Nkhani zina pamndandanda:
- Mbiri ya relay
- Mbiri yamakompyuta apakompyuta
- Mbiri ya transistor
- Mbiri ya intaneti
The crucible of war inakhazikitsa maziko a kubwera kwa transistor. Kuchokera mu 1939 mpaka 1945, chidziwitso cha luso la semiconductors chinakula kwambiri. Ndipo panali chifukwa chimodzi chophweka cha izi: radar. Ukadaulo wofunikira kwambiri wankhondo, zitsanzo zomwe zikuphatikizapo: kuzindikira ziwopsezo zamlengalenga, kufunafuna zombo zapamadzi, kutsogolera ziwopsezo zausiku ku zolinga, kuyang'ana machitidwe oteteza ndege ndi mfuti zapamadzi. Mainjiniya aphunziranso momwe anganyamulire tinyanga tating'onoting'ono tokhala ndi zipolopolo za mfuti kotero kuti amaphulika akamawulukira pafupi ndi komwe akufuna - . Komabe, gwero la luso latsopano lamphamvu lankhondo limeneli linali m’munda wamtendere kwambiri: kuphunzira za mlengalenga wakumwamba kaamba ka zifuno za sayansi.
Radar
Mu 1901, kampani ya Marconi Wireless Telegraph inafalitsa bwino uthenga wopanda zingwe kudutsa nyanja ya Atlantic, kuchokera ku Cornwall kupita ku Newfoundland. Mfundo imeneyi yasokoneza sayansi yamakono. Ngati mawayilesi ayenda molunjika (momwe amayenera), kufalitsa koteroko kuyenera kukhala kosatheka. Palibe mzere wolunjika pakati pa England ndi Canada womwe sudutsa Padziko Lapansi, kotero uthenga wa Marconi umayenera kuwuluka mumlengalenga. American injiniya Arthur Kennealy ndi British wasayansi Oliver Heaviside imodzi ndi paokha ananena kuti kufotokoza chodabwitsa ichi ayenera kugwirizana ndi wosanjikiza mpweya ionized ili kumtunda mlengalenga, wokhoza kusonyeza mafunde wailesi kubwerera ku Dziko Lapansi (Marconi yekha ankakhulupirira kuti mafunde wailesi). kutsatira kupindika kwa dziko lapansi, komabe akatswiri asayansi sanachirikize).
Pofika m'zaka za m'ma 1920, asayansi adapanga zida zatsopano zomwe zidapangitsa kuti zitsimikizire kuti ionosphere ilipo, kenako ndikuphunzira momwe idapangidwira. Anagwiritsa ntchito machubu opukutira kuti apange mawayilesi afupiafupi, tinyanga tolunjika kuti tiziwatumiza mumlengalenga ndikujambulitsa ma echo, ndi kusonyeza zotsatira. Kutalikirapo kuchedwa kwa echo kubwerera, ndipamenenso ionosphere iyenera kukhala kutali. Tekinolojeyi inkatchedwa kulira kwamlengalenga, ndipo idapereka zida zoyambira zaukadaulo zopangira radar (mawu oti "radar", kuchokera ku RAdio Detection And Ranging, sanawonekere mpaka 1940s ku US Navy).
Panangotsala kanthawi kochepa kuti anthu omwe ali ndi chidziwitso choyenera, zothandizira komanso zolimbikitsa azindikire kuthekera kogwiritsa ntchito zida zapadziko lapansi (motero mbiri ya radar ndi yosiyana ndi mbiri ya telescope, yomwe poyamba idapangidwira kuti igwiritsidwe ntchito padziko lapansi) . Ndipo kuthekera kwa kuzindikira kotereku kudakula pomwe wailesi idafalikira padziko lonse lapansi, ndipo anthu ambiri adawona kusokoneza komwe kumachokera ku zombo zapafupi, ndege ndi zinthu zina zazikulu. Chidziwitso cha matekinoloje omveka bwino omveka m'mlengalenga chinafalikira panthawi yachiwiri (1932-1933), pamene asayansi analemba mapu a ionosphere kuchokera kumalo osiyanasiyana a Arctic. Posakhalitsa, magulu ku Britain, USA, Germany, Italy, USSR ndi mayiko ena anapanga makina awo osavuta radar.
