Maginito core memory mu roketi ya Saturn 5

Launch Vehicle Digital Computer (LVDC) inathandiza kwambiri pa pulogalamu ya mwezi wa Apollo, kuyendetsa roketi ya Saturn 5. Mofanana ndi makompyuta ambiri a nthawiyo, inkasunga deta m'matumba ang'onoang'ono a maginito. M'nkhaniyi, Cloud4Y ikukamba za LVDC memory module kuchokera ku deluxe chopereka Steve Jurvetson.

Module iyi yokumbukira idasinthidwa mkati mwa 1960s. Idamangidwa pogwiritsa ntchito zida zapamtunda, ma module osakanizidwa, ndi maulumikizidwe osinthika, ndikupangitsa kuti ikhale yaying'ono komanso yopepuka kuposa kukumbukira kwamakompyuta nthawiyo. Komabe, gawo lokumbukira limaloledwa kusunga mawu a 4096 okha a 26 bits.

Magnetic core memory module. Gawoli limasunga mawu a 4K a 26 data bits ndi 2 parity bits. Ndi ma module anayi okumbukira omwe amapereka mphamvu zonse za mawu a 16, amalemera 384 kg ndipo amayesa 2,3 cm × 14 cm × 14 cm.

Kufika kwa mwezi kunayamba pa May 25, 1961, pamene Pulezidenti Kennedy adalengeza kuti America idzaika munthu pa mwezi zisanathe zaka khumi. Pa izi, roketi ya Saturn 5 ya magawo atatu idagwiritsidwa ntchito, roketi yamphamvu kwambiri yomwe idapangidwapo. Saturn 5 inkayendetsedwa ndikuyendetsedwa ndi kompyuta (apa apa zambiri za iye) gawo lachitatu la galimoto yotsegulira, kuyambira paulendo wopita kudziko lapansi, kenako kupita ku Mwezi. (Chombo cha m'mlengalenga cha Apollo chinali kudzipatula ku roketi ya Saturn V panthawiyi, ndipo ntchito ya LVDC inamalizidwa.)

LVDC imayikidwa mu chimango choyambira. Zolumikizira zozungulira zimawonekera kutsogolo kwa kompyuta. Zolumikizira zamagetsi 8 ndi zolumikizira ziwiri zoziziritsa zamadzimadzi

LVDC inali imodzi mwa makompyuta angapo omwe anali mu Apollo. LVDC idalumikizidwa ndi makina owongolera ndege, kompyuta ya analogi ya 45 kg. Kompyuta ya Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) inatsogolera chombocho kupita kumtunda wa mwezi. Gawo lolamula linali ndi AGC imodzi pomwe gawo la mwezi limakhala ndi AGC yachiwiri limodzi ndi njira yoyendera ya Abort, kompyuta yopuma mwadzidzidzi.

Panali makompyuta angapo m'bwalo la Apollo.

Zida za Unit Logic (ULD)

LVDC idapangidwa pogwiritsa ntchito ukadaulo wosangalatsa wosakanizidwa wotchedwa ULD, chipangizo cha unit load. Ngakhale amawoneka ngati mabwalo ophatikizika, ma module a ULD anali ndi zigawo zingapo. Anagwiritsa ntchito tchipisi tosavuta ta silicon, chilichonse chokhala ndi ma transistor amodzi kapena ma diode awiri. Mipangidwe iyi, pamodzi ndi zosindikizira zosindikizira zamtundu wakuda, zidayikidwa pamiyala ya ceramic kuti agwiritse ntchito mabwalo monga chipata cha logic. Ma module awa anali osiyana ndi ma module a SLT (Solid Logic Technology) yopangidwira makompyuta otchuka a IBM S/360. IBM idayamba kupanga ma module a SLT mu 1961, mabwalo ophatikizika asanayambe kugulitsidwa, ndipo pofika 1966, IBM inali kupanga ma module a SLT opitilira 100 miliyoni pachaka.

Ma module a ULD anali ang'onoang'ono kwambiri kuposa ma module a SLT, monga momwe tawonera pa chithunzi pansipa, kuwapangitsa kukhala oyenera kwambiri pakompyuta ya compact space. pamwamba m'malo mwa zikhomo. Makapu pa bolodi adagwira gawo la ULD m'malo ndikulumikizana ndi zikhomozi.

Chifukwa chiyani IBM idagwiritsa ntchito ma module a SLT m'malo mwa mabwalo ophatikizika? Chifukwa chachikulu chinali chakuti madera ophatikizana anali adakali aang’ono, popeza anapangidwa mu 1959. Mu 1963, ma module a SLT anali ndi mtengo komanso magwiridwe antchito kuposa mabwalo ophatikizika. Komabe, ma module a SLT nthawi zambiri amawonedwa ngati otsika kuposa mabwalo ophatikizika. Chimodzi mwazabwino za ma module a SLT pamayendedwe ophatikizika ndikuti zotsutsa mu SLTs zinali zolondola kwambiri kuposa zomwe zili mumayendedwe ophatikizika. Pakupanga, zopinga zakuda zamakanema m'magawo a SLT zidapukutidwa ndi mchenga mosamalitsa kuti zichotse filimuyo mpaka atakwaniritsa zomwe akufuna. Ma module a SLT analinso otsika mtengo kuposa mabwalo ophatikizika ofanana mu 1960s.

LVDC ndi zida zofananira zidagwiritsa ntchito mitundu yopitilira 50 ya ULD.

Ma module a SLT (kumanzere) ndi akulu kwambiri kuposa ma module a ULD (kumanja). Kukula kwa ULD ndi 7,6mm × 8mm

Chithunzi chomwe chili pansipa chikuwonetsa zigawo zamkati za module ya ULD. Kumanzere kwa mbale ya ceramic pali ma conductor olumikizidwa ndi tinthu tating'ono ting'onoting'ono ta silicon. Zikuwoneka ngati bolodi lozungulira, koma kumbukirani kuti ndi laling'ono kwambiri kuposa chikhadabo. Rectangles zakuda kumanja ndi zotchingira filimu zokhuthala zosindikizidwa pansi pa mbale.

ULD, mawonekedwe apamwamba ndi pansi. Makristasi a silicon ndi resistors amawoneka. Ngakhale ma modules a SLT anali ndi zotsutsa pamwamba, ma modules a ULD anali ndi zotsutsa pansi, zomwe zimachulukitsa kachulukidwe komanso mtengo.

Chithunzi chomwe chili pansipa chikuwonetsa kufa kwa silicon kuchokera ku module ya ULD, yomwe idakhazikitsa ma diode awiri. Miyeso yake ndi yaying'ono modabwitsa, poyerekeza, pali makhiristo a shuga pafupi. Krustaloyo inali ndi zolumikizira zitatu zakunja kudzera mu mipira yamkuwa yomwe idagulitsidwa kumagulu atatu. Mabwalo awiri apansi (ma anode a ma diode awiri) adapangidwa (malo amdima), pomwe bwalo lakumanja lakumanja linali cathode yolumikizidwa kumunsi.

Chithunzi cha kristalo wa silicon wamitundu iwiri pafupi ndi makhiristo a shuga

Momwe maginito core memory amagwirira ntchito

Chikumbutso cha maginito chinali njira yayikulu yosungiramo data pamakompyuta kuyambira m'ma 1950 mpaka pomwe idasinthidwa ndi zida zosungirako zolimba mu 1970s. Memory idapangidwa kuchokera ku mphete zazing'ono zotchedwa ma cores. Mphete za ferrite zinayikidwa mu matrix amakona anayi ndipo mawaya awiri kapena anayi ankadutsa mu mphete iliyonse kuti awerenge ndi kulemba zambiri. Mphetezo zinalola kuti chidziwitso chimodzi chisungidwe. Pakatikati pake adapangidwa ndi maginito pogwiritsa ntchito kugunda kwapano kudzera pamawaya odutsa mu mphete ya ferrite. Mayendedwe a magnetization a pachimake chimodzi amatha kusinthidwa potumiza kugunda kwina.

Kuti muwerenge mtengo wapakati, phokoso lamakono linabweretsa mpheteyo ku 0. Ngati chigawocho chinali kale mu dziko 1, kusintha kwa maginito kunapanga voteji mu imodzi mwa mawaya omwe amadutsa muzitsulo. Koma ngati mazikowo anali kale m'boma 0, mphamvu ya maginito sikanasintha ndipo waya womveka sikanakwera mphamvu. Chifukwa chake mtengo wapang'ono pachimake udawerengedwa poyikhazikitsanso ku zero ndikuwunika voteji pa waya wowerengedwa. Chinthu chofunika kwambiri cha kukumbukira pa maginito maginito chinali chakuti njira yowerengera mphete ya ferrite inawononga mtengo wake, kotero pachimake chinayenera "kulembedwanso".

