku la As We May Think, ngakhale kuti m'malo mosakanikirana ndi zipangizo zamagetsi ndi zamagetsi, monga Bush, tinabwera ku makompyuta a digito okha. Kompyuta yotereyi ingagwiritse ntchito liwiro lake lodabwitsa kuthandiza pantchito yaubusa yokhudzana ndi ntchito iliyonse yasayansi kapena luso. Anthu akanatha kudzimasula okha ku ntchito yotopetsa imeneyi ndi kuthera maganizo awo onse pakupanga malingaliro, kupanga zitsanzo ndi kugawa zolinga pa kompyuta. Mgwirizano woterewu ungapereke ubwino wodabwitsa ku kafukufuku ndi chitetezo cha dziko, ndipo zingathandize asayansi aku America kuti apite patsogolo kuposa Soviet.
Vannevar Bush's Memex, lingaliro loyambirira lachidziwitso chodziwikiratu kuti chiwonjezere luntha.
Msonkhanowu utatha, Leak adabweretsa chidwi chake chogwiritsa ntchito makompyuta kuti agwire ntchito yatsopano pakampani yolangizira yoyendetsedwa ndi anzawo akale, Bolt ndi Beranek. Anathera zaka zambiri akugwira ntchito yaganyu limodzi ndi ntchito yawo yamaphunziro a physics; mwachitsanzo, anaphunzira nyimbo zoimbidwa m’bwalo la kanema ku Hoboken (New Jersey). Ntchito yowunikira ma acoustics a nyumba yatsopano ya UN ku New York idawapatsa ntchito yambiri, kotero adaganiza zochoka ku MIT ndikuchita upangiri wanthawi zonse. Posakhalitsa adalumikizidwa ndi mnzake wachitatu, womanga Robert Newman, ndipo adadzitcha Bolt, Beranek ndi Newman (BBN). Pofika 1957 anali atakula kukhala kampani yapakatikati yokhala ndi antchito khumi ndi awiri, ndipo Beranek adaganiza kuti ali pachiwopsezo chodzaza msika wa kafukufuku wamayimbidwe. Ankafuna kukulitsa ukadaulo wa kampaniyo kupitilira mawu, kuti akwaniritse kulumikizana konse kwa anthu ndi malo omangidwa, kuyambira kuholo zamakonsati mpaka magalimoto, komanso mphamvu zonse.
Ndipo iye, ndithudi, adafufuza mnzake wakale wa Licklider ndikumulemba ntchito mowolowa manja ngati wachiwiri kwa purezidenti watsopano wa psychoacoustics. Komabe, Beranek sanaganizire chidwi cha Lik chogwiritsa ntchito makompyuta. M'malo mwa katswiri wa psychoacoustics, sanapeze katswiri weniweni wa makompyuta, koma mlaliki wa makompyuta wofunitsitsa kutsegula maso a ena. Pasanathe chaka chimodzi, adakakamiza Beranek kuti agulitse madola masauzande ambiri kuti agule kompyutayo, kachipangizo kakang'ono ka LGP-30 kamene kali ndi mphamvu zotsika kwambiri, yopangidwa ndi kontrakitala wa Defense Department Librascope. Popanda chidziwitso cha uinjiniya, adabweretsa msilikali wina wa SAGE, Edward Fredkin, kuti athandize kukhazikitsa makinawo. Ngakhale kuti kompyuta nthawi zambiri inkasokoneza Lik pa ntchito yake ya tsiku ndi tsiku pamene amayesa kuphunzira mapulogalamu, patapita chaka ndi theka analimbikitsa anzake kuti awononge ndalama zambiri ($150, kapena pafupifupi $ 000 miliyoni mu ndalama zamakono) kuti agule makompyuta amphamvu kwambiri. : PDP-1,25 yaposachedwa kwambiri kuchokera ku DEC. Leak idatsimikizira BBN kuti makompyuta a digito ndi tsogolo, ndikuti mwanjira ina ndalama zawo zamaluso m'derali zidzapindula.
Posakhalitsa, Leake, pafupifupi mwangozi, adapezeka kuti ali woyenera kufalitsa chikhalidwe cha interactivity m'dziko lonselo, kukhala mtsogoleri wa bungwe latsopano la boma la makompyuta.
Zeze
Pa Cold War, chilichonse chinali ndi zotsatira zake. Monga momwe bomba loyamba la atomiki la Soviet lidatsogolera ku kulengedwa kwa SAGE, momwemonso , yomwe idakhazikitsidwa ndi USSR mu Okutobala 1957, idapanga machitidwe ambiri m'boma la America. Zinthu zinakulitsidwa chifukwa chakuti ngakhale kuti USSR inali zaka zinayi kumbuyo kwa United States pa nkhani yophulitsa bomba la nyukiliya, idadumphadumpha patsogolo pa anthu aku America pa mpikisano wopita ku orbit (zinapezeka kuti zinali zolondola). pafupifupi miyezi inayi).