ndi radar yake ya 1935
Kenako nkhondo inachitika, ndipo kufunika kwa ma radar kumayiko—ndi chuma chowatukula—kunakula kwambiri. Ku United States, zinthuzi zidasonkhana pafupi ndi bungwe latsopano lomwe linakhazikitsidwa mu 1940 ku MIT, lotchedwa (anatchulidwa kuti makamaka kuti asocheretse azondi akunja ndikupanga kuganiza kuti radioactivity ikuphunziridwa mu labotale - panthawiyo anthu ochepa ankakhulupirira mabomba a atomiki). Ntchito ya Rad Lab, yomwe siinatchuke ngati Manhattan Project, idalembanso akatswiri asayansi apamwamba komanso aluso ochokera ku United States konse. Asanu mwa antchito oyamba a labotale (kuphatikiza и ) pambuyo pake adalandira Mphotho za Nobel. Pofika kumapeto kwa nkhondoyo, pafupifupi madokotala 500 asayansi, asayansi ndi mainjiniya anagwira ntchito m’labotale, ndipo anthu okwana 4000 anagwira ntchito. Madola theka la miliyoni-kufanana ndi bajeti yonse ya ENIAC-inagwiritsidwa ntchito pa Radiation Laboratory Series yokha, zolemba makumi awiri ndi zisanu ndi ziwiri za chidziwitso chonse chomwe chinapezedwa kuchokera ku labotale pa nthawi ya nkhondo (ngakhale kuti ndalama za boma la US pa luso la radar sizinali zochepa. ku bajeti ya Rad Lab ; panthawi ya nkhondo boma linagula ma radar okwana madola mabiliyoni atatu).
MIT Building 20, komwe kunali Rad Lab
Chimodzi mwazinthu zazikulu za kafukufuku wa Rad Lab chinali radar yothamanga kwambiri. Ma radar oyambirira ankagwiritsa ntchito mafunde a kutalika kwa mamita. Koma matabwa okwera kwambiri okhala ndi kutalika kwa mafunde omwe amayezedwa mu ma centimita — ma microwave — amalola tinyanga tating’ono tating’ono ndipo sanali amwazikana pa mtunda wautali, kulonjeza ubwino wokulirapo ndi kulondola. Ma radar a microwave amatha kulowa m'mphuno ya ndege ndi kuzindikira zinthu zazikulu ngati periscope ya sitima yapamadzi.
Woyamba kuthetsa vutoli anali gulu la akatswiri a sayansi ya ku Britain ochokera ku yunivesite ya Birmingham. Mu 1940 adapanga "", yomwe inkagwira ntchito ngati "mluzu" wamagetsi, kutembenuza kugunda kwamagetsi kwachisawawa kukhala mtengo wamphamvu komanso wokonzedwa bwino wa ma microwave. Chotengera ichi cha microwave chinali champhamvu kuwirikiza chikwi kuposa wopikisana naye wapafupi; idatsegula njira yopangira zida zotumizira ma radar othamanga kwambiri. Komabe, ankafunika bwenzi, wolandira wokhoza kuzindikira ma frequency apamwamba. Ndipo panthawiyi tikubwerera ku mbiri ya semiconductors.
Magnetron cross-gawo
Kubweranso kwachiwiri kwa ndevu za mphaka
Zinapezeka kuti machubu a vacuum sanali oyenera kulandira ma siginecha a radar ya microwave. Kusiyana pakati pa cathode yotentha ndi anode yozizira kumapanga capacitance, kuchititsa kuti dera likane kugwira ntchito pamaulendo apamwamba. Ukadaulo wabwino kwambiri womwe umapezeka pa radar yothamanga kwambiri unali wachikale ""- kachidutswa kakang'ono ka waya woponderezedwa ndi semiconductor crystal. Anthu angapo apeza izi paokha, koma chapafupi kwambiri ndi nkhani yathu ndi zomwe zidachitika ku New Jersey.
Mu 1938, Bell Labs inagwirizana ndi Navy kuti apange radar yoyang'anira moto pamtunda wa 40 cm-yaifupi kwambiri, motero imakhala yokwera kwambiri, kusiyana ndi ma radar omwe analipo mu nthawi ya pre-resonant magnetron. Ntchito yayikulu yofufuza idapita kugawo la ma laboratories ku Holmdel, kumwera kwa Staten Island. Sizinatengere nthawi kuti ochita kafukufukuwo adziwe zomwe angafune kuti alandire makina othamanga kwambiri, ndipo posakhalitsa injiniya George Southworth anali akufufuza m'masitolo a wailesi ku Manhattan kuti apeze zida zakale za mashavu amphaka. Monga momwe zimayembekezeredwa, zinagwira ntchito bwino kwambiri kuposa chowunikira nyali, koma zinali zosakhazikika. Chifukwa chake Southworth adafunafuna katswiri wamagetsi dzina lake Russell Ohl ndikumupempha kuti ayese kuwongolera kufanana kwa kuyankha kwa chowunikira chimodzi cha kristalo.