Zinali zovuta kugwiritsa ntchito waya wosiyana kusintha maginito pachimake chilichonse, koma m'zaka za m'ma 1950, kukumbukira kwa ferrite kudapangidwa komwe kunagwira ntchito pamfundo yofanana ndi mafunde. Dongosolo la mawaya anayi — X, Y, Sense, Inhibit — lakhala lofala. Tekinolojeyi idagwiritsa ntchito chinthu chapadera chamagulu otchedwa hysteresis: kamphindi kakang'ono sikamakhudza kukumbukira kwa ferrite, koma pakali pano pamwamba pa chiwombankhanga chimapangitsa magnetize pachimake. Mukapatsidwa mphamvu ndi theka lazomwe zimafunikira pakalipano pamzere umodzi wa X ndi mzere umodzi wa Y, pachimake pomwe mizere yonse iwiri idawoloka idalandira panopo kuti ipangitsenso maginito, pomwe zida zina zidakhalabe.

Izi ndi zomwe kukumbukira kwa IBM 360 Model 50 kunkawoneka ngati LVDC ndi Model 50 amagwiritsa ntchito mtundu womwewo wa core, wotchedwa 19-32 chifukwa mkati mwake anali 19 mils (0.4826 mm) ndipo m'mimba mwake anali 32 mils. (0,8 mm). Mutha kuwona pachithunzichi kuti pali mawaya atatu omwe amadutsa pachimake chilichonse, koma LVDC idagwiritsa ntchito mawaya anayi.

Chithunzi chomwe chili pansipa chikuwonetsa mndandanda wamakona a rectangular LVDC memory. 8 Matrix amenewa ali ndi mawaya 128 a X omwe amayenda molunjika ndi mawaya 64 Y oyenda mopingasa, ali ndi pakati pa mphambano iliyonse. Waya wowerengeka umodzi umadutsa ma cores onse ofanana ndi ma Y-waya. Waya wolembera ndi waya wotsekereza amadutsa m'makore onse ofanana ndi mawaya a X. Mawaya amadutsa pakati pa matrix; izi zimachepetsa phokoso lopangitsa chifukwa phokoso lochokera ku theka limodzi limathetsa phokoso la theka lina.

Mmodzi wa LVDC ferrite memory matrix wokhala ndi 8192 bits. Kulumikizana ndi matrices ena kumachitika kudzera m'mapini akunja

Matrix pamwambapa anali ndi zinthu 8192, chilichonse chimasunga pang'ono. Kuti musunge mawu okumbukira, matrices angapo oyambira adawonjezedwa palimodzi, imodzi pagawo lililonse m'mawu. Mawaya X ndi Y anadutsa m'masamu onse akuluakulu. Matrix aliwonse anali ndi mzere wowerengera wosiyana ndi mzere wolepheretsa kulemba. Memory ya LVDC idagwiritsa ntchito matrices 14 oyambira (pansipa) ndikusunga "syllable" ya 13-bit limodzi ndi pang'ono.

Mulu wa LVDC uli ndi masamu akuluakulu 14

Kulembera maginito pachimake kukumbukira ankafunika mawaya owonjezera, otchedwa mizere chopinga. Matrix aliwonse anali ndi mzere umodzi wolepheretsa womwe ukudutsa pakati pa ma cores onse momwemo. Panthawi yolemba, panopa imadutsa mizere ya X ndi Y, ndikubwezeretsanso mphete zosankhidwa (imodzi pa ndege) kuti ifotokoze 1, kusunga ma 1 onse m'mawu. Kulemba 0 pa malo pang'ono, mzerewo unali wolimbikitsidwa ndi theka lamakono lotsutsana ndi mzere wa X. Chotsatira chake, ma cores anakhalabe pa 0. Choncho, mzere woletsawo sunalole kuti pakati pawo 1. mawu atha kulembedwa pamtima poyambitsa mizere yofananira.

Chithunzi cha LVDC

Kodi LVDC memory module imapangidwa bwanji mwakuthupi? Pakatikati pa gawo la kukumbukira pali mulu wa 14 ferromagnetic memory arrays omwe awonetsedwa kale. Imazunguliridwa ndi ma board angapo okhala ndi zozungulira kuyendetsa mawaya a X ndi Y ndi mizere yoletsa, mizere yowerengera pang'ono, kuzindikira zolakwika, ndikupanga mawotchi ofunikira.

Nthawi zambiri, zozungulira zambiri zokhudzana ndi kukumbukira zili mumalingaliro apakompyuta a LVDC, osati mu memory module yokha. Makamaka, malingaliro apakompyuta ali ndi zolembera zosungira ma adilesi ndi mawu a data ndikusintha pakati pa serial ndi parallel. Ilinso ndi zozungulira zowerengera kuchokera ku mizere yowerengera, kuyang'ana zolakwika, ndi mawotchi.

Memodule yokumbukira yomwe ikuwonetsa zigawo zazikulu. MIB (Multilayer Interconnection Board) ndi bolodi losindikizidwa la zigawo 12

Y memory driver board

Liwu lomwe lili mu kukumbukira kwapakati limasankhidwa podutsa mizere ya X ndi Y kudzera pagulu lalikulu. Tiyeni tiyambe ndi kufotokoza dera la Y-dalaivala ndi momwe amapangira chizindikiro kudzera m'mizere 64 Y. M'malo 64 osiyana madera oyendetsa, gawo amachepetsa chiwerengero cha madera pogwiritsa ntchito 8 "mkulu" madalaivala ndi 8 "otsika" madalaivala. Iwo ali ndi mawaya mu kasinthidwe ka "matrix", kotero kuphatikiza kulikonse kwa madalaivala apamwamba ndi otsika kumasankha mizere yosiyana. Choncho, 8 "mkulu" ndi 8 "otsika" madalaivala kusankha mmodzi wa 64 (8 × 8) Y-mizere.

Y dalaivala board (kutsogolo) amayendetsa Y kusankha mizere mugulu la matabwa

Pachithunzi chomwe chili pansipa mukhoza kuona ma modules a ULD (oyera) ndi ma transistors (golide) omwe amayendetsa mizere yosankha Y. "EI" ndi mtima wa dalaivala: imapereka mphamvu yamagetsi yokhazikika (E. ) kapena amadutsa kugunda kwanthawi zonse (I) kudzera pamzere wosankhidwa. Mzere wosankhidwa umayendetsedwa ndikuyambitsa gawo la EI mumayendedwe amagetsi kumapeto kwa mzere ndi gawo la EI mumayendedwe apano kumapeto kwina. Zotsatira zake ndi kugunda komwe kuli ndi voteji yolondola komanso yapano, yokwanira kuti ipangitsenso pachimake. Zimatengera kuthamanga kwambiri kuti mutembenuzire; kugunda kwamagetsi kumakhazikika pa 17 volts, ndipo pano kumachokera ku 180 mA mpaka 260 mA kutengera kutentha.

Chithunzi cha Macro cha board ya Y driver yowonetsa ma module asanu ndi limodzi a ULD ndi ma transistors asanu ndi limodzi. Gawo lililonse la ULD limalembedwa ndi nambala ya gawo la IBM, mtundu wa gawo (mwachitsanzo, "EI"), ndi code yomwe tanthauzo lake silidziwika.

Bungweli limakhalanso ndi ma modules owonetsera zolakwika (ED) omwe amazindikira pamene mzere wosankha Y woposa umodzi umatsegulidwa nthawi imodzi. Ngati voteji yotsatila ili pamwamba pa khomo, fungulo limayambika.

Pansi pa bolodi la dalaivala pali gulu la diode lomwe lili ndi ma diode 256 ndi zopinga 64. Matrix awa amasintha ma siginecha 8 pamwamba ndi 8 pansi kuchokera pagulu la oyendetsa kukhala ma 64 Y-mizere omwe amadutsa pagulu lalikulu la matabwa. Zingwe zosinthika pamwamba ndi pansi pa bolodi zimalumikiza bolodi ku gulu la diode. Zingwe ziwiri zopindika kumanzere (zosawoneka pachithunzichi) ndi mabasi awiri kumanja (imodzi yowoneka) amalumikiza matrix a diode kumitundu yambiri. Chingwe chosinthika chomwe chikuwoneka kumanzere chimalumikiza bolodi la Y ku kompyuta yonse kudzera pa bolodi la I / O, pomwe chingwe chaching'ono chakumanja chakumanja chikulumikizana ndi bolodi la wotchi.

X Memory Driver Board

Mapangidwe oyendetsa mizere ya X ndi ofanana ndi a Y, kupatulapo pali mizere ya 128 X ndi mizere ya 64 Y. Chifukwa pali mawaya a X kawiri kawiri, gawoli lili ndi bolodi lachiwiri la X pansi pake. Ngakhale matabwa a X ndi Y ali ndi zigawo zofanana, mawaya ndi osiyana.

Bolodi ili ndi lomwe lili m'munsi mwake limayang'anira mizere yosankhidwa ya X pamagulu apakatikati

Chithunzi chomwe chili pansipa chikuwonetsa kuti zigawo zina zidawonongeka pa bolodi. Mmodzi wa ma transistors amachotsedwa, gawo la ULD lathyoledwa pakati, ndipo lina lathyoledwa. Mawaya amawonekera pagawo losweka, limodzi ndi tinthu tating'ono ta silicon (kumanja). Pachithunzichi, mutha kuwonanso zotsatizana zamayendedwe oyima komanso opingasa pa bolodi yosindikizidwa yamagulu 12.

Kutseka kwa gawo lowonongeka la bolodi

Pansi pa matabwa oyendetsa X pali X diode matrix yomwe ili ndi 288 diode ndi 128 resistors. Gulu la X-diode limagwiritsa ntchito topology yosiyana ndi gulu la Y-diode kupewa kuwirikiza kawiri kuchuluka kwa zigawo. Monga bolodi la Y-diode, bolodi ili ndi zigawo zomwe zimayikidwa molunjika pakati pa matabwa awiri osindikizidwa. Njirayi imatchedwa "cordwood" ndipo imalola kuti zigawozo zikhale zodzaza mwamphamvu.

Chithunzi chachikulu cha mawonekedwe a X diode omwe akuwonetsa ma diode oyima pakati pa ma board 2 osindikizidwa. Ma board awiri oyendetsa X amakhala pamwamba pa bolodi la diode, olekanitsidwa ndi thovu la polyurethane. Chonde dziwani kuti matabwa ozungulira ali pafupi kwambiri.

Memory Amplifiers

Chithunzi chili pansipa chikuwonetsa boardout amplifier board. Ili ndi mayendedwe 7 owerengera ma bits 7 kuchokera pa memory stack; bolodi lofanana lomwe lili pansipa limagwira 7 ma bits ena onse 14. Cholinga cha amplifier ndi kuzindikira chizindikiro chaching'ono (20 millivolts) chopangidwa ndi remagnetizable pachimake ndikuchisintha kukhala chotulutsa 1-bit. Njira iliyonse imakhala ndi amplifier yosiyana ndi buffer, yotsatiridwa ndi chosinthira chosiyana ndi chowongolera chotulutsa. Kumanzere, chingwe cha 28-waya cholumikizira chimalumikizana ndi chosungira, ndikumatsogolera malekezero awiri a waya aliyense kudera la amplifier, kuyambira ndi gawo la MSA-1 (Memory Sense Amplifier). Zigawo za munthu ndi resistors (bulauni masilinda), capacitors (wofiira), thiransifoma (wakuda), ndi transistors (golide). Ma data bits amatuluka pama board a amplifier kudzera pa chingwe chosinthika chakumanja.

Readout amplifier board pamwamba pa memory module. Bolodi ili limakulitsa ma siginecha kuchokera ku mawaya omveka kuti apange zotulutsa

Lembani Inhibit Line Driver

Madalaivala oletsa amagwiritsidwa ntchito polembera kukumbukira ndipo ali pansi pa gawo lalikulu. Pali mizere 14 yoletsa, imodzi pa matrix aliwonse pa stack. Kulemba 0 pang'ono, dalaivala wa loko yofananira amatsegulidwa ndipo panopa kupyolera mu mzere woletsa amalepheretsa pakati kuti asasinthe ku 1. Mzere uliwonse umayendetsedwa ndi ID-1 ndi ID-2 module (lembani inhibit line driver) ndi awiri. za transistors. Precision 20,8 ohm resistors pamwamba ndi pansi pa bolodi amawongolera kutsekereza kwapano. Chingwe cholumikizira mawaya 14 kumanja chimalumikiza madalaivala ku mawaya 14 oletsa mulu wa ma core board.

Choletsa bolodi pansi pa memory module. Bolodi ili limapanga zizindikiro 14 zoletsa zomwe zimagwiritsidwa ntchito pojambula

Clock driver memory

Dalaivala wa wotchi ndi ma board omwe amapanga mawotchi a module ya memory. Kompyutayo ikayamba kugwira ntchito yokumbukira, mawotchi osiyanasiyana omwe amagwiritsidwa ntchito ndi gawo lokumbukira amapangidwa mosiyanasiyana ndi woyendetsa wotchi ya module. Ma matabwa oyendetsa mawotchi ali pansi pa module, pakati pa stack ndi inhibit board, kotero matabwa ndi ovuta kuwona.

Ma board oyendetsa mawotchi ali pansi pa kukumbukira kwakukulu koma pamwamba pa bolodi lokhoma

Magawo a bolodi la buluu pachithunzi pamwambapa ndi ma potentiometers otembenuza, mwina anthawi kapena kusintha kwamagetsi. Resistors ndi capacitors amawonekeranso pa matabwa. Chithunzichi chikuwonetsa ma module angapo a MCD (Memory Clock Driver), koma palibe ma module omwe amawoneka pama board. Ndizovuta kudziwa ngati izi ndi chifukwa cha kuwoneka kochepa, kusintha kwa dera, kapena kukhalapo kwa bolodi lina ndi ma modules.

Memory I/O gulu

Gulu lomaliza la memory memory ndi bolodi la I / O, lomwe limagawira ma siginecha pakati pa ma board a memory module ndi makompyuta ena onse a LVDC. Chojambulira chobiriwira cha 98-pin pansi chimagwirizanitsa ndi LVDC memory chassis, kupereka zizindikiro ndi mphamvu kuchokera pa kompyuta. Zambiri zolumikizira pulasitiki zimasweka, chifukwa chake zolumikizira zimawoneka. Bolodi yogawa imalumikizidwa ndi cholumikizira ichi ndi zingwe ziwiri zosinthira mapini 49 pansi (chingwe chakutsogolo chokha chikuwoneka). Zingwe zina zosinthira zimagawa ma sign ku X Driver Board (kumanzere), Y Driver Board (kumanja), Sense Amplifier Board (pamwamba), ndi Inhibit Board (pansi). 20 capacitor pa bolodi fyuluta mphamvu yoperekedwa ku gawo lokumbukira.

The I/O board pakati pa memory module ndi kompyuta yonse. Chojambulira chobiriwira pansi chimagwirizanitsa ndi kompyuta ndipo zizindikirozi zimayendetsedwa kudzera mu zingwe zathyathyathya kupita kumadera ena a memory module.

Pomaliza

Module yayikulu ya LVDC memory idapereka chosungira, chodalirika. Ma module ofikira 8 atha kuyikidwa pansi pa kompyuta. Izi zinalola kompyuta kusunga 32 kiloword Mawu a 26-bit kapena 16 kilowords mumayendedwe odalirika kwambiri a "duplex".

Chinthu chimodzi chochititsa chidwi cha LVDC chinali chakuti ma module amakumbukiro amatha kuwonetsedwa kuti akhale odalirika. Mu "duplex" mode, mawu aliwonse amasungidwa m'ma module awiri okumbukira. Ngati cholakwika chinachitika mu gawo limodzi, mawu olondola atha kupezeka kuchokera ku gawo lina. Ngakhale izi zidapereka kudalirika, zidadula kukumbukira pakati. Kapenanso, ma module amakumbukiro atha kugwiritsidwa ntchito mu "simplex", mawu aliwonse amasungidwa kamodzi.

LVDC imakhala ndi ma modules asanu ndi atatu a CPU

Magnetic core memory module imapereka chithunzithunzi cha nthawi yomwe 8 KB yosungirako inkafuna gawo la 5-pounds (2,3 kg). Komabe, kukumbukira uku kunali kwabwino kwambiri pa nthawi yake. Zida zotere zidasiya kugwiritsidwa ntchito m'ma 1970 ndikubwera kwa semiconductor DRAMs.

Zomwe zili mu RAM zimasungidwa mphamvu ikazimitsidwa, kotero ndizotheka kuti gawoli likusungabe mapulogalamu kuyambira pomwe kompyuta idagwiritsidwa ntchito komaliza. Inde, inde, kumeneko mukhoza kupeza chinachake chosangalatsa ngakhale patapita zaka zambiri. Zingakhale zosangalatsa kuyesa kubwezeretsa deta iyi, koma madera owonongeka amabweretsa vuto, kotero zomwe zili mkatizo sizingathe kubwezeredwa kuchokera ku kukumbukira kwazaka khumi.

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Source: www.habr.com