Zaka zoposa 100 zapitazo, asayansi anali ndi chidwi ndi luso la ubongo ndipo anayesa kumvetsa ngati n'zotheka mwanjira ina. Mu 1875, dokotala wachingelezi Richard Cato adatha kuzindikira malo ofooka a magetsi pamtunda wa ubongo wa akalulu ndi anyani. Ndiye panali zinthu zambiri zomwe zinapezedwa ndi kufufuza, koma mu 1950, pulofesa wa physiology ku Yale University, Jose Manuel Rodriguez Delgado, anapanga chipangizo cha Stimosiver, chomwe chikhoza kuikidwa mu ubongo ndipo chinkayendetsedwa pogwiritsa ntchito mawailesi.
Maphunziro anachitidwa pa anyani ndi amphaka. Chifukwa chake, kukondoweza kwa gawo lina laubongo kudzera pa electrode yobzalidwa kudapangitsa kuti mphakayo akweze mwendo wake wakumbuyo. Malinga ndi Delgado, chinyamacho sichinasonyeze zizindikiro zowawa panthawiyi.
Ndipo patapita zaka 13, wasayansi anakhala - anaika zolimbikitsa mu ubongo wa ng'ombe yamphongo ndikuyilamulira kudzera pa chotengera chonyamulika.
Momwemo idayamba nthawi ya ma neural interfaces ndi matekinoloje omwe amatha kukulitsa luso lachilengedwe laumunthu. Kale mu 1972, implant ya cochlear inayamba kugulitsidwa, yomwe inatembenuza phokoso kukhala chizindikiro chamagetsi, ndikutumiza ku ubongo ndipo inalola kuti anthu omwe ali ndi vuto lalikulu lakumva kumva. Ndipo mu 1973, mawu oti "mawonekedwe apakompyuta" adagwiritsidwa ntchito koyamba. Mu 1998, wasayansi Philip Kennedy adayika mawonekedwe oyamba a neural mwa wodwala, woimba Johnny Ray. Pambuyo pa sitiroko, Johnny analephera kusuntha. Koma chifukwa cha kuikidwa m’thupi, anaphunzira kusuntha cholozeracho pongoyerekeza kusuntha kwa manja ake.
Kutsatira asayansi, lingaliro lopanga mawonekedwe a neural lidatengedwa ndi mabizinesi akuluakulu ndi oyambitsa. Facebook ndi Elon Musk adalengeza kale cholinga chawo chopanga dongosolo lomwe lingathandize kulamulira zinthu ndi mphamvu yamaganizo. Ena amayika ziyembekezo zawo pamawonekedwe a neural - matekinoloje amalola anthu olumala kubwezeretsa ntchito zomwe zatayika, kukonza kukonzanso kwa munthu yemwe wadwala sitiroko kapena kuvulala koopsa muubongo. Ena amakayikira za chitukuko choterocho, akukhulupirira kuti kugwiritsidwa ntchito kwawo kuli ndi mavuto azamalamulo ndi achikhalidwe.
Zikhale momwe zingakhalire, pali osewera okwanira pamsika. Ngati mukhulupirira , zinthu zina zathetsedwa kale, koma zina zonse nzotchuka kwambiri ndipo n’zotsika mtengo.
Kodi mawonekedwe a neural ndi chiyani ndipo angagwiritsidwe ntchito bwanji?
Mitundu ya Mafunde a Ubongo
Neural interface ndi njira yotumizirana mauthenga pakati pa ubongo wa munthu ndi chipangizo chamagetsi. Iyi ndi teknoloji yomwe imalola munthu kuyanjana ndi dziko lakunja pogwiritsa ntchito kujambula ntchito yamagetsi ya ubongo - electroencephalogram (EEG). Chikhumbo cha munthu kuchitapo kanthu chikuwonekera mu kusintha kwa EEG, komwe kumazindikiridwa ndi kompyuta.
Ma Neurointerfaces amatha kukhala amodzi kapena awiri. Yoyambayo imalandira mauthenga kuchokera ku ubongo kapena kuwatumiza kwa iwo. Omaliza amatha kutumiza ndi kulandira zizindikiro nthawi imodzi.
Pali njira zingapo zoyezera zizindikiro za ubongo. Iwo amagawidwa mu mitundu itatu.
- Zosasokoneza. Masensa amaikidwa pamutu kuti ayeze mphamvu zamagetsi zopangidwa ndi ubongo (EEG) ndi magnetic field (MEG).
- Semi-invasive. Ma electrode amayikidwa pamalo owonekera a ubongo.
- Zosokoneza. Ma Microelectrodes amayikidwa mwachindunji mu cerebral cortex, kuyeza ntchito ya neuron imodzi.
Chofunika kwambiri cha mawonekedwe a neural ndikuti amakulolani kuti mugwirizane mwachindunji ndi ubongo. Kodi izi zingachite chiyani pochita? Ma Neural interfaces, mwachitsanzo, angapangitse kuti zikhale zosavuta kapena kusintha kwambiri miyoyo ya anthu olumala. Ena sangathe kulemba, kusuntha kapena kulankhula. Koma panthawi imodzimodziyo, ubongo wawo umagwira ntchito. Maonekedwe a neural adzalola anthuwa kuchita zinthu zina powerenga zolinga pogwiritsa ntchito maelekitirodi olumikizidwa ku ubongo.
Njira ina yogwiritsira ntchito mawonekedwe a neural idapangidwa ndi asayansi aku America omwe adapanga cyber prosthesis yomwe imatha kuwongolera kukumbukira kwamunthu ndi 30%. Chipangizochi chimapanga mphamvu za minyewa zomwe zimathandiza wodwalayo kukumbukira zatsopano ndi kukumbukira nkhope za achibale. Zikuyembekezeka kuti chitukukochi chithandizira kuthana ndi matenda a dementia, matenda a Alzheimer's ndi mavuto ena okumbukira.
Kuphatikiza pa thanzi, mawonekedwe a neural angagwiritsidwe ntchito pa chitukuko cha munthu, ntchito ndi zosangalatsa, komanso kugwirizana ndi ena. Ndiye, ndi zinthu ziti zosangalatsa zomwe neurotechnology ingapereke m'malo awa?
Kukhala wangwiro
Mwina gawo lodziwika bwino la kugwiritsa ntchito ma neural interfaces ndi mitundu yonse ya ntchito ndikukulitsa luso lililonse laumunthu. Maphunziro osiyanasiyana amaperekedwa kwa izi, machitidwe opititsa patsogolo luso lamaganizidwe, machitidwe osinthira khalidwe, machitidwe oletsa kupsinjika maganizo, ADHD, machitidwe ogwirira ntchito ndi psycho-emotional states, ndi zina zotero. Zochita zamtunduwu zimakhalanso ndi mawu akeake, "Brain Fitness".
Kodi tanthauzo la lingalirolo ndi chiyani? Chifukwa cha maphunziro ambiri, malingaliro ena otsimikiziridwa adapangidwa okhudza momwe izi kapena ubongo umayenderana ndi chidziwitso chaumunthu. Ma algorithms awonekera kuti athe kudziwa kuchuluka kwa chidwi, kukhazikika komanso kusinkhasinkha, komanso kupumula kwamalingaliro. Onjezani ku izi luso lowerenga EEG ndi electromyography (EMG), ndipo zotsatira zake ndi chithunzi cha momwe munthu alili panopa.
Ndipo pamene mukufunikira kuphunzira momwe mungapangire chikhalidwe chamaganizo-maganizo, munthu amadziphunzitsa yekha kugwiritsa ntchito chipangizo chomwe mawonekedwe a neural amalumikizidwa. Pali mapulogalamu ambiri owonera ma EEG ndi ma psycho-emotional state; sitingawafotokoze onse. Kuphunzitsa kuyitanira munthu ku chikhalidwe chofunikira cha chidziwitso amachitidwa pogwiritsa ntchito ukadaulo wa biofeedback EEG (biofeedback yochokera pa electroencephalography).
Mmene zimaonekera pochita: Makolo amafuna kupititsa patsogolo luso la mwana wawo pamaphunziro ndi kuthana ndi ADHD (matenda atcheru olephera kuchita bwino). Kuti muchite izi, gwiritsani ntchito pulogalamu yapadera (mwachitsanzo, kuchokera ), kusankha zokonzekera zophunzitsira zomwe mukufuna: kulingalira, kuganizira, kupumula, kusinkhasinkha, kupewa hyperconcentration. Sankhani pulogalamu yophunzitsira ndende. Ndipo amachiyambitsa.
Pulogalamuyi imapereka maphunziro kwa ana momwe amafunikira kuti mafunde a Alpha ndi Beta akhale pamwamba pamlingo wina wake. Mafunde sayenera kugwa pansi pa mlingo winawake. Nthawi yomweyo, vidiyo yomwe makolo amasankha imaseweredwa pawindo la pulogalamu. Mwachitsanzo, mumaikonda zojambula. Mwana amangoyang'ana zojambulazo, kuyang'anira milingo ya mafunde a Alpha ndi Beta ndipo samachita china chilichonse. Pambuyo pake, biofeedback imabwera. Ntchito ya mwana ndikusunga ma Alpha ndi Beta panthawi yonse yophunzitsidwa.
Ngati imodzi mwa miyeso ikugwera pansi pa chizindikiro chofunika, zojambulazo zimasokonezedwa. Pa maphunziro oyambirira, mwanayo amayesa kutanthawuza kubwerera ku dziko ankafuna kuti awonere zojambula. Koma pakapita nthawi, ubongo udzaphunzira kubwereranso ku chikhalidwe ichi ngati utagwa (malinga ngati chithunzicho ndi chosangalatsa kwa mwanayo, ndipo malo owonera ndi "omasuka" kwa ubongo). Zotsatira zake, mwanayo amakulitsa luso lopangitsa kuti pakhale ndende yofunikira, komanso kuthekera kosunga ndende pamlingo wina.
Zikuwoneka zowopsa, koma musathamangire kuchita mantha ndikuyitana oyang'anira oyang'anira. Palinso njira zosavuta zochokera pamasewera. Mwachitsanzo, kuchokera ku NeuroSky. Ntchito ya wosewerayo ndi kupangitsa nyerere kukankhira chinthu cholunjika ku chulu. Koma kuti nyerere zisunthike popanda kuyimitsa, m'pofunika kusunga mlingo wina wa ndende pamwamba pa mfundo inayake pamlingo wofanana.
Mukaika maganizo anu pa zimene zikuchitika, nyerere imakankha chinthucho. Mlingo wa ndende ukangotsika, nyerere imayima ndipo mumataya nthawi, ndikuwonjezera zotsatira zanu. Ndi mlingo uliwonse, masewerawa amakhala ovuta kwambiri pamene mlingo wofunikira wa ndende ukuwonjezeka. Palinso zododometsa zina.
Chifukwa chophunzitsidwa nthawi zonse, wogwiritsa ntchitoyo amakulitsa luso lokhalabe ndi chidwi komanso chidwi pa ntchito yomwe akugwira, mosasamala kanthu za zosokoneza zakunja kapena zamkati. Apa zonse zili ngati masewera, ndizosatheka kupeza thupi lothamanga kupita kumalo ochitira masewera olimbitsa thupi kangapo kapena kudya chitini cha mapuloteni. Kafukufuku wokhudza biofeedback EEG wasonyeza kuti zotsatira za maphunziro amtunduwu zimangowoneka pambuyo pa masiku 20 a magawo okhazikika a mphindi 20 aliyense.
Zosangalatsa
Ma Neuroheadsets amaperekanso mwayi wosangalala. Koma masewera onse ndi ntchito zosangalatsa ndi zida zodzipangira nokha. Mukamasewera masewera kudzera mu mawonekedwe a neural, mumagwiritsa ntchito chidziwitso cha chidziwitso chanu kuwongolera otchulidwa. Choncho phunzirani kuwalamulira.
Masewera a Masewera Oponya Magalimoto Ndi Malingaliro Anu adapanga phokoso lambiri m'mbuyomu. Khalidweli limayendetsedwa molingana ndi chiwembu chowombera munthu woyamba, koma mutha kulimbana ndi osewera ena mothandizidwa ndi malingaliro. Kuti muchite izi, magawo a wosewera ndi kusinkhasinkha akuwonetsedwa pawunivesite yamasewera.
Kuti muponye bokosi, galimoto, kapena chinthu china chilichonse chochokera kumalo amasewerawo kwa mdani wanu, muyenera kuchinyamulira mlengalenga pogwiritsa ntchito mphamvu zanu zamalingaliro ndikuchiponyera mdani wanu. Ikhozanso "kuwulukira" kwa inu, kotero kuti amene amagwiritsa ntchito bwino luso la kulingalira ndi kusinkhasinkha amapambana mkanganowo. Zinali zosangalatsa kwambiri kumenyana ndi mphamvu zamaganizo motsutsana ndi otsutsa enieni. Pakati pamasewera aposachedwa tinganene kuchokera ku MyndPlay.
Opanga amaperekanso zosankha zamasewera opanda phokoso. Mwachitsanzo, mapulogalamu angapo otchuka amasewera nthawi imodzi. Muyeneranso kutchulapo masewerawa MyndPlay . Ndi zophweka: muyenera kuwombera katatu kuchokera ku uta ndikulemba kuchuluka kwa mfundo. Pa kuwombera kulikonse mutha kupeza mfundo 10. Pogwiritsa ntchito zowonera, masewerawa amakumiza m'malo ake, pambuyo pake khalidwe lanu likhoza kuyamba kuyang'ana pa chandamale. A ndende mlingo chizindikiro limapezeka player zenera. Kukwera ndende, kuyandikira kwa khumi muvi udzagunda. Kuwombera kwachiwiri kumafuna kuti mulowe mu chikhalidwe cha kusinkhasinkha kuti mugunde. Kuwombera kwachitatu kudzafuna kulimbikitsanso. Umu ndi momwe masewerawa amasonyezera momveka bwino mphamvu zosangalatsa za neural interfaces.
Kuphatikiza pamasewera, palinso ma neurofilms olumikizana. Ingoganizirani: mudakhala pa sofa, kuvala chomutu ndikuwayatsa filimu yokhudzana ndi ochita masewera olimbitsa thupi. Panthawi ina, nthawi imayamba pamene skater wathamanga ndipo watsala pang'ono kulumpha. Pakadali pano, muyenera kukhala skater nokha kuti muyang'ane kwambiri kulumpha ndikusungabe chidziwitso mpaka wotchulidwayo amaliza kulumpha. Ndi kukhazikika kokwanira (kofanana ndi moyo weniweni komanso mulingo womwe udzafunikire zenizeni), wosewera mpira mufilimuyo adumphira bwino ndipo chiwembucho chidzapita ku foloko yotsatira. Ngati ndendeyo inali motere, ndiye kuti skater idzagwa, ndipo filimuyo idzatsatira nkhani ina.
Anajambula kale mofananamo mu kalembedwe ka Guy Ritchie, komanso angapo mafilimu ena. Ndipotu, chiwembu ndi kutha kwa filimuyo mwachindunji zimadalira khama lanu. Ndipo zikuwoneka zosangalatsa kwambiri.
Malingaliro osavuta komanso anthambi a chitukuko cha chiwembu
Kugwiritsa ntchito
Kuphatikiza pa mapulogalamu ophunzitsira ndi zosangalatsa, opanga mapulogalamu apanga mapulogalamu ambiri omwe amapangidwa kuti azigwiritsidwa ntchito mwaukadaulo. Chitsanzo ndi pulogalamu ya MindRec, yomwe inapangidwira zachipatala, zamasewera, zamaganizo wamba ndi akatswiri a maganizo omwe amagwira ntchito ndi oimira mabungwe azamalamulo.
Kodi amagwiritsidwa ntchito bwanji? Munthuyo amavala neuroheadset, katswiri wa zamaganizo amayambitsa pulogalamuyo ndikuyamba gawolo. Pamsonkhanowu, mfundo zotsatirazi zimayang'aniridwa ndikujambulidwa mu kukumbukira makompyuta, zomwe ndi: mlingo wokhazikika, kutchera khutu, mlingo wa kusinkhasinkha, chizindikiro cha EEG yaiwisi, mumitundu ingapo yowonetsera nthawi imodzi, kuyambira 0 mpaka 70 Hz. . Zizindikiro zogawidwa m'mafupipafupi omwe amapanga sipekitiramu ya chizindikiro chachikulu. Kuwonongeka kumapangidwa m'magulu 8: Delta, Theta, Low Alpha, High Alpha, Low Beta, High Beta, Low Gamma, High Gamma. Ngati ndi kotheka, zojambulidwa ndi mavidiyo a zochita za katswiri wa zamaganizo amachitidwa.
Zomwe zidalembedwa zitha kuwunikiranso, kuwona zonse zomwe zidawonetsedwa munthawi yeniyeni pagawoli. Ngati katswiri wa zamaganizo sanazindikire chinachake nthawi yomweyo, ndiye pamene akubwerezanso phunzirolo kapena maphunziro, akhoza kuphunzira kusintha kwa kayendedwe ka ubongo ndi kuziyerekeza ndi chidziwitso cha audiovisual. Ichi ndi chida chamtengo wapatali kwa katswiri aliyense m'munda.
Njira ina ndi neuromarketing. The neuroheadset imakulolani kuti muzichita kafukufuku wamalonda chifukwa imasonyeza momwe munthu amamvera pazochitika zina zamalonda. Izi ndizothandiza kwambiri, chifukwa panthawi yofufuza ndi mafunso anthu sakhala owona mtima nthawi zonse. Ndipo neurostudy ikuthandizani kuti muwone yankho lenileni, loona mtima komanso lopanda tsankho. Mwa kusonkhanitsa gulu lolunjika ndikuyesa kuyesa pogwiritsa ntchito ma neuroheadset, mutha kupeza zotsatira zomwe zili pafupi ndi zenizeni momwe mungathere.
Kuyanjana ndi zida zakunja
Mbali ina yosangalatsa yogwira ntchito ndi ma neuroheadsets ndikuwongolera kutali kwa zida zakunja. Zotchuka kwambiri pakati pa ana, mwachitsanzo, ndi masewera othamanga omwe amalola mpikisano pakati pa awiri, atatu ndi anayi otenga nawo mbali. Nachi chitsanzo chodziwika bwino chamasewera otere:
Kodi mukufuna kusewera ndi zina? Chonde, nazi zitukuko zina zomwe zadziwikanso.
Helikopita ya Orbit Helicopter
Helikoputala ya chidole yomwe imayendetsedwa ndi mphamvu yamalingaliro. Mtundu wokhazikika umakupatsani mwayi wowongolera kutalika kwa ndege ya helikopita, koma pali zowonjezera zambiri zomwe zimatembenuza chidole ichi kukhala makina olimba muubongo. Ndemanga .
Zen Lampu
Nyali imawonetsa mkhalidwe wanu wamaganizo-mumtima mwa mawonekedwe a kuwala kwa mtundu wina. Zabwino pakukulitsa luso la kusinkhasinkha.
Force Trainer II
Kanthu kakang'ono kosangalatsa kwambiri. Amapanga chithunzi cha holographic cha malo amasewera ndi zinthu mkati mwa piramidi yowonekera. Ndipo wosewerayo, pogwiritsa ntchito malamulo aubongo, amawongolera zinthu izi.
Necomimi
Makutu okongola amphaka akhala otchuka padziko lonse lapansi. Chipangizocho chimadzikwanira chokha ndipo sichifuna kulumikizidwa ndi kompyuta kapena foni yamakono. Wogwiritsa ntchito amavala makutu, amawatembenuza ndikupeza mwayi wosonyeza maganizo ake (psycho-emotional state) posuntha makutu awa. Mwa njira, mankhwala ofanana, , sanakhale wotchuka ngakhale kudziko lakwawo, Japan. Komwe chomverera m'makutu chinayikidwa pankhaniyi, mutha kudziwerengera nokha.
Neuro-headset - zosangalatsa kapena chida chothandiza?
Powerenga nkhaniyi, zitha kuwoneka kuti ma neural interfaces ndi mahedifoni amapangidwira makamaka kusangalatsa munthu kapena kuseketsa kupsinjika kwake. Komabe, izi sizowona ayi. Neuroheadset, pamodzi ndi mapulogalