Mu wathu idafotokoza za kukwera kwa ma switch amafoni odziwikiratu, omwe amayendetsedwa pogwiritsa ntchito mabwalo olumikizirana. Nthawi ino tikufuna kulankhula za momwe asayansi ndi mainjiniya adapangira mabwalo otumizirana maulumikizidwe oyamba - omwe aiwalika - m'badwo wamakompyuta a digito.
Bweretsani pachimake chake
Ngati mukukumbukira, kugwira ntchito kwa relay kumatengera mfundo yosavuta: maginito amagetsi amagwiritsa ntchito chosinthira chachitsulo. Lingaliro la relay lidaperekedwa mwaokha ndi akatswiri angapo azachilengedwe komanso amalonda mu bizinesi ya telegraph mu 1830s. Kenako, chapakati pa zaka za m’ma XNUMX, akatswiri opanga zinthu komanso amakanika anasandutsa njira zotumizirana mauthenga kukhala zodalirika ndiponso zofunika kwambiri pa matelefoni. Munali m'derali kuti moyo wa relay anafika pachimake: izo zinali miniaturized, ndipo mibadwo ya mainjiniya anapanga miyandamiyanda mapangidwe pamene maphunziro masamu ndi physics.
Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1870, osati makina osinthira okha, komanso pafupifupi zida zonse zapaintaneti zamafoni zinali ndi mtundu wina wa relay. Chimodzi mwazinthu zoyamba kugwiritsidwa ntchito pakulankhulana patelefoni chinayamba cha m'ma XNUMX, m'mabokosi osinthira pamanja. Pamene wolembetsa adatembenuza chogwirira cha foni (magneto chogwirira), chizindikiro chinatumizidwa ku malo osinthira mafoni, ndikuyatsa blender. Chofunda ndi njira yolumikizirana yomwe, ikayambika, imapangitsa kuti chitsulo chachitsulo chigwere pa desiki la woyendetsa foni, kuwonetsa kuyimba komwe kukubwera. Kenako woyendetsa donayo adayika pulagi mu cholumikizira, cholumikizira chidakhazikitsidwanso, pambuyo pake zinali zotheka kukwezanso chowongolera, chomwe chidachitika ndi ma electromagnet.
Pofika m'chaka cha 1924, akatswiri awiri a Bell adalemba kuti makina otumizirana matelefoni amatumizidwa pafupifupi 10 olembetsa. Zida zake zinali ndi ma relay 40-65, omwe mphamvu yake yonse ya maginito inali "yokwanira kukweza matani 10." Pakusinthana kwakukulu kwa mafoni ndi makina osinthira, mawonekedwe awa adachulukitsidwa ndi awiri. Mamiliyoni ambiri otumizirana matelefoni anagwiritsidwa ntchito m'matelefoni onse a ku United States, ndipo chiwerengerocho chinkawonjezeka nthawi zonse pamene matelefoni anali odzipangira okha. Kulumikizidwe kwa telefoni kutha kutumizidwa kuchokera pamakanema angapo mpaka mazana angapo, kutengera kuchuluka ndi zida zotumizirana matelefoni.
Mafakitole a Western Electric, othandizira opanga ku Bell Corporation, adapanga ma relay osiyanasiyana. Akatswiri apanga masinthidwe ambiri kotero kuti oŵeta agalu apamwamba kwambiri kapena oweta nkhunda amasilira mitundu iyi. Kuthamanga kwa ntchito ndi kukhudzidwa kwa relay kunakongoletsedwa, ndipo miyeso inachepetsedwa. Mu 1921, Western Electric idatulutsa pafupifupi ma 5 miliyoni amitundu yoyambira zana. Chodziwika kwambiri chinali mtundu wa E universal relay, chipangizo chophwanyika, pafupifupi cha makona anayi chomwe chimalemera magilamu angapo. Kwa mbali zambiri, izo zinapangidwa kuchokera ku zigawo zazitsulo zosindikizidwa, mwachitsanzo, zinali zapamwamba kwambiri pakupanga. Nyumbayo inkateteza zolumikizira ku fumbi ndi mafunde opangidwa kuchokera ku zida zoyandikana nazo: nthawi zambiri zolumikizirazo zimayikidwa pafupi ndi mzake, muzitsulo zokhala ndi mazana ndi masauzande a relay. Mitundu yonse ya 3 ya mtundu wa E idapangidwa, iliyonse ili ndi makhoma osiyanasiyana komanso masinthidwe olumikizana.
Posakhalitsa ma relay amenewa anayamba kugwiritsidwa ntchito mu masiwichi ovuta kwambiri.
Coordinate commutator
Mu 1910, Gotthilf Betulander, injiniya ku Royal Telegrafverket, bungwe la boma lomwe linkalamulira kwambiri msika wa telefoni wa ku Sweden (kwa zaka zambiri, pafupifupi zonsezi), anali ndi lingaliro. Amakhulupirira kuti atha kuwongolera magwiridwe antchito a Telegrafverket pomanga makina osinthira okha potengera ma relay. Zowonjezereka, pa matrices a relay: ma gridi a ndodo zachitsulo olumikizidwa ndi mizere ya foni, ndi ma relay pamphambano za ndodo. Kusintha kotereku kuyenera kukhala kofulumira, kodalirika, komanso kosavuta kuwongolera kusiyana ndi makina otengera otsetsereka kapena kuzungulira.