Yankho limodzi pakutuluka kwa Sputnik 1 mu 1958 kunali kupangidwa kwa Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Mosiyana ndi ndalama zochepa zomwe zimaperekedwa kwa sayansi ya nzika, ARPA inalandira bajeti ya $ 520 miliyoni, katatu ndalama za National Science Foundation, zomwezo zinawirikiza katatu poyankha Sputnik 1.
Ngakhale bungweli limatha kugwira ntchito zingapo zodula kwambiri zomwe Mlembi wa Chitetezo adawona kuti ndizoyenera, poyamba zidali ndi chidwi choyang'ana pa rocketry ndi malo - uku kunali kuyankha motsimikiza kwa Sputnik 1. ARPA inanena mwachindunji kwa Mlembi wa Chitetezo ndipo motero inatha kukwera pamwamba pa mpikisano wotsutsana ndi mafakitale kuti apange dongosolo limodzi, lomveka bwino la chitukuko cha pulogalamu ya mlengalenga ya America. Komabe, m'malo mwake, ntchito zake zonse m'derali posakhalitsa zidatengedwa ndi adani: Air Force sinasiye kuwongolera zida zankhondo, ndipo National Aeronautics and Space Act, yomwe idasainidwa mu Julayi 1958, idapanga bungwe latsopano la anthu wamba. zomwe zinatenga nkhani zonse zokhudzana ndi mlengalenga, osati kukhudza zida. Komabe, itapangidwa, ARPA idapeza zifukwa zokhalira ndi moyo pomwe idalandira ma projekiti akuluakulu ofufuza m'malo oteteza zida zankhondo ndi kuyesa kuyesa kwa nyukiliya. Komabe, idakhalanso nsanja yogwirira ntchito yamagulu ang'onoang'ono omwe mabungwe osiyanasiyana ankhondo ankafuna kufufuza. Choncho m’malo mwa galu, kulamulira kunakhala mchira.
Ntchito yomaliza yosankhidwa inali "", chombo cha m'mlengalenga chokhala ndi injini ya nyukiliya ("ndege zophulika"). ARPA inasiya kuthandizira ndalama mu 1959 chifukwa sizikanatha kuziwona ngati china chilichonse kupatula ntchito ya anthu wamba yomwe ikugwa pansi pa NASA. Komanso, NASA sinafune kuwononga mbiri yake yoyera pochita nawo zida za nyukiliya. Gulu lankhondo la Air Force silinafune kuponya ndalama zina kuti ntchitoyi ipitirire patsogolo, koma pamapeto pake idamwalira pambuyo pa mgwirizano wa 1963 womwe unaletsa kuyesa zida za nyukiliya mumlengalenga kapena mlengalenga. Ndipo ngakhale lingalirolo linali losangalatsa kwambiri mwaukadaulo, ndizovuta kulingalira boma lililonse likupereka kuwala kobiriwira poyambitsa roketi yodzaza ndi masauzande ambiri a mabomba a nyukiliya.
Kuyamba kwa ARPA pamakompyuta kudangobwera chifukwa chosowa china chake chowongolera. Mu 1961, Air Force inali ndi zida ziwiri zosagwira ntchito m'manja mwake zomwe zimafunika kudzazidwa ndi chinachake. Pamene malo oyamba ozindikira a SAGE akuyandikira kutumizidwa, Air Force idalemba ganyu RAND Corporation ya Santa Monica, California, kuti iphunzitse anthu ogwira ntchito ndikukonzekeretsa malo oteteza mpweya wapakompyuta wa makumi awiri ndi awiri ndi mapulogalamu owongolera. Kuti achite ntchitoyi, RAND idatulutsa bungwe latsopano, Systems Development Corporation (SDC). Zomwe zinachitikira mapulogalamu a SDC zinali zofunika kwa Air Force, koma ntchito ya SAGE inali kutha ndipo analibe china chabwino choti achite. Katundu wachiwiri wopanda pake anali wokwera mtengo kwambiri wa AN/FSQ-32 kompyuta yomwe idafunsidwa kuchokera ku IBM kuti igwire ntchito ya SAGE koma pambuyo pake idawonedwa ngati yosafunikira. DoD idathana ndi mavuto onsewa popatsa ARPA ntchito yatsopano yofufuza yokhudzana ndi malo olamulira komanso thandizo la $ 6 miliyoni la SDC kuti liphunzire zovuta zapamalo olamulira pogwiritsa ntchito Q-32.
Posakhalitsa ARPA inaganiza zoyendetsa kafukufukuyu ngati gawo la Information Processing Research Division. Pa nthawi yomweyi, dipatimentiyo inalandira ntchito yatsopano - kupanga pulogalamu ya sayansi yamakhalidwe. Tsopano sizikudziwika kuti ndi zifukwa ziti, koma oyang'anira adaganiza zolemba Licklider ngati wotsogolera mapulogalamu onsewa. Mwina linali lingaliro la Gene Fubini, wotsogolera kafukufuku ku Dipatimenti ya Chitetezo, yemwe ankadziwa Leake kuchokera ku ntchito yake pa SAGE.
Monga Beranek m'masiku ake, Jack Ruina, yemwe anali mkulu wa ARPA, sankadziwa zomwe zidzamuthandize pamene adayitana Lik kuti akafunse mafunso. Amakhulupirira kuti akupeza katswiri wamakhalidwe ndi chidziwitso cha sayansi yamakompyuta. M'malo mwake, anakumana ndi mphamvu zonse za malingaliro a symbiosis ya makompyuta a anthu. Leake adanena kuti malo owongolera makompyuta angafune makompyuta olumikizirana, chifukwa chake woyendetsa wamkulu wa kafukufuku wa ARPA akuyenera kukhala wopambana pamakompyuta olumikizana. Ndipo kwa Lik izi zikutanthauza kugawana nthawi.
Kugawa nthawi
Makina ogawana nthawi adachokera ku mfundo yofanana ndi ya Wes Clark's TX: makompyuta ayenera kukhala ochezeka. Koma mosiyana ndi Clark, olimbikitsa kugawana nthawi amakhulupirira kuti munthu m'modzi sangagwiritse ntchito bwino kompyuta yonse. Wofufuza akhoza kukhala kwa mphindi zingapo ndikuwerenga zomwe zatuluka mu pulogalamuyo asanasinthe pang'ono ndikuyiyambitsanso. Ndipo panthawiyi, makompyuta sadzakhala ndi chochita, mphamvu zake zazikulu zidzakhala zopanda ntchito, ndipo zidzakhala zodula. Ngakhale mipata pakati pa makiyi a ma milliseconds mazana ambiri inkawoneka ngati phompho lalikulu la nthawi yapakompyuta yotayidwa momwe masauzande ambiri akadatha kuwerengedwa.
Mphamvu zonse zamakompyuta siziyenera kutayika ngati zitha kugawidwa pakati pa ogwiritsa ntchito ambiri. Mwa kugawanitsa chidwi cha kompyuta kuti ithandize aliyense wogwiritsa ntchito, wopanga makompyuta amatha kupha mbalame ziŵiri ndi mwala umodzi—kupereka chithunzithunzi cha kompyuta yolumikizana ndi kompyuta yomwe ili pansi pa mphamvu ya munthu wogwiritsa ntchito popanda kuwononga mphamvu yochuluka yokonza zipangizo zodula.
Lingaliro ili lidayikidwa mu SAGE, yomwe imatha kugwira ntchito zingapo nthawi imodzi, ndipo aliyense amayang'anira gawo lake la ndege. Atakumana ndi Clark, Leake nthawi yomweyo adawona kuthekera kophatikiza kulekanitsa kwa ogwiritsa ntchito a SAGE ndi ufulu wolumikizana wa TX-0 ndi TX-2 kuti apange chisakanizo chatsopano, champhamvu chomwe chidapanga maziko a kulengeza kwake kwa symbiosis yamakompyuta yamunthu, yomwe. adapereka ku Dipatimenti ya Chitetezo mu pepala lake la 1957. Dongosolo lanzerudi, kapena Forward to hybrid machine/ human thinking systems" [Sage English. - sage / pafupifupi. kumasulira]. Mu pepala ili, adalongosola makina apakompyuta a asayansi omwe amafanana kwambiri ndi SAGE, ndikulowetsamo kudzera mumfuti yamoto, ndi "kugwiritsa ntchito panthawi imodzi (kugawana nthawi yofulumira) kwa makompyuta ndi kusunga mphamvu zamakina ndi anthu ambiri."
Komabe, Leake mwiniwake analibe luso la uinjiniya kuti apange kapena kupanga dongosolo lotere. Anaphunzira zoyambira zamapulogalamu kuchokera ku BBN, koma uku kunali kukula kwa kuthekera kwake. Munthu woyamba kugwiritsa ntchito chiphunzitso chogawana nthawi anali John McCarthy, katswiri wa masamu ku MIT. McCarthy ankafunika kugwiritsa ntchito kompyuta nthawi zonse kuti apange zida ndi zitsanzo zosinthira masamu—masitepe oyambirira, omwe ankakhulupirira, kuti akhale ndi nzeru zopangapanga. Mu 1959, adapanga chojambula chomwe chinali ndi gawo lolumikizana lomwe limalumikizidwa pamakompyuta a IBM 704 a yunivesite. Chodabwitsa n'chakuti, "chipangizo chogawana nthawi" choyamba chinali ndi cholumikizira chimodzi chokha - Flexowriter teletypewriter.
Koma pofika koyambirira kwa zaka za m'ma 1960, gulu laukadaulo la MIT lidafika pakufunika kogwiritsa ntchito ndalama zambiri pamakompyuta. Wophunzira ndi mphunzitsi aliyense yemwe anali ndi chidwi ndi mapulogalamu adalumikizidwa ndi makompyuta. Kukonzekera kwa deta ya batch kunagwiritsa ntchito nthawi yamakompyuta bwino kwambiri, koma kunawononga nthawi yochuluka ya ofufuza - nthawi yochuluka yokonza ntchito pa 704 inali yoposa tsiku.
Kuti aphunzire mapulani anthawi yayitali kuti akwaniritse zomwe zikuchulukirachulukira zamakompyuta, MIT idaitanitsa komiti yapayunivesite yomwe imayang'aniridwa ndi olimbikitsa kugawana nthawi. Clark adatsutsa kuti kusuntha kwa kuyanjana sikukutanthauza kugawana nthawi. M'mawu omveka, iye anati, kugawana nthawi kumatanthauza kuthetsa mawonedwe a kanema ndi zochitika zenizeni zenizeni-zofunikira za polojekiti yomwe anali kugwira ntchito ku MIT Biophysics Lab. Koma pamlingo wofunikira kwambiri, Clark akuwoneka kuti adatsutsa kwambiri lingaliro lakugawana malo ake ogwirira ntchito. Mpaka m’chaka cha 1990, iye anakana kulumikiza kompyuta yake pa Intaneti, ponena kuti ma netiweki anali “cholakwika” ndipo “sikugwira ntchito.”
Iye ndi ophunzira ake adapanga "subculture," kakulidwe kakang'ono mkati mwa chikhalidwe chamaphunziro chomwe chinali kale pakugwiritsa ntchito makompyuta. Komabe, mikangano yawo yazigawo zing'onozing'ono zogwirira ntchito zomwe siziyenera kugawidwa ndi aliyense sizinatsimikizire anzawo. Poganizira mtengo wa makompyuta ang’onoang’ono kwambiri panthawiyo, njira imeneyi inkaoneka ngati yopanda phindu kwa mainjiniya ena. Komanso, ambiri panthaŵiyo ankakhulupirira kuti makompyuta—mafakitale anzeru a m’Nyengo Yachidziwitso yomwe ikudzayo—adzapindula ndi chuma chambiri, monga momwe makina opangira magetsi anapindulira. Kumayambiriro kwa chaka cha 1961, lipoti lomaliza la komitiyo lidavomereza kuti pakhale njira zazikulu zogawana nthawi ngati gawo lachitukuko cha MIT.
Panthawiyo, Fernando Corbato, yemwe amadziwika kuti "Corby" kwa anzake, anali akugwira ntchito kale kuti awonjezere kuyesa kwa McCarthy. Anali wasayansi pophunzitsidwa, ndipo adaphunzira zamakompyuta akugwira ntchito ku Whirlwind mu 1951, akadali wophunzira ku MIT (m'modzi yekha mwa omwe adatenga nawo mbali m'nkhaniyi kuti apulumuke - mu January 2019 anali ndi zaka 92). Atamaliza maphunziro ake a udokotala, adakhala woyang'anira pa MIT Computing Center yomwe idangopangidwa kumene, yomwe idamangidwa pa IBM 704. Corbato ndi gulu lake (poyamba Marge Merwin ndi Bob Daly, awiri mwa mapulogalamu apamwamba apakati) adatcha dongosolo lawo logawana nthawi CTSS ( Compatible Time-Sharing System, "compatible time-sharing system") - chifukwa imatha kuyenda nthawi imodzi ndi 704's normal workflow, kungotengera makompyuta kwa ogwiritsa ntchito pakufunika. Popanda kugwirizanitsa izi, polojekitiyi sikanatheka, popeza Corby analibe ndalama zogulira kompyuta yatsopano kuti apange dongosolo logawana nthawi kuyambira pachiyambi, ndipo ntchito zomwe zilipo kale sizikanatha kutsekedwa.