Ol anali munthu wachilendo, amene ankaona kuti chitukuko cha teknoloji ndi tsogolo lake, ndipo ankalankhula za chidziwitso cha nthawi ndi nthawi ndi masomphenya amtsogolo. Mwachitsanzo, iye ananena kuti kalelo mu 1939 anadziŵa za kupangidwa kwa mtsogolo kwa silicon amplifier, koma tsoka limenelo linali lakuti munthu wina adzalitulukira. Ataphunzira zambiri, adakhazikika pa silicon ngati chinthu chabwino kwambiri kwa olandila aku Southworth. Vuto linali luso lotha kuwongolera zomwe zili muzinthuzo kuti zithetse mphamvu zake zamagetsi. Pa nthawi imeneyo, mafakitale silicon ingots anali ponseponse; iwo ankagwiritsidwa ntchito mu mphero zitsulo, koma kupanga kotero palibe amene ankavutika, kunena, zili 1% phosphorous mu pakachitsulo. Popempha thandizo kwa akatswiri angapo a metallurgists, Ol anayamba kupeza malo opanda kanthu oyeretsa kwambiri kuposa momwe anali kuchitira poyamba.
Pamene ankagwira ntchito, adapeza kuti makhiristo awo ena amawongolera zamakono mbali imodzi, pamene ena amakonza zamakono kumalo ena. Iwo ankawatcha "n-type" ndi "p-type". Kufufuza kwina kunasonyeza kuti mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya zonyansa inali ndi udindo wa mitundu imeneyi. Silicon ili mu gawo lachinayi la tebulo la periodic, kutanthauza kuti ili ndi ma elekitironi anayi mu chipolopolo chake chakunja. Mu silicon yoyera yopanda kanthu, ma elekitironi onsewa amaphatikizana ndi mnansi. Zonyansa zochokera pagawo lachitatu, tinene kuti boron, yomwe ili ndi electron yocheperapo, idapanga "dzenje," malo owonjezera akuyenda kwakali mu kristalo. Chotsatira chake chinali semiconductor yamtundu wa p (ndi ndalama zochulukirapo). Zinthu zochokera pagawo lachisanu, monga phosphorous, zinapereka ma elekitironi owonjezera aulere kuti azinyamula zamakono, ndipo semiconductor yamtundu wa n inapezedwa.
Kapangidwe ka kristalo ka silicon
Kufufuza konseku kunali kosangalatsa kwambiri, koma pofika 1940 Southworth ndi Ohl sanali pafupi kupanga chithunzi chogwira ntchito cha radar yothamanga kwambiri. Panthawi imodzimodziyo, boma la Britain linafuna zotsatira zofulumira chifukwa cha chiwopsezo chomwe chikubwera kuchokera ku Luftwaffe, yomwe inali itapanga kale zida zowunikira ma microwave zomwe zimagwira ntchito limodzi ndi ma transmitters a magnetron.
Komabe, kupita patsogolo kwaukadaulo posachedwa kulowera chakumadzulo kwa Atlantic. Churchill adaganiza zowulula zinsinsi zonse zaku Britain kwa Achimerika asanalowe kunkhondo (popeza adaganiza kuti izi zichitikabe). Ankakhulupirira kuti kunali koyenera kuwononga chidziwitso, popeza mphamvu zonse za mafakitale za United States zidzaponyedwa kuthetsa mavuto monga zida za atomiki ndi ma radar. British Science and Technology Mission (yodziwika bwino monga ) anafika ku Washington mu September 1940 ndipo anabweretsera chikwama chake mphatso yodabwitsa kwambiri yaumisiri.
Kupezeka kwa mphamvu yodabwitsa ya maginito omveka komanso mphamvu ya makina ojambulira magalasi aku Britain polandira chizindikiro chake kunatsitsimutsa kafukufuku waku America mu semiconductors monga maziko a rada yapamwamba kwambiri. Panali ntchito yambiri yoti ichitidwe, makamaka pankhani ya sayansi ya zinthu. Kuti akwaniritse zofunikira, makristalo a semiconductor "anayenera kupangidwa m'mamiliyoni, ochulukirapo kuposa momwe anali kotheka m'mbuyomu. Zinali zofunikira kukonza kukonzanso, kuchepetsa kugwedezeka kwadzidzidzi ndi kutentha mkati, ndi kuchepetsa kusiyana pakati pa magulu osiyanasiyana a makhiristo. "
Silicon Point Contact Rectifier
Rad Lab yatsegula madipatimenti atsopano ofufuza kuti aphunzire zamtundu wa makristasi a semiconductor ndi momwe angasinthidwe kuti apititse patsogolo katundu wamtengo wapatali wolandila. Zida zodalirika kwambiri zinali silicon ndi germanium, kotero Rad Lab inaganiza kuti ikhale yotetezeka ndipo inayambitsa mapulogalamu ofanana kuti aphunzire zonse ziwiri: silicon ku yunivesite ya Pennsylvania ndi germanium ku Purdue. Zimphona zazikulu zamakampani monga Bell, Westinghouse, Du Pont, ndi Sylvania zinayambitsa mapulogalamu awoawo ofufuza a semiconductor ndikuyamba kupanga zida zatsopano zopangira makina ojambulira ma crystal.
Kupyolera mu mgwirizano, chiyero cha silicon ndi germanium crystals chinakwezedwa kuchokera 99% pachiyambi mpaka 99,999% - ndiko kuti, ku chinthu chimodzi chodetsedwa pa maatomu 100. Pochita izi, gulu la asayansi ndi akatswiri adadziwa bwino za germanium ndi silicon ndikugwiritsa ntchito matekinoloje owongolera: kusungunula, kukula kwa makhiristo, ndikuwonjezera zonyansa (monga boron, zomwe zimawonjezera madutsidwe).
Ndiyeno nkhondoyo inatha. Kufunika kwa radar kunazimiririka, koma chidziwitso ndi luso lomwe adapeza pankhondoyo zidatsalira, ndipo maloto a amplifier olimba sanayiwale. Tsopano mpikisano unali kupanga amplifier yotere. Ndipo matimu osachepera atatu anali pamalo abwino kuti apambane mphoto imeneyi.
West Lafayette
Woyamba anali gulu lochokera ku yunivesite ya Purdue lotsogozedwa ndi wasayansi wobadwira ku Austria wotchedwa Carl Lark-Horowitz. Iye yekha adatulutsa dipatimenti ya sayansi ya yunivesite kuti asadziwike chifukwa cha luso lake ndi chikoka chake ndipo adakhudza lingaliro la Rad Lab lopereka labotale yake ndi kafukufuku wa germanium.
Carl Lark-Horowitz mu 1947, pakati, atanyamula chitoliro
Pofika kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1940, silicon inkaonedwa kuti ndi yabwino kwambiri yopangira radar rectifiers, koma zinthu zomwe zili pansipa pa tebulo la periodic zinkawoneka kuti ndizoyeneranso kuphunzira. Germanium inali ndi ubwino wothandiza chifukwa cha kusungunuka kwake kochepa, zomwe zinapangitsa kuti zikhale zosavuta kugwira ntchito: pafupifupi madigiri 940, poyerekeza ndi madigiri a 1400 a silicon (pafupifupi mofanana ndi chitsulo). Chifukwa cha kusungunuka kwakukulu, zinali zovuta kwambiri kupanga chopanda kanthu chomwe sichingalowe mu silicon yosungunuka, kuipitsa.
Choncho, Lark-Horowitz ndi anzake anathera nkhondo yonse kuphunzira mankhwala, magetsi ndi thupi katundu germanium. Chopinga chofunikira kwambiri chinali "reverse voltage": owongolera ma germanium, pamagetsi otsika kwambiri, adasiya kuwongolera zomwe zikuchitika ndikuzilola kuti ziziyenda kwina. Kuthamanga kwapambuyoku kunawotcha zigawo zotsalira za radar. Mmodzi mwa ophunzira omaliza maphunziro a Lark-Horowitz, Seymour Benzer, adaphunzira vutoli kwa nthawi yopitilira chaka chimodzi, ndipo pamapeto pake adapanga chowonjezera chokhala ndi malata chomwe chimayimitsa kusinthasintha kwa ma volt opitilira mazana ambiri. Posakhalitsa, Western Electric, gawo lopanga la Bell Labs, lidayamba kutulutsa zida za Benzer kuti zigwiritsidwe ntchito pankhondo.
Kuphunzira za germanium ku Purdue kunapitilira nkhondo itatha. Mu June 1947, Benzer, yemwe anali pulofesa kale, adanena zachilendo chachilendo: muzoyesera zina, ma oscillation apamwamba kwambiri adawonekera mu makhiristo a germanium. Ndipo mnzake Ralph Bray anapitiriza kuphunzira "volumetric resistance" pa ntchito yomwe inayamba pa nthawi ya nkhondo. Kukana kwa voliyumu kunafotokozera momwe magetsi amayendera mu germanium crystal pamalo olumikizirana ndi rectifier. Bray adapeza kuti kugunda kwamphamvu kwamagetsi kumachepetsa kwambiri kukana kwa mtundu wa n-germanium kumayendedwe awa. Popanda kudziwa, adawona zomwe zimatchedwa. onyamula "ochepa". Mu ma semiconductors amtundu wa n, ndalama zochulukirapo zimakhala ngati chonyamulira chambiri, koma "mabowo" abwino amathanso kunyamula zamakono, ndipo pakadali pano, mafunde amphamvu kwambiri adapanga mabowo pamapangidwe a germanium, zomwe zimapangitsa kuti onyamula ochepa awonekere. .
Bray ndi Benzer adayandikira modabwitsa ndi amplifier ya germanium osazindikira. Benzer adagwira Walter Brattain, wasayansi wa Bell Labs, pamsonkhano mu Januwale 1948 kuti akambirane naye kukoka kwa volumetric. Anapereka lingaliro lakuti Brattain aikenso mfundo ina pafupi ndi yoyamba imene ingathe kuchititsa mafunde amakono, ndiyeno iwo angamvetse zimene zikuchitika pansi pake. Brattain anavomera mwakachetechete za nkhaniyi ndipo anachoka. Monga momwe tionere, iye ankadziŵa bwino lomwe zimene kuyesa koteroko kungavumbule.
Oney-sous-Bois
Gulu la Purdue linali ndi ukadaulo komanso maziko amalingaliro kuti alumphire ku transistor. Koma akanangopunthwa mwangozi. Iwo anali ndi chidwi ndi zinthu zakuthupi zakuthupi, osati kufunafuna mtundu watsopano wa chipangizo. Mkhalidwe wosiyana kwambiri unalipo ku Aunes-sous-Bois (France), kumene awiri omwe kale anali ofufuza a radar ochokera ku Germany, Heinrich Welker ndi Herbert Mathare, adatsogolera gulu lomwe cholinga chake chinali kupanga zida za semiconductor za mafakitale.
Welker anayamba kuphunzira ndipo kenako anaphunzitsa physics ku yunivesite ya Munich, yoyendetsedwa ndi katswiri wotchuka Arnold Sommerfeld. Kuyambira m'chaka cha 1940, adasiya njira yongopeka ndikuyamba kugwira ntchito pa radar ya Luftwaffe. Mathare (wochokera ku Belgium) anakulira ku Aachen, kumene anaphunzira sayansi ya sayansi. Analowa nawo dipatimenti yofufuza ya chimphona cha wailesi yaku Germany Telefunken mu 1939. Panthawi ya nkhondo, adasuntha ntchito yake kuchokera ku Berlin kum'mawa kupita ku abbey ku Silesia kuti apewe zigawenga za Allied, ndikubwerera kumadzulo kuti apewe kupita patsogolo kwa Red Army, ndikugwa m'manja mwa asitikali aku America.
Monga adani awo mu Anti-Hitler Coalition, Ajeremani adadziwa kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1940 kuti zowunikira makristalo zinali zolandirira bwino radar, komanso kuti silicon ndi germanium ndizo zida zodalirika kwambiri pakupanga kwawo. Mathare ndi Welker anayesa panthawi yankhondo kuti apititse patsogolo kugwiritsa ntchito bwino zinthu izi pokonzanso. Nkhondo itatha, onse awiri ankafunsidwa mafunso nthawi ndi nthawi ponena za ntchito yawo ya usilikali, ndipo pomalizira pake anaitanidwa kuchokera kwa mkulu wa intelligence wa ku France kupita ku Paris mu 1946.
Compagnie des Freins & Signaux ("kampani yamabuleki ndi ma siginecha"), gawo la ku France la Westinghouse, adalandira mgwirizano kuchokera kwa akuluakulu a telefoni aku France kuti apange okonzanso boma ndipo adafunafuna asayansi aku Germany kuti awathandize. Mgwirizano woterewu wa adani aposachedwapa ungaoneke wachilendo, koma dongosololi linakhaladi labwino kwa mbali zonse ziwiri. A French, omwe anagonjetsedwa mu 1940, analibe luso lodziwa bwino za semiconductors, ndipo adafunikira kwambiri luso la Ajeremani. Ajeremani sakanatha kuchita chitukuko m'magawo aliwonse apamwamba kwambiri m'dziko logwidwa ndi nkhondo, choncho adalumpha mwayi kuti apitirize kugwira ntchito.
Welker ndi Mathare anakhazikitsa likulu m’nyumba ya nsanjika ziŵiri m’dera la ku Paris la Aunes-sous-Bois, ndipo mothandizidwa ndi gulu la akatswiri, iwo anayambitsa mwachipambano zokonza germanium pofika kumapeto kwa 1947. Mphotho: Welker adabwereranso ku chidwi chake ndi ma superconductors, ndipo Mathare adachita zokulitsa.
Herbert Mathare mu 1950
Pa nthawi ya nkhondo, Mathare anayesa njira ziwiri zolumikizirana - "duodeodes" - poyesa kuchepetsa phokoso la dera. Anayambiranso kuyesa kwake ndipo posakhalitsa adapeza kuti ndevu ya mphaka yachiwiri, yomwe ili pamtunda wa 1/100 miliyoni wa mita kuchokera pa yoyamba, nthawi zina imatha kusinthira ndevu yomwe ikuyenda pa ndevu yoyamba. Anapanga chokulitsa cholimba cha boma, ngakhale chopanda ntchito. Kuti akwaniritse ntchito yodalirika, adatembenukira kwa Welker, yemwe adaphunzira zambiri pogwiritsa ntchito makina a germanium panthawi ya nkhondo. Gulu la Welker linakula, zitsanzo zoyera za makhiristo a germanium, ndipo khalidwe la zinthuzo litakula bwino, Mathare point contact amplifiers anakhala odalirika pofika June 1948.
Chithunzi cha X-ray cha "transistron" chochokera kudera la Mathare, lomwe lili ndi mfundo ziwiri zolumikizana ndi germanium.
Mathare ngakhale anali ndi chitsanzo chongoyerekeza cha zomwe zikuchitika: amakhulupirira kuti kukhudzana kwachiwiri kunapanga mabowo mu germanium, kufulumizitsa ndimeyi yamakono kupyolera mu kukhudzana koyamba, kupereka zonyamulira zochepa. Welker sanagwirizane naye, ndipo amakhulupirira kuti zomwe zikuchitika zimadalira mtundu wina wa zochitika za m'munda. Komabe, asanagwiritse ntchito chipangizocho kapena chiphunzitsocho, adaphunzira kuti gulu la anthu aku America lidapanga lingaliro lomwelo - amplifier ya germanium yokhala ndi mfundo ziwiri - miyezi isanu ndi umodzi yapitayo.
Murray Hill
Kumapeto kwa nkhondoyo, Mervyn Kelly adasintha gulu lofufuza la semiconductor la Bell Labs lotsogozedwa ndi Bill Shockley. Ntchitoyi idakula, idalandira ndalama zambiri, ndipo idachoka panyumba yake yoyambira ku Manhattan kupita ku kampasi yomwe ikukula ku Murray Hill, New Jersey.
Murray Hill Campus, ca. 1960
Kuti adziŵenso ndi zida zotsogola zapamwamba (pambuyo pa nthawi yake yofufuza ntchito pankhondo), Shockley adayendera labotale ya Russell Ohl's Holmdel mchaka cha 1945. Ohl anakhala zaka za nkhondo akugwira ntchito pa silicon ndipo sanawononge nthawi. Adawonetsa Shockley chokulitsa chomwe adachipanga chomwe adachitcha "desister." Anatenga silicon point contact rectifier ndikutumiza mphamvu kuchokera mu batire kudzera pa iyo. Mwachiwonekere, kutentha kwa batire kunachepetsa kukana kwa malo olumikizirana, ndikusandutsa chowongolera kukhala chokulitsa chomwe chimatha kutumiza ma wayilesi obwera kudera lamphamvu mokwanira kuti lipatse mphamvu yolankhula.
Zotsatira zake zinali zamwano komanso zosadalirika, zosayenera kuchita malonda. Komabe, zinali zokwanira kutsimikizira maganizo a Shockley kuti n'zotheka kupanga amplifier semiconductor, ndipo izi ziyenera kukhala zofunika kwambiri pa kafukufuku wamagetsi olimba. Unalinso msonkhano uwu ndi gulu la Ola womwe unatsimikizira Shockley kuti silicon ndi germanium ziyenera kuphunziridwa kaye. Anawonetsa zinthu zamagetsi zowoneka bwino, ndipo anzake a metallurgists a Ohl Jack Skaff ndi Henry Theurer adachita bwino kwambiri pakukula, kuyeretsa, ndi kugwiritsira ntchito makristasi awa pa nthawi ya nkhondo, kupitirira umisiri wonse wopezeka pa zipangizo zina za semiconductor. Gulu la Shockley silingatayenso nthawi pa pre-war copper oxide amplifiers.
Ndi thandizo la Kelly, Shockley anayamba kusonkhanitsa gulu latsopano. Osewera akuluakulu adaphatikizapo Walter Brattain, yemwe adathandizira Shockley ndikuyesera kwake koyamba pa amplifier ya boma (mu 1940), ndi John Bardeen, wasayansi wachinyamata komanso wogwira ntchito watsopano ku Bell Labs. Bardeen ayenera kuti anali ndi chidziwitso chochuluka cha fizikiki ya boma yolimba kuposa membala aliyense wa gululo-zolemba zake zinalongosola mphamvu za ma electron mu kapangidwe ka sodium metal. Analinso protégé wina wa John Hasbrouck Van Vleck, monga Atanasov ndi Brattain.
Ndipo monga Atanasov, zolemba za Bardeen ndi Shockley zinafunikira mawerengedwe ovuta kwambiri. Anayenera kugwiritsa ntchito chiphunzitso cha quantum mechanical of semiconductors, chofotokozedwa ndi Alan Wilson, kuti awerengere mphamvu ya zipangizo pogwiritsa ntchito chowerengera cha desktop cha Monroe. Pothandizira kupanga transistor, iwo, kwenikweni, adathandizira kupulumutsa ophunzira omaliza maphunziro awo ku ntchito zotere.
Njira yoyamba ya Shockley pa amplifier yokhazikika idadalira zomwe pambuyo pake zidatchedwa "". Anayimitsa mbale yachitsulo pa semiconductor yamtundu wa n (ndi milandu yambiri yolakwika). Kuyika mtengo wabwino pa mbaleyo kunakokera ma elekitironi ochulukirapo pamwamba pa galasi, ndikupanga mtsinje wamagetsi olakwika omwe magetsi amatha kuyenda mosavuta. Chizindikiro chokwezeka (choyimiridwa ndi mulingo wamalipiro pa chowotcha) mwanjira iyi chikhoza kusinthira dera lalikulu (lodutsa pamwamba pa semiconductor). Kuchita bwino kwa chiwembuchi kunaperekedwa kwa iye ndi chidziwitso chake cha sayansi ya sayansi. Koma, mosasamala kanthu za kuyesa ndi kuyesa kochuluka, chiwembucho sichinagwire ntchito.
Pofika mu March 1946, Bardeen adapanga chiphunzitso chodziwika bwino chomwe chinafotokozera chifukwa chake: pamwamba pa semiconductor pamlingo wa quantum amachita mosiyana ndi mkati mwake. Zolipiritsa zomwe zimakokedwa pamwamba zimatsekeredwa mu "surface states" ndikuletsa gawo lamagetsi kuti lisalowe m'mbale muzinthu. Ena onse adapeza kuti kusanthula uku kunali kofunikira, ndipo adayambitsa pulogalamu yatsopano yofufuza m'njira zitatu:
- Tsimikizirani kukhalapo kwa mayiko.
- Phunzirani katundu wawo.
- Pezani momwe mungawagonjetsere ndikuzigwira ntchito .
Pambuyo pa chaka chimodzi ndi theka akufufuza ndi kuyesa, pa November 17, 1947, Brattain anapambana. Anapeza kuti ngati ayika madzi odzaza ayoni, monga madzi, pakati pa chophika ndi chopangira chopangira chopangira magetsi, gawo lamagetsi lochokera ku chophatikizira limakankhira ma ion ku semiconductor, komwe angachepetse milandu yomwe ili pamtunda. Tsopano adatha kuwongolera machitidwe amagetsi a chidutswa cha silikoni posintha mtengo pawafa. Kupambana kumeneku kunapatsa Bardeen lingaliro la njira yatsopano yopangira chokulitsa: kuzungulira malo olumikizirana ndi chowongolera ndi madzi a electrolyte, ndiyeno gwiritsani ntchito waya wachiwiri m'madzi kuti muwongolere momwe zinthu ziliri padziko lapansi, ndikuwongolera momwe ma conductivity amayendera. kukhudzana. Chotero Bardeen ndi Brattain anafika pamzere womaliza.
Lingaliro la Bardeen linagwira ntchito, koma kukulitsa kunali kofooka ndipo kunkagwiritsidwa ntchito pamayendedwe otsika kwambiri osafikirika ndi khutu la munthu - kotero zinali zopanda ntchito ngati foni kapena wailesi amplifier. Bardeen adaganiza zosinthira ku germanium yopinga mphamvu yamagetsi yomwe imapangidwa ku Purdue, akukhulupirira kuti ndalama zocheperako zitha kusonkha pamwamba pake. Mwadzidzidzi adalandira chiwonjezeko champhamvu, koma mosiyana ndi zomwe zimayembekezeredwa. Iwo adapeza zotsatira zonyamulira zochepa - m'malo mwa ma electron omwe amayembekezeredwa, zomwe zikuyenda kudzera mu germanium zidakulitsidwa ndi mabowo omwe amachokera ku electrolyte. Zomwe zili pawaya mu electrolyte zidapanga gawo la p-mtundu (chigawo chazowonjezera zabwino) pamwamba pa n-mtundu wa germanium.
Kuyesera kotsatira kunawonetsa kuti palibe electrolyte yomwe imafunikira nkomwe: kungoyika malo awiri olumikizirana pafupi ndi germanium pamwamba, zinali zotheka kusinthira zomwe zilipo kuchokera pa imodzi mwazo mpaka pano pa ina. Kuti awafikitse pafupi monga momwe angathere, Brattain anakulunga kachidutswa ka golide kachidutswa ka pulasitiki ka katatu ndiyeno mosamala kudula zojambulazo kumapeto. Kenako, pogwiritsa ntchito kasupe, adakankhira katatu ku germanium, chifukwa chake mbali ziwiri za odulidwawo zidakhudza pamtunda wa 0,05 mm. Izi zidapatsa Bell Labs 'transistor prototype mawonekedwe ake apadera:
Brattain ndi Bardeen transistor prototype
Monga chipangizo cha Mathare ndi Welker, chinali, makamaka, "ndevu zamphaka" zachikale, zokhala ndi mfundo ziwiri zolumikizana m'malo mwa imodzi. Pa Disembala 16, idapanga kuwonjezeka kwakukulu kwa mphamvu ndi magetsi, komanso ma frequency a 1000 Hz pamawu omveka. Patatha mlungu umodzi, atasintha pang'ono, Bardeen ndi Brattain anawonjezera mphamvu yamagetsi ndi nthawi 100 ndi mphamvu nthawi 40, ndipo adawonetsa otsogolera a Bell kuti chipangizo chawo chikhoza kutulutsa mawu omveka. John Pierce, membala wina wa gulu lachitukuko cha boma lolimba, adayambitsa mawu akuti "transistor" pambuyo pa dzina la Bell's copper oxide rectifier, varistor.
Kwa miyezi isanu ndi umodzi yotsatira, labotale inasunga chilengedwe chatsopanocho chinsinsi. Oyang'anira amafuna kuwonetsetsa kuti ayamba kugulitsa transistor wina aliyense asanaigwiritse ntchito. Msonkhano wa atolankhani unakonzedwa kuti uchitike pa June 30, 1948, panthaŵi yake yothetsa maloto a Welker ndi Mathare a moyo wosakhoza kufa. Panthawiyi, gulu lofufuza za semiconductor linagwa mwakachetechete. Atamva zimene Bardeen ndi Brattain anachita, bwana wawo, Bill Shockley, anayamba kugwira ntchito kuti adzilemekeze yekha. Ndipo ngakhale adangotenga gawo lowonera, Shockley adalandira kulengeza kofanana, kapena kupitilira apo, pagulu - monga tawonera pachithunzi chake chomwe chidatulutsidwa pakuchitapo kanthu, pafupi ndi benchi ya labu:
Chithunzi chodziwika bwino cha 1948 - Bardeen, Shockley ndi Brattain
Komabe, kutchuka kofanana sikunali kokwanira kwa Shockley. Ndipo aliyense kunja kwa Bell Labs asanadziwe za transistor, anali otanganidwa kuyipanganso yake. Ndipo aka kanali koyamba kokha mwa kukonzanso kotereku.
Chinanso choti muwerenge
- Robert Buderi, The Invention That Changed the World (1996)
- Michael Riordan, "Momwe Europe Inaphonya Transistor," IEEE Spectrum (Nov. 1, 2005)
- Michael Riordan ndi Lillian Hoddeson, Crystal Fire (1997)
- Armand Van Dormael, "The 'French' Transistor," (1994)
Source: www.habr.com