Kuphatikiza apo, Betulander adabwera ndi lingaliro loti ndizotheka kulekanitsa magawo osankhidwa ndi kulumikizana kwadongosolo kukhala mabwalo odziyimira pawokha. Ndipo dongosolo lonselo liyenera kugwiritsidwa ntchito kokha kukhazikitsa njira ya mawu, ndiyeno kumasulidwa kuyimbanso kuyimba kwina. Ndiye kuti, Betulander adabwera ndi lingaliro lomwe pambuyo pake linatchedwa "common control".
Anatcha dera lomwe limasunga nambala yoyimba yomwe ikubwera "recorder" (mawu ena ndi register). Ndipo dera lomwe limapeza ndi "kuyika" kulumikizana komwe kulipo mu gululi limatchedwa "chizindikiro." Wolembayo adapereka chilolezo chadongosolo lake. Masiteshoni angapo otere adawonekera ku Stockholm ndi London. Ndipo mu 1918, Betulander adaphunzira za luso la ku America: chosinthira chogwirizanitsa, chopangidwa ndi injiniya wa Bell John Reynolds zaka zisanu m'mbuyomo. Kusinthaku kunali kofanana kwambiri ndi kapangidwe ka Betulander, koma kudagwiritsidwa ntchito n+m utumiki wopatsirana n+m matrix node, omwe anali osavuta kwambiri pakukulitsa kusinthanitsa kwamafoni. Mukalumikiza, chogwirizira chimakanikiza chingwe cha piyano "zala" ndipo chosankhacho chimasuntha motsatira matrix kuti chilumikizane ndi kuyimba kwina. Chaka chotsatira, Betulander adaphatikizira lingaliro ili pakusintha kwake.
Koma mainjiniya ambiri ankaona kuti kulengedwa kwa Betulander kunali kwachilendo komanso kunali kovuta kwambiri. Itafika nthawi yosankha makina osinthira kuti azitha kupanga ma network amizinda ikuluikulu yaku Sweden, Telegrafverket idasankha mapangidwe opangidwa ndi Ericsson. Ma switch a Betulander ankangogwiritsidwa ntchito posinthanitsa matelefoni ang'onoang'ono kumadera akumidzi: ma relay anali odalirika kuposa ma switch a Motorola ndipo sankafuna akatswiri okonza pakusinthana kulikonse.
Komabe, akatswiri a mafoni a ku America anali ndi maganizo osiyana pankhaniyi. Mu 1930, akatswiri a Bell Labs anabwera ku Sweden ndipo "adachita chidwi kwambiri ndi magawo a coordinate switch module." Anthu a ku America atabwerera, nthawi yomweyo anayamba kugwira ntchito yomwe inadziwika kuti No. Pofika mu 1, zida ziwiri zotere zidakhazikitsidwa ku New York. Posakhalitsa zidakhala zida zosinthira matelefoni a mumzinda, mpaka ma switch amagetsi adalowa m'malo mwawo patatha zaka 1938.
Chigawo chochititsa chidwi kwambiri cha X-Switch No. 1 chinali chizindikiro chatsopano, chovuta kwambiri chopangidwa ku Bell. Linapangidwa kuti lifufuze njira yaulere kuchokera kwa woyimbirayo kupita kwa woyitanidwa kudzera mu ma module angapo olumikizana wina ndi mzake, potero kupanga kulumikizana kwa foni. Cholembacho chinayeneranso kuyesa kulumikizana kulikonse kwa chikhalidwe chaulere / chotanganidwa. Izi zinafunika kugwiritsira ntchito mfundo zomveka. Monga wolemba mbiri Robert Chapuis analemba:
Chisankhocho ndi chovomerezeka chifukwa kugwirizana kwaufulu kumangogwiritsidwa ntchito ngati kumapereka mwayi wopita ku gridi yomwe ili ndi mgwirizano waulere ku mlingo wotsatira monga zotsatira zake. Ngati ma seti angapo amalumikizidwe akwaniritsa zomwe mukufuna, ndiye kuti "lingaliro lokonda" limasankha imodzi mwamalumikizidwe ochepa kwambiri...
Kusinthana kogwirizanitsa ndi chitsanzo chabwino cha kuphatikizika kwamalingaliro aukadaulo. Betulander adapanga zosinthira zake zonse, kenako adaziwongolera ndi matrix osinthira a Reynolds ndikutsimikizira magwiridwe antchito ake. Pambuyo pake akatswiri a AT & T adakonzanso kusintha kosakanizidwa kumeneku, kuwongolera, ndikupanga Coordinate System No.
Ntchito ya masamu
Kuti timvetsetse momwe komanso chifukwa chomwe ma relay ndi abale awo apakompyuta adathandizira kusintha makompyuta, tifunika kuwunika mwachidule dziko la calculus. Pambuyo pake, zidzadziwikiratu chifukwa chake panali kufunika kobisika kwa kukhathamiritsa kwa njira zamakompyuta.
Pofika kuchiyambi kwa zaka za m’ma XNUMX, njira yonse ya sayansi yamakono ndi uinjiniya inali yozikidwa pa ntchito ya anthu masauzande ambiri owerengera masamu. Iwo anaitanidwa makompyuta (makompyuta) [Pofuna kupewa chisokonezo, mawuwa adzagwiritsidwa ntchito palemba lonse zowerengera. - Zindikirani. msewu]. Kalelo mu 1820s, Charles Babbage adapanga (ngakhale zida zake zinali ndi zoyambira zamaganizidwe). Ntchito yake yayikulu inali yopangira masitepe a masamu, mwachitsanzo pakuyenda (kuwerengera kwa ntchito za trigonometric ndi kuyerekezera kwa polynomial pa madigiri 0, madigiri 0,01, madigiri 0,02, ndi zina). Panalinso kufunikira kwakukulu kwa masamu a masamu mu zakuthambo: kunali kofunika kukonza zotsatira za mawonekedwe a telescopic m'madera osasunthika a thambo lakumwamba (malingana ndi nthawi ndi tsiku la kuwonetsetsa) kapena kudziwa njira za zinthu zatsopano (mwachitsanzo, mwachitsanzo, kuwerengera kwa masamu mu zakuthambo). comet ya Halley).
Kuyambira nthawi ya Babbage, kufunikira kwa makina apakompyuta kwawonjezeka nthawi zambiri. Makampani opanga magetsi amafunikira kuti amvetsetse momwe machitidwe otumizira magetsi a msana okhala ndi zinthu zovuta kwambiri. Mfuti zachitsulo za Bessemer, zomwe zimatha kuponya zipolopolo m'chizimezime (ndipo chifukwa chake, chifukwa choyang'ana chandamale, sizinali zolunjika), zimafunikira matebulo olondola kwambiri. Zida zatsopano zowerengera zomwe zinali ndi masamu ambiri (monga njira ya mabwalo ochepa) zidagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri mu sayansi ndi zida za boma zomwe zikukula. Madipatimenti apakompyuta adatulukira m'mayunivesite, mabungwe aboma, ndi makampani opanga mafakitale, omwe nthawi zambiri amalemba akazi.
Ma calculator amakina adangopangitsa vuto la kuwerengera kukhala losavuta, koma silinathetse. Zowerengera zidafulumizitsa ntchito za masamu, koma vuto lililonse lovuta la sayansi kapena uinjiniya limafunikira maopaleshoni mazana kapena masauzande, chilichonse chomwe chowerengera (chamunthu) chimayenera kuchita pamanja, ndikulemba mosamala zotsatira zonse zapakatikati.
Pali zinthu zingapo zomwe zinapangitsa kuti pakhale njira zatsopano zothetsera vuto la masamu. Asayansi achichepere ndi mainjiniya, omwe amawerengera mowawa ntchito zawo usiku, ankafuna kuti manja ndi maso awo apumule. Oyang'anira polojekiti adakakamizika kutulutsa ndalama zambiri kuti alandire malipiro a makompyuta ambiri, makamaka pambuyo pa nkhondo yoyamba yapadziko lonse. Pomaliza, mavuto ambiri apamwamba a sayansi ndi uinjiniya anali ovuta kuwerengera ndi manja. Zinthu zonsezi zinapangitsa kuti pakhale makompyuta angapo, ntchito yomwe inkachitika motsogoleredwa ndi Vannevar Bush, katswiri wa zamagetsi ku Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT).
Analyzer osiyanasiyana
Mpaka pano, mbiri nthawi zambiri imakhala yopanda umunthu, koma tsopano tiyamba kulankhula zambiri za anthu enieni. Kutchuka kudadutsa omwe adapanga chosinthira chamagulu, Type E relay ndi fiducial marker circuit. Palibe ngakhale zolemba zakale zomwe zatsalira za iwo. Umboni wokhawo womwe ulipo poyera wa moyo wawo ndi zotsalira za makina omwe adapanga.
Tsopano titha kumvetsetsa mozama za anthu komanso zakale. Koma sitidzakumananso ndi omwe adagwira ntchito molimbika mu attics ndi zokambirana kunyumba - Morse ndi Vail, Bell ndi Watson. Pofika kumapeto kwa nkhondo yoyamba ya padziko lonse, nthawi ya akatswiri opanga zinthu zakale inali itatsala pang’ono kutha. Thomas Edison akhoza kuonedwa ngati munthu wosinthika: pachiyambi cha ntchito yake anali woyambitsa ganyu, ndipo pamapeto pake anakhala mwini wa "fakitale yopangidwa." Panthaŵiyo, kutukula kwa umisiri watsopano wofunikira koposa kunali kofunika kwa mabungwe—mayunivesite, madipatimenti ofufuza amakampani, ma laboratories aboma. Anthu amene tikambirane m’chigawo chino anali m’mabungwe otere.
Mwachitsanzo, Vannevar Bush. Anafika ku MIT mu 1919, ali ndi zaka 29. Patapita zaka zoposa 20, iye anali mmodzi wa anthu amene anachititsa United States 'kuchita nawo nkhondo yachiwiri ya padziko lonse ndipo anathandiza kuonjezera ndalama za boma, amene anasintha kosatha ubale pakati pa boma, maphunziro, ndi chitukuko cha sayansi ndi luso. Koma cholinga cha nkhaniyi, tili ndi chidwi ndi mndandanda wa makina omwe anapangidwa mu labotale ya Bush kuyambira pakati pa zaka za m'ma 1920 ndipo cholinga chake chinali kuthetsa vuto la masamu.
MIT, yomwe inali itangochoka pakati pa Boston kupita kumtsinje wa Charles River ku Cambridge, inali yogwirizana kwambiri ndi zosowa zamakampani. Bush mwiniyo, kuwonjezera pa pulofesa wake, anali ndi zokonda zachuma m'mabizinesi angapo pazamagetsi. Chifukwa chake siziyenera kudabwitsa kuti vuto lomwe lidapangitsa Busch ndi ophunzira ake kuti agwiritse ntchito pakompyuta yatsopanoyo idachokera kumakampani opanga mphamvu: kutengera momwe ma mayendedwe opatsirana amachitira pansi pazovuta kwambiri. Mwachiwonekere, iyi inali imodzi yokha mwa njira zambiri zogwiritsira ntchito makompyuta: mawerengedwe otopetsa a masamu ankachitidwa paliponse.