Pofika kumapeto kwa 1961, CTSS imatha kuthandizira ma terminals anayi. Pofika m'chaka cha 1963, MIT inaika makope awiri a CTSS pamakina a transistorized IBM 7094 omwe amawononga $ 3,5 miliyoni, pafupifupi ka 10 mphamvu ya kukumbukira ndi mphamvu ya purosesa ya 704s yapitayi. Pulogalamu yowunikira idazungulira ogwiritsa ntchito, ndikutumizira aliyense kwa mphindi imodzi isanapitirire ku ina. Ogwiritsa ntchito amatha kusunga mapulogalamu ndi deta kuti agwiritse ntchito pambuyo pake m'malo awo otetezedwa ndi mawu achinsinsi osungira disk.
Corbato atavala siginecha yake utaye muchipinda cha kompyuta ndi IBM 7094
Corby akufotokoza momwe kugawana nthawi kumagwirira ntchito, kuphatikiza mzere wa magawo awiri, mu kanema wawayilesi wa 1963.
Kompyuta iliyonse imatha kukhala ndi ma terminals pafupifupi 20. Izi zinali zokwanira osati kungothandizira zipinda zazing'ono zingapo, komanso kugawa makompyuta ku Cambridge. Corby ndi mainjiniya ena ofunikira anali ndi ma terminal awo muofesi, ndipo nthawi ina MIT idayamba kupereka malo opangira nyumba kwa ogwira ntchito zaukadaulo kuti athe kugwira ntchito pamakina pambuyo pa maola osapita kuntchito. Ma terminal onse oyambilira anali ndi taipi yosinthidwa yomwe imatha kuwerenga zambiri ndikuzitulutsa patelefoni, ndikubaya mapepala osalekeza. Ma modemuwo adalumikiza ma telefoni ku bolodi lachinsinsi pa kampasi ya MIT, momwe amalumikizirana ndi kompyuta ya CTSS. Motero kompyutayo inkakulitsa mphamvu zake zozindikira kudzera pa telefoni ndi zizindikiro zomwe zinasintha kuchoka pa digito kupita ku analogi ndi kubwereranso. Iyi inali gawo loyamba la kuphatikiza makompyuta ndi netiweki yamatelefoni. Kuphatikizikako kudayendetsedwa ndi malo otsutsana a AT&T. Pakatikati pa intanetiyi idayendetsedwabe, ndipo kampaniyo idafunikira kupereka mizere yobwereketsa pamitengo yokhazikika, koma zisankho zingapo za FCC zidasokoneza ulamuliro wa kampaniyo pamphepete, ndipo kampaniyo inalibe chonena pang'ono polumikiza zida ndi mizere yake. Chifukwa chake, MIT sinafune chilolezo pama terminal.
Makina apakompyuta apakatikati azaka za m'ma 1960: IBM 2741.
Cholinga chachikulu cha Licklider, McCarthy, ndi Corbato chinali kuonjezera kupezeka kwa mphamvu zamakompyuta kwa ofufuza payekha. Adasankha zida zawo ndikugawa nthawi pazifukwa zachuma: palibe amene angaganize kugula kompyuta yake kwa wofufuza aliyense ku MIT. Komabe, kusankha kumeneku kunadzetsa zotsatira zosayembekezereka zomwe sizikanatheka kuzindikirika mu paradigm ya munthu mmodzi wa Clark, pakompyuta imodzi. Mafayilo omwe amagawana nawo komanso kuphatikizika kwamaakaunti a ogwiritsa ntchito adawalola kugawana, kugwirira ntchito limodzi, ndikukwaniritsa ntchito ya wina ndi mnzake. Mu 1965, Noel Morris ndi Tom van Vleck anafulumizitsa mgwirizano ndi kulankhulana popanga pulogalamu ya MAIL, yomwe inalola ogwiritsa ntchito kusinthana mauthenga. Wogwiritsa ntchito akatumiza uthenga, pulogalamuyo inkatumiza ku fayilo yapadera ya bokosi la makalata m'dera la fayilo ya wolandira. Ngati fayiloyi inalibe kanthu, pulogalamu ya LOGIN ikadawonetsa uthenga wakuti "MULI NDI MAIL." Zomwe zili m'makinawa zidakhala ziwonetsero za zomwe gulu la ogwiritsa ntchito, ndipo gawo ili logawana nthawi ku MIT lidakhala lofunika kwambiri monga lingaliro loyambirira la kugwiritsa ntchito makompyuta.
Mbewu zosiyidwa
Leake, kuvomera zomwe ARPA idapereka ndikusiya BBN kuti itsogolere Ofesi Yatsopano ya Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) ya ARPA mu 1962, mwachangu adayamba kuchita zomwe adalonjeza: kuyang'ana zoyesayesa zamakampani pakufufuza ndikuwongolera kugawana nthawi ndi mapulogalamu. Anasiya mchitidwe wanthawi zonse wokonza malingaliro ofufuza omwe angabwere pa desiki yake ndikupita kumunda yekha, kukopa mainjiniya kuti apange malingaliro ofufuza omwe angafune kuvomereza.
Gawo lake loyamba linali kukonzanso ntchito yofufuza yomwe ilipo ku malo olamulira a SDC ku Santa Monica. Lamulo linachokera ku ofesi ya Lick ku SDC kuti lichepetse zoyesayesa za kafukufukuyu ndikuyang'ana kwambiri pakusintha kompyuta yosowa ya SAGE kukhala njira yogawana nthawi. Leake ankakhulupirira kuti maziko a kugawana nthawi ndi makina a anthu amayenera kukhazikitsidwa poyamba, ndipo malo olamulira adzabwera pambuyo pake. Kuti kuika patsogolo koteroko kumagwirizana ndi zofuna zake zafilosofi zinali chabe ngozi yosangalatsa. Jules Schwartz, msilikali wakale wa polojekiti ya SAGE, anali kupanga njira yatsopano yogawana nthawi. Monga CTSS yake yamakono, idakhala malo osonkhanirapo, ndipo malamulo ake adaphatikiza ntchito ya DIAL potumiza mauthenga achinsinsi kuchokera kwa wogwiritsa ntchito wina kupita kwa wina - monga momwe zilili m'chitsanzo chotsatirachi kusinthana pakati pa Jon Jones ndi id 9.
DIAL 9 UYU NDI JOHN JONES, NDIKUFUNA 20K KUTI NDIKWEZE PROG LANGA
KUCHOKERA PA 9 TIKUYAMBIRA MU Mphindi 5.
KUCHOKERA PA 9 PITIRIZANI NDIKUKHALITSA
DIAL 9 UYU NDI JOHN JONES NDIKUFUNA 20K KUTI NDIYAMBITSE PROGRAM
KUCHOKERA PA 9 TIKUPATSANI KWA INU MU Mphindi 5
KUYAMBIRA 9 KUYANKHULA KWAMBIRI
Kenako, kuti apeze ndalama zothandizira ntchito zogawana nthawi zamtsogolo ku MIT, Licklider adapeza Robert Fano kuti atsogolere ntchito yake yayikulu: Project MAC, yomwe idapulumuka mpaka zaka za m'ma 1970 (MAC inali ndi zidule zambiri - "masamu ndi kuwerengera", "makompyuta ambiri ofikira" , "Kuzindikira mothandizidwa ndi makina" [Masamu ndi Kuwerengera, Makompyuta Ofikira Angapo, Chidziwitso Chothandizira Makina]). Ngakhale kuti okonzawo akuyembekeza kuti dongosolo latsopanoli lidzatha kuthandizira osachepera 200 ogwiritsa ntchito nthawi imodzi, iwo sanaganizire zovuta zomwe zikuchulukirachulukira za mapulogalamu ogwiritsira ntchito, zomwe zimatengera mosavuta kusintha konse mu liwiro ndi mphamvu ya hardware. Pomwe idakhazikitsidwa ku MIT mu 1969, makinawa amatha kuthandizira ogwiritsa ntchito pafupifupi 60 pogwiritsa ntchito magawo ake awiri apakati, omwe anali pafupifupi owerengeka omwewo pa purosesa monga CTSS. Komabe, chiwerengero chonse cha ogwiritsa ntchito chinali chokulirapo kuposa katundu wokwanira - mu June 1970, ogwiritsa ntchito 408 anali atalembetsedwa kale.
Pulogalamu yamakina a polojekitiyi, yotchedwa Multics, idadzitamandira zosintha zazikulu, zina zomwe zimaganiziridwabe kukhala zotsogola m'machitidwe amasiku ano: dongosolo lamafayilo lopangidwa ndimitengo yokhala ndi zikwatu zomwe zitha kukhala ndi zikwatu zina; kulekanitsa kuphedwa kwa lamulo kuchokera kwa wogwiritsa ntchito ndi dongosolo pa mlingo wa hardware; kulunzanitsa kwamphamvu kwamapulogalamu ndikutsitsa ma module a pulogalamu panthawi yoyeserera ngati pakufunika; kuthekera kowonjezera kapena kuchotsa ma CPU, mabanki okumbukira kapena ma disks popanda kutseka dongosolo. Ken Thompson ndi Dennis Ritchie, okonza mapulogalamu a Multics, pambuyo pake adapanga Unix OS (yemwe dzina lake limatanthawuza koyambirira kwake) kuti abweretse ena mwa malingaliro awa kumakompyuta osavuta, ang'onoang'ono [Dzina "UNIX" (poyamba "Unics" ) adachokera ku "Multics". "U" mu UNIX imayimira "Uniplexed" m'malo mwa "Multiplexed" yomwe ili pansi pa dzina la Multics, kuwunikira kuyesa kwa omwe amapanga UNIX kuchoka pazovuta za Multics system kuti apange njira yosavuta komanso yothandiza kwambiri.] .
Lick anabzala mbewu yake yomaliza ku Berkeley, ku yunivesite ya California. Kuyambira mu 1963, Project Genie12 idatulutsa Berkeley Timesharing System, kabuku kakang'ono ka Project MAC. Ngakhale idayendetsedwa mwadzina ndi mamembala angapo a yunivesite, idayendetsedwa ndi wophunzira Mel Peirtle, mothandizidwa ndi ophunzira ena - makamaka Chuck Tucker, Peter Deutsch, ndi Butler Lampson. Ena aiwo anali atagwira kale kachilombo koyambitsa matenda ku Cambridge asanafike ku Berkeley. Deutsch, mwana wa pulofesa wa sayansi ya MIT komanso wokonda kujambula pakompyuta, adagwiritsa ntchito chilankhulo cha Lisp pa Digital PDP-1 ali wachinyamata asanaphunzire ku Berkeley. Lampson adakonza PDP-1 ku Cambridge Electron Accelerator ali wophunzira ku Harvard. Pairtle ndi gulu lake adapanga njira yogawana nthawi pa SDS 930 yopangidwa ndi Scientific Data Systems, kampani yatsopano yamakompyuta yomwe idakhazikitsidwa ku Santa Monica mu 1961 (kupita patsogolo kwaukadaulo komwe kumachitika ku Santa Monica panthawiyo kungakhale nkhani yosiyana kwambiri. Zothandizira paukadaulo waukadaulo wamakompyuta mzaka za m'ma 1960 zidapangidwa ndi RAND Corporation, SDC, ndi SDS, zonse zomwe zinali ku likulu lake kumeneko).
SDS inaphatikiza mapulogalamu a Berkeley mu mapangidwe ake atsopano, SDS 940. Inakhala imodzi mwa makompyuta otchuka kwambiri ogawana nthawi kumapeto kwa zaka za m'ma 1960. Tymshare ndi Comshare, omwe adachita malonda kugawana nthawi pogulitsa ntchito zamakompyuta akutali, adagula ma SDS 940s ambiri. Pyrtle ndi gulu lake adaganizanso kuyesa dzanja lawo pamsika wamalonda ndipo adayambitsa Berkeley Computer Corporation (BCC) mu 1968, koma panthawi yachuma. ya 1969-1970 idasumira ku bankirapuse. Ambiri mwa gulu la Peirtle adakafika ku Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), komwe Tucker, Deutsch, ndi Lampson adathandizira ntchito zazikuluzikulu kuphatikiza malo ogwirira ntchito a Alto, ma network amderali, ndi chosindikizira cha laser.
Mel Peirtle (pakati) pafupi ndi Berkeley Timesharing System
Zachidziwikire, si ntchito iliyonse yogawana nthawi kuyambira m'ma 1960 yomwe idachitika chifukwa cha Licklider. Nkhani za zomwe zikuchitika ku MIT ndi Lincoln Laboratories zidafalikira kudzera m'mabuku aukadaulo, misonkhano, kulumikizana kwamaphunziro, komanso kusintha kwantchito. Chifukwa cha ngalandezi, mbewu zina zonyamulidwa ndi mphepo zinamera mizu. Ku yunivesite ya Illinois, Don Bitzer anagulitsa dongosolo lake la PLATO ku Dipatimenti ya Chitetezo, yomwe inkayenera kuchepetsa mtengo wa maphunziro apamwamba kwa asilikali. Clifford Shaw adapanga JOHNNIAC Open Shop System yothandizidwa ndi Air Force (JOSS) kuti apititse patsogolo luso la ogwira ntchito ku RAND kuti athe kusanthula manambala mwachangu. Dongosolo logawana nthawi la Dartmouth linali logwirizana mwachindunji ndi zochitika ku MIT, koma apo ayi inali ntchito yapadera kwambiri, yothandizidwa ndi anthu wamba kuchokera ku National Science Foundation poganiza kuti chidziwitso cha makompyuta chingakhale gawo lofunikira la maphunziro a atsogoleri aku US. m'badwo wotsatira.
Podzafika pakati pa zaka za m'ma 1960, kugawana nthawi kunali kusanatengeretu chilengedwe cha makompyuta. Mabizinesi achikhalidwe opangira ma batch adatsogola pakugulitsa komanso kutchuka, makamaka kumasukulu aku koleji. Koma idapezabe mwayi wake.
Ofesi ya Taylor
M’chilimwe cha 1964, pafupifupi zaka ziwiri atafika ku ARPA, Licklider anasinthanso ntchito, ulendo uno akusamukira ku malo ofufuza a IBM kumpoto kwa New York. Atadabwa ndi kutayika kwa mgwirizano wa Project MAC wotsutsana ndi wopanga makompyuta General Electric pambuyo pa zaka zambiri za ubale wabwino ndi MIT, Leake anayenera kupatsa IBM chidziwitso chake choyamba cha zomwe zinkawoneka ngati zikudutsa kampaniyo. Kwa Leake, ntchito yatsopanoyi idapereka mwayi woti asinthe malo omaliza opangira ma batch achikhalidwe kukhala chikhulupiriro chatsopano cholumikizirana (koma sizinaphule kanthu - Leake adakankhidwira kumbuyo, ndipo mkazi wake adavutika, ali yekhayekha ku Yorktown Heights. Adasamukira ku ofesi ya Cambridge ya IBM, kenako adabwerera ku MIT mu 1967 kukatsogolera Project MAC).
Adasinthidwa kukhala mutu wa IPTO ndi Ivan Sutherland, katswiri wachinyamata wazithunzi zamakompyuta, yemwenso adasinthidwa mu 1966 ndi Robert Taylor. Pepala la Lick la 1960 "Symbiosis of Man and Machine" linatembenuza Taylor kukhala wokhulupirira makompyuta ogwirizana, ndipo malingaliro a Lick adamubweretsa ku ARPA atagwira ntchito mwachidule pa kafukufuku wa NASA. Umunthu wake ndi zomwe adakumana nazo zidamupangitsa kukhala ngati Leake kuposa Sutherland. Katswiri wa zamaganizo pophunzitsidwa, analibe chidziwitso chaukadaulo pamakompyuta, koma adalipira kusowa kwake ndi chidwi komanso utsogoleri wodalirika.
Tsiku lina, Taylor ali mu ofesi yake, mtsogoleri watsopano wa IPTO anali ndi lingaliro. Anakhala pa desiki yokhala ndi ma terminals atatu osiyanasiyana omwe amamulola kuti azilankhulana ndi machitidwe atatu ogawana nthawi ndi ARPA omwe ali ku Cambridge, Berkeley ndi Santa Monica. Panthawi imodzimodziyo, iwo sanali ogwirizana wina ndi mzake - kuti atumize chidziwitso kuchokera ku dongosolo lina kupita ku lina, anayenera kuchita yekha, mwakuthupi, pogwiritsa ntchito thupi ndi malingaliro ake.
Mbeu zoponyedwa ndi Licklider zinabala zipatso. Adapanga gulu la anthu ogwira ntchito ku IPTO lomwe lidakula kukhala malo ena ambiri apakompyuta, chilichonse chomwe chidapanga gulu laling'ono la akatswiri apakompyuta omwe adasonkhana pakatikati pa kompyuta yogawana nthawi. Taylor adaganiza kuti inali nthawi yolumikizana ndi malowa. Mapangidwe awo amtundu wa anthu ndi luso, akalumikizidwa, adzatha kupanga mtundu wa superorganism, ma rhizomes omwe adzafalikira ku kontinenti yonse, kubereka phindu la chikhalidwe cha kugawana nthawi pamlingo wapamwamba. Ndipo ndi lingaliro ili linayamba nkhondo zamakono ndi zandale zomwe zinayambitsa kulengedwa kwa ARPANET.
Chinanso choti muwerenge
- Richard J. Barber Associates, The Advanced Research Projects Agency, 1958-1974 (1975)
- Katie Hafner ndi Matthew Lyon, Kumene Wizards Amakhala Mochedwa: The Origins of the Internet (1996)
- Severo M. Ornstein, Computing in the Middle Ages: A View From the Trenches, 1955-1983 (2002)
- M. Mitchell Waldrop, The Dream Machine: JCR Licklider ndi Revolution That Made Computing Personal (2001)
Source: www.habr.com