Busch ndi anzake anayamba kupanga makina awiri otchedwa product integraphs. Koma makina otchuka kwambiri komanso opambana a MIT anali ena - zosiyana analyzer, yomalizidwa mu 1931. Iye anathetsa mavuto ndi kufala kwa magetsi, kuwerengetsera kanjira ma elekitironi, trajectories wa cheza cosmic mu dziko maginito munda, ndi zina zambiri. Ofufuza padziko lonse lapansi, akusowa mphamvu zamakompyuta, adapanga makope ambiri ndi mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya analyzer mu 1930s. Ena amachokera ku Meccano (analogue ya Chingerezi yamagulu omanga a ana aku America amtunduwo ).
Chowunikira chosiyana ndi kompyuta ya analogi. Ntchito zamasamu zidawerengedwa pogwiritsa ntchito ndodo zachitsulo zozungulira, liwiro la kuzungulira kwa chilichonse chomwe chimawonetsa kuchuluka kwake. Galimotoyo inkayendetsa ndodo yodziyimira payokha - yosinthika (kawirikawiri imayimira nthawi), yomwe, nayonso, inkazungulira ndodo zina (zosiyana zosiyana) kupyolera muzitsulo zamakina, ndipo ntchito inawerengedwa kutengera liwiro la kasinthasintha. Zotsatira za mawerengedwewo zidajambulidwa pamapepala ngati ma curve. Zofunikira kwambiri zinali zophatikiza - mawilo omwe amazungulira ngati ma disc. Ophatikiza amatha kuwerengera kuchuluka kwa curve popanda kuwerengera pamanja kotopetsa.
Analyzer osiyanasiyana. Integral module - yokhala ndi chivindikiro chokwezeka, pambali pawindo pali matebulo okhala ndi zotsatira za kuwerengera, ndipo pakati - gulu la ndodo zamakompyuta.
Palibe gawo lililonse la analyzer lomwe linali ndi masinthidwe osinthika kapena masiwichi aliwonse a digito. Ndiye n'chifukwa chiyani tikukamba za chipangizo ichi? Yankho ndilo chachinayi galimoto yabanja.
Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 1930, Bush adayamba chibwenzi ndi Rockefeller Foundation kuti apeze ndalama zopititsira patsogolo chitukuko cha analyzer. Warren Weaver, mutu wa maziko a sayansi ya chilengedwe, poyamba anali wosakhutitsidwa. Engineering sichinali gawo lake laukadaulo. Koma Busch adawonetsa kuthekera kopanda malire kwa makina ake atsopano ogwiritsira ntchito sayansi, makamaka mu sayansi ya masamu, polojekiti ya Weaver's pet. Bush adalonjezanso zosintha zambiri pa analyzer, kuphatikiza "kuthekera kosinthiratu chosanthula kuchokera ku vuto lina kupita ku lina, ngati chosinthira mafoni." Mu 1936, khama lake linapindula ndi ndalama zokwana madola 85 kuti apange chipangizo chatsopano, chomwe pambuyo pake chinatchedwa Rockefeller Differential Analyzer.
Monga kompyuta yothandiza, chowunikira ichi sichinali chopambana. Bush, yemwe adakhala wachiwiri kwa purezidenti wa MIT komanso dean of engineering, sanathe kuthera nthawi yochuluka kutsogolera chitukuko. M’chenicheni, iye posakhalitsa anachoka, nayamba ntchito monga tcheyamani wa Carnegie Institution mu Washington. Bush adawona kuti nkhondo ikuyandikira, ndipo anali ndi malingaliro angapo asayansi ndi mafakitale omwe atha kuthandiza ankhondo. Ndiko kuti, ankafuna kuti akhale pafupi ndi likulu la mphamvu, komwe angakhudze bwino kuthetsa nkhani zina.
Panthawi imodzimodziyo, mavuto aukadaulo omwe adapangidwa ndi mapangidwe atsopanowo adathetsedwa ndi ogwira ntchito ku labotale, ndipo posakhalitsa adayamba kupatutsidwa kukagwira ntchito pamavuto ankhondo. Makina a Rockefeller adamalizidwa mu 1942. Asilikali adawona kuti ndizothandiza kupanga pamizere yamatebulo a zida zankhondo. Koma posakhalitsa chipangizochi chinabisika digito makompyuta-oimira manambala osati monga kuchuluka kwa thupi, koma mwachiwonekere, pogwiritsa ntchito malo osinthira. Zinangochitika kuti analyzer "Rockefeller" anagwiritsa ntchito masiwiwi ambiri ofanana, wopangidwa ndi mabwalo kulandirana.
Shannon
Mu 1936, Claude Shannon anali ndi zaka 20 zokha, koma anali atamaliza maphunziro ake ku yunivesite ya Michigan ndi digiri ya bachelor mu engineering yamagetsi ndi masamu. Anabweretsedwa ku MIT ndi ntchentche yojambulidwa pa bolodi lazidziwitso. Vannevar Bush anali kuyang'ana wothandizira watsopano kuti agwire ntchito pa analyzer yosiyana. Shannon adatumiza pempho lake mosazengereza ndipo posakhalitsa anali kukonza zovuta zatsopano chipangizochi chisanayambike.
Shannon sanali ngati Bush. Iye sanali wamalonda, kapena womanga ufumu wamaphunziro, kapena woyang'anira. Moyo wake wonse ankakonda masewera, puzzles ndi zosangalatsa: chess, juggling, mazes, cryptograms. Monga amuna ambiri a m'nthawi yake, pa nthawi ya nkhondo Shannon adadzipereka ku bizinesi yaikulu: adagwira ntchito ku Bell Labs pansi pa mgwirizano wa boma, womwe unateteza thupi lake lofooka ku usilikali. Kafukufuku wake wokhudza kuwongolera moto ndi cryptography panthawiyi zidapangitsa kuti pakhale ntchito yayikulu pazachidziwitso (zomwe sitidzakhudza). M'zaka za m'ma 1950, pamene nkhondo ndi zotsatira zake zinachepa, Shannon adabwereranso kukaphunzitsa ku MIT, akuwononga nthawi yake yaulere pa zosokoneza: chowerengera chomwe chinagwira ntchito kokha ndi manambala achiroma; makina, atayatsidwa, mkono wamakina udawonekera kuchokera pamenepo ndikuzimitsa makinawo.
Mapangidwe a makina a Rockefeller omwe Shannon anakumana nawo anali ofanana ndi a 1931 analyzer, koma adapangidwa kuchokera kuzinthu zosiyana kwambiri. Busch anazindikira kuti ndodo ndi magiya omakina m’makina akale amachepetsa mphamvu ya kagwiritsidwe ntchito kake: kuti aŵerengetse, makinawo anafunikira kuikidwa, zimene zinafunikira maola ambiri a munthu akugwira ntchito ndi amakanika aluso.
The analyzer watsopano wataya drawback iyi. Mapangidwe ake sanakhazikike patebulo lokhala ndi ndodo, koma pa cholumikizira ma disc, chowonjezera choperekedwa ndi Bell Labs. M'malo motumiza mphamvu kuchokera ku shaft yapakati, gawo lililonse lofunikira lidayendetsedwa paokha ndi mota yamagetsi. Kukonza makinawo kuti athetse vuto latsopano, kunali kokwanira kungosintha ma relay mu matrix ogwirizanitsa kuti alumikizane ndi ophatikiza muzotsatira zomwe mukufuna. Wowerenga tepi wokhomeredwa (wobwerekedwa kuchokera ku chipangizo china cholumikizirana, cholembera cholembera) adawerenga masinthidwe a makinawo, ndipo dera lolumikizirana lidatembenuza chizindikirocho kuchokera patepi kupita kuzizindikiro zowongolera matrix - zinali ngati kukhazikitsa matelefoni angapo pakati pa ophatikiza.
Makina atsopanowo sanali ofulumira komanso osavuta kukhazikitsa, analinso othamanga komanso olondola kuposa omwe adayambitsa. Amatha kuthetsa mavuto ovuta kwambiri. Masiku ano kompyuta iyi ikhoza kuonedwa ngati yakale, ngakhale yopambanitsa, koma panthawiyo inkawoneka kwa owonerera kukhala anzeru - kapena owopsa - pantchito:
Kwenikweni, ndi loboti ya masamu. Makina opangira magetsi opangidwa ndi magetsi sanapangidwe kuti athetseretu ubongo wamunthu pamavuto owerengera ndi kusanthula, koma kuukira ndi kuthetsa mavuto a masamu omwe sangathe kuthetsedwa ndi malingaliro.
Shannon adayang'ana kwambiri pakusintha deta kuchokera pa tepi ya pepala kukhala malangizo a "ubongo", ndipo dera lopatsirana lidayambitsa ntchitoyi. Adawona kulumikizana pakati pa kapangidwe ka dera ndi masamu a Boolean algebra, omwe adaphunzira kusukulu yomaliza maphunziro ku Michigan. Iyi ndi algebra yomwe machitidwe ake anali ZOONA ndi ZABODZA, ndi ogwira ntchito - NDIPO, KAPENA, OSATI etc. Algebra yogwirizana ndi mawu omveka.
Atakhala m'chilimwe cha 1937 akugwira ntchito ku Bell Labs ku Manhattan (malo abwino oti aganizire za mabwalo otumizirana mauthenga), Shannon adalemba zolemba za mbuye wake zamutu wakuti "Kusanthula Kwachizindikiro kwa Maulendo Opatsirana ndi Kusintha". Pamodzi ndi ntchito ya Alan Turing chaka chatha, malingaliro a Shannon adapanga maziko a sayansi yamakompyuta.
M'zaka za m'ma 1940 ndi 1950, Shannon adamanga makina angapo apakompyuta / omveka: chowerengera cha THROBAC cha Roma, makina omaliza a chess, ndi Theseus, labyrinth yomwe mbewa ya electromechanical idasuntha (chithunzi)
Shannon adazindikira kuti kachitidwe ka ma logic equation atha kusinthidwa mwachindunji kukhala kagawo kakang'ono ka ma switch switch. Iye anamaliza kuti: “Pafupifupi opaleshoni iliyonse imene ingalongosoledwe m’masitepe oŵerengeka chabe pogwiritsa ntchito mawu NGATI, NDI, KAPENA etc., zitha kuchitidwa zokha pogwiritsa ntchito chingwe cholumikizira." Mwachitsanzo, mawotchi awiri oyendetsedwa ndi ma switch omwe amalumikizidwa mndandanda amapanga zomveka И: Yapano idzadutsa muwaya yayikulu pokhapokha ma electromagnets onse atsegulidwa kuti atseke zosinthira. Nthawi yomweyo, ma relay awiri olumikizidwa mu mawonekedwe ofanana OR: Panopa amayenda kudzera mudera lalikulu, loyendetsedwa ndi imodzi mwamagetsi amagetsi. Kutulutsa kozungulira kotereku kumatha, kuwongolera ma electromagnets a ma relay ena kuti apange magwiridwe antchito ovuta kwambiri monga (A. И B) kapena (C И G).
Shannon anamaliza maphunziro ake ndi zowonjezera zomwe zinali ndi zitsanzo zingapo za mabwalo opangidwa pogwiritsa ntchito njira yake. Chifukwa ntchito za Boolean algebra ndizofanana kwambiri ndi ntchito za masamu mu binary (i.e., kugwiritsa ntchito manambala a binary), adawonetsa momwe kutumizirana kungathe kusonkhanitsidwa kukhala "adder yamagetsi mu binary" - timachitcha kuti binary adder. Miyezi ingapo pambuyo pake, m'modzi mwa asayansi a Bell Labs adamanga chowotcha chotere patebulo lake lakukhitchini.
Stibitz
George Stibitz, wofufuza mu dipatimenti ya masamu ku likulu la Bell Labs ku Manhattan, adabweretsa kunyumba zida zachilendo usiku wamdima wa Novembala mu 1937. Ma cell a batire owuma, magetsi ang'onoang'ono ang'onoang'ono a mapanelo a Hardware, ndi ma relay angapo athyathyathya a Type U opezeka mu chinyalala. Powonjezera mawaya angapo ndi zonyansa zina, adasonkhanitsa chipangizo chomwe chitha kuwonjezera manambala awiri a binary (oyimiridwa ndi kupezeka kapena kusapezeka kwa voliyumu yolowera) ndikutulutsa manambala awiri pogwiritsa ntchito mababu: imodzi pa, zero. za off.
Binary Stiebitz adder
Stiebitz, wasayansi pophunzitsidwa, adafunsidwa kuti awone momwe maginito amalumikizirana. Iye analibe chidziwitso cham'mbuyomu ndi ma relay nkomwe ndipo adayamba ndikuphunzira kugwiritsa ntchito kwawo mumayendedwe amafoni a Bell. Posakhalitsa George adawona kufanana pakati pa mabwalo ena ndi ma masamu a binary. Mochita chidwi, anasonkhanitsa ntchito yake yapambali patebulo la kukhitchini.
Poyamba, kusewera kwa Stiebitz ndi ma relay kudadzutsa chidwi chochepa pakati pa oyang'anira Bell Labs. Koma mu 1938, mkulu wa gulu lofufuza adafunsa George ngati zowerengera zake zitha kugwiritsidwa ntchito pa masamu okhala ndi manambala ovuta (mwachitsanzo. ndi + bikumene i ndi sikweya mizu ya nambala yotsutsa). Zinapezeka kuti madipatimenti angapo apakompyuta ku Bell Labs anali akubuula kale chifukwa nthawi zonse amayenera kuchulukitsa ndikugawa manambala oterowo. Kuchulukitsa nambala imodzi yovuta kumafunikira ma masamu anayi pa chowerengera pakompyuta, magawo amafunikira ma 16. Stibitz adati atha kuthetsa vutoli ndikupanga makina owerengera owerengera ngati awa.
Mapangidwe omaliza, omwe adapangidwa muzitsulo ndi mainjiniya amafoni a Samuel Williams, adatchedwa Complex Number Computer - kapena Complex Computer mwachidule - ndipo idakhazikitsidwa mu 1940. Ma relay 450 adagwiritsidwa ntchito powerengera, zotsatira zapakatikati zidasungidwa muzosintha khumi zogwirizanitsa. Deta idalowetsedwa ndikulandilidwa pogwiritsa ntchito cholembera cholembera. Madipatimenti a Bell Labs adayika ma teletypes atatu otere, zomwe zikuwonetsa kufunikira kwakukulu kwamagetsi apakompyuta. Relays, masanjidwewo, ma teletypes - mwanjira iliyonse zidapangidwa ndi dongosolo la Bell.
Ola labwino kwambiri la Complex Computer lidafika pa Seputembara 11, 1940. Stiebitz anapereka lipoti pa kompyuta pamsonkhano wa American Masamu Society ku Dartmouth College. Anavomereza kuti mtundu wa telefoni ukhazikitsidwe kumeneko ndi telegraph yolumikizana ndi Complex Computer ku Manhattan, mtunda wa makilomita 400. Omwe ali ndi chidwi atha kupita ku teletype, kuyika zovuta pa kiyibodi ndikuwona momwe pasanathe mphindi imodzi teletype imasindikiza zotsatira zake. Ena mwa omwe anayesa mankhwala atsopanowa anali a John Mauchly ndi a John von Neumann, omwe aliyense wa iwo adzachita mbali yofunika kupitiriza nkhani yathu.
Ochita nawo msonkhanowo adawona mwachidule za dziko lamtsogolo. Pambuyo pake, makompyuta anakhala okwera mtengo kwambiri kotero kuti olamulira sanathenso kuwalola kukhala osagwira ntchito pamene wogwiritsa ntchitoyo akukanda chibwano chake patsogolo pa makina oyang’anira, akumadabwa kuti alemba chiyani kenako. Pazaka 20 zikubwerazi, asayansi akhala akuganiza za momwe angapangire makompyuta ogwiritsidwa ntchito nthawi zonse omwe amakhala akudikirira nthawi zonse kuti mulowetse deta mu iwo, ngakhale mukugwira ntchito zina. Kenako zaka zina 20 zidzadutsa mpaka njira yolumikizirana iyi ikhala dongosolo latsiku ndi tsiku.
Stiebitz kuseri kwa Dartmouth Interactive Terminal mu 1960s. Dartmouth College anali mpainiya pamakompyuta olumikizana. Stiebitz adakhala pulofesa waku koleji mu 1964
Ndizodabwitsa kuti, ngakhale pali mavuto omwe amathetsa, Complex Computer, ndi miyezo yamakono, si kompyuta konse. Ikhoza kuchita masamu pa manambala ovuta kwambiri ndipo mwina kuthetsa mavuto ena ofanana, koma osati mavuto onse. Izo sizinali zokonzeka. Sanathe kuchita maopaleshoni mwachisawawa kapena mobwerezabwereza. Chinali chowerengera chokhoza kuchita mawerengedwe ena bwino kwambiri kuposa mawerengedwe ake oyambirira.
Ndi kufalikira kwa Nkhondo Yadziko II, Bell, motsogozedwa ndi Stiebitz, adapanga makompyuta angapo otchedwa Model II, Model III ndi Model IV (Complex Computer, motero, adatchedwa Model I). Ambiri aiwo adamangidwa pofunsidwa ndi National Defense Research Committee, ndipo idatsogozedwa ndi Vannevar Bush. Stibitz adasintha kapangidwe ka makinawo potengera kusinthasintha kwa magwiridwe antchito komanso kusinthika kwadongosolo.
Mwachitsanzo, Ballistic Calculator (kenako Model III) inapangidwira zosowa za machitidwe oletsa moto oletsa ndege. Inayamba kugwira ntchito mu 1944 ku Fort Bliss, Texas. Chipangizocho chinali ndi ma relay okwana 1400 ndipo chitha kugwira ntchito zamasamu zotsatiridwa ndi malangizo otsatizana patepi yamapepala. Tepi yokhala ndi data yolowetsa idaperekedwa mosiyana, ndipo deta ya tabular idaperekedwa padera. Izi zidapangitsa kuti tipeze mwachangu zikhalidwe, mwachitsanzo, ntchito za trigonometric popanda kuwerengera kwenikweni. Akatswiri opanga ma Bell adapanga mabwalo apadera ofufuzira (mabwalo osaka) omwe amasanthula tepiyo kutsogolo / kumbuyo ndikufufuza adilesi ya mtengo womwe mukufuna, mosasamala kanthu za mawerengedwe. Stibitz adapeza kuti kompyuta yake ya Model III, ndikudina ma relay usana ndi usiku, idalowa m'malo mwa makompyuta 25-40.
Bell Model III Relay Racks
Galimoto ya Model V inalibenso nthawi yowona usilikali. Zasintha kwambiri komanso zamphamvu. Ngati tiyesa kuchuluka kwa makompyuta omwe adasinthidwa, ndiye kuti anali ochulukirapo kakhumi kuposa Model III. Ma module angapo apakompyuta omwe ali ndi ma relay 9 zikwizikwi amatha kulandira deta yolowera kuchokera kumasiteshoni angapo, pomwe ogwiritsa ntchito adalowa muzochita zosiyanasiyana. Chilichonse choterechi chinali ndi wowerenga matepi m'modzi kuti alowetse deta komanso asanu kuti adziwe malangizo. Izi zidapangitsa kuti zitheke kuyitanitsa ma subroutines osiyanasiyana kuchokera pa tepi yayikulu pakuwerengera ntchito. The main control module (makamaka analogue ya opareshoni) adagawa malangizo pakati pa ma module amakompyuta malinga ndi kupezeka kwawo, ndipo mapulogalamu amatha kuchita nthambi zokhazikika. Sichinalinso chowerengera chabe.
Chaka cha Zozizwitsa: 1937
Chaka cha 1937 chikhoza kuonedwa kuti ndi nthawi yosintha kwambiri mbiri ya makompyuta. Chaka chimenecho, Shannon ndi Stibitz adawona kufanana pakati pa ma relay ndi masamu. Zotsatirazi zidapangitsa Bell Labs kupanga makina ofunikira a digito. Zinali ngati - kapena kulowetsa m'malo - pomwe matelefoni ochepa, osasintha mawonekedwe ake, adakhala chithunzithunzi cha masamu ndi malingaliro.
M’chaka chomwecho m’magazini ya January ya kufalitsidwa Zokambirana za London Mathematical Society adasindikiza nkhani yolembedwa ndi katswiri wa masamu waku Britain Alan Turing “Pa manambala a computable molingana ndi "(Pa Manambala Owerengeka, Ndi Ntchito ku Enscheidungsproblem). Idafotokoza makina apakompyuta apadziko lonse lapansi: wolembayo adatsutsa kuti amatha kuchita zinthu zomwe zinali zofanana ndi zomwe makompyuta amunthu amachita. Turing, yemwe adalowa sukulu yomaliza maphunziro ku yunivesite ya Princeton chaka chathachi, adachitanso chidwi ndi mabwalo otumizirana mauthenga. Ndipo, monga Bush, akuda nkhawa ndi chiwopsezo chowonjezereka cha nkhondo ndi Germany. Choncho anayamba ntchito yolemba m’mbali mwachinsinsi—chochulukitsa kaŵirikaŵiri chomwe chikanatha kugwiritsidwa ntchito kubisa mauthenga ankhondo. Turing adazipanga kuchokera ku ma relay omwe adasonkhanitsidwa mu shopu yamakina aku yunivesite.
Komanso mu 1937, Howard Aiken anali kuganiza za makina opangira makina odzipangira okha. Wophunzira womaliza maphunziro a uinjiniya wamagetsi ku Harvard, Aiken adawerengera bwino pogwiritsa ntchito makina owerengera okha komanso mabuku osindikizidwa a matebulo a masamu. Anapereka lingaliro loti athetse chizolowezichi. Mosiyana ndi zida zapakompyuta zomwe zidalipo kale, idayenera kuti izingoyendetsa zokha komanso mozungulira, pogwiritsa ntchito zotsatira za mawerengedwe am'mbuyomu monga zolowera zina.
Pakadali pano, ku Nippon Electric Company, mainjiniya olankhulana ndi Akira Nakashima anali akuyang'ana kulumikizana pakati pa mabwalo olumikizirana ndi masamu kuyambira 1935. Potsirizira pake, mu 1938, iye yekha anatsimikizira kufanana kwa mabwalo a ma relay ku Boolean algebra, omwe Shannon anali atapeza chaka chammbuyomo.
Ku Berlin, Konrad Zuse, yemwe kale anali injiniya wa ndege atatopa ndi kuwerengetsa kosalekeza kofunikira pantchito, anali kufunafuna ndalama zopangira kompyuta yachiwiri. Sanathe kupeza makina ake oyamba, V1, kuti agwire ntchito modalirika, kotero adafuna kupanga kompyuta yolumikizirana, yomwe adapanga limodzi ndi mnzake, mainjiniya olankhulana ndi Helmut Schreyer.
Kusinthasintha kwa ma relay a telefoni, malingaliro okhudza masamu, chikhumbo cha malingaliro owala kuti achotse ntchito yododometsa maganizo - zonsezi zinagwirizanitsa ndipo zinachititsa kuti pakhale lingaliro la mtundu watsopano wa makina omveka.
M'badwo Woiwalika
Zipatso za zomwe adazipeza ndi zomwe zidachitika mu 1937 zidayenera kucha kwa zaka zingapo. Nkhondo inakhala fetereza yamphamvu kwambiri, ndipo m’kubwera kwake, makompyuta otumizirana mauthenga anayamba kuonekera kulikonse kumene kuli kofunikira ukatswiri waluso. Kulingalira kwa masamu kunakhala trellis kwa mipesa ya uinjiniya wamagetsi. Njira zatsopano zamakina opangira makompyuta zidatulukira—chithunzi choyamba cha makompyuta amakono.
Kuphatikiza pa makina a Stiebitz, pofika 1944 a US akhoza kudzitamandira ndi Harvard Mark I/IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), chifukwa cha pempho la Aiken. Dzina lachiwiri lidayamba chifukwa cha kuwonongeka kwa ubale pakati pa maphunziro ndi mafakitale: aliyense adanena kuti ali ndi ufulu pa chipangizochi. Mark I/ASCC idagwiritsa ntchito ma relay control circuits, koma masamu akulu akulu adatengera kamangidwe ka IBM calculator mechanical. Galimotoyo idapangidwa kuti ikwaniritse zosowa za US Bureau of Shipbuilding. Woloŵa m’malo mwake, Mark II, anayamba kugwira ntchito mu 1948 pamalo oyesera a Nkhondo ya pamadzi, ndipo ntchito zake zonse zinali zozikidwa pa maulumikizidwe—maulumikizidwe 13.
Panthawi ya nkhondo, Zuse adamanga makompyuta angapo otumizirana maulumikizidwe, omwe anali ovuta kwambiri. Pamapeto pake panali V4, yomwe, monga Bell Model V, idaphatikizanso zoimbira ma subroutines ndikuchita nthambi zovomerezeka. Chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa zinthu ku Japan, palibe zopanga za Nakashima ndi anzawo zomwe zidadziwika muzitsulo mpaka dzikolo litachira kunkhondo. M'zaka za m'ma 1950, Unduna wa Zamalonda ndi Zamakampani womwe udangopangidwa kumene unapereka ndalama zopangira makina awiri otumizirana mauthenga, yachiwiri yomwe inali chilombo chokhala ndi ma relay 20. Fujitsu, yemwe adagwira nawo ntchito yolenga, adapanga malonda ake.
Masiku ano makinawa akuiwalika pafupifupi kotheratu. Dzina limodzi lokha lomwe latsala m'chikumbukiro - ENIAC. Chifukwa cha kuiwalika sichikhudzana ndi zovuta, kapena kuthekera kwawo, kapena liwiro. Zowerengera komanso zomveka za ma relay, zopezedwa ndi asayansi ndi ofufuza, zimagwira ntchito pamtundu uliwonse wa chipangizo chomwe chimagwira ngati chosinthira. Ndipo zidachitika kuti chida china chofananira chidapezeka - zamagetsi chosinthira chomwe chimatha kugwira ntchito mwachangu kwambiri kuposa mawotchi.
Kufunika kwa Nkhondo Yachiwiri Yadziko Lonse m'mbiri ya makompyuta kuyenera kukhala koonekeratu. Nkhondo yowopsya kwambiri inakhala chilimbikitso cha chitukuko cha makina apakompyuta. Kukhazikitsidwa kwake kunamasula zinthu zofunikira kuti zithetse zolakwika zoonekeratu za ma switch amagetsi. Ulamuliro wa makompyuta a electromechanical unali waufupi. Mofanana ndi a Titans, anagonjetsedwa ndi ana awo. Monga ma relay, kusintha kwamagetsi kudachokera ku zosowa zamakampani opanga matelefoni. Ndipo kuti tidziwe komwe idachokera, tiyenera kubwezeretsa mbiri yathu kamphindi kumayambiriro kwa nyengo ya wailesi.
Source: www.habr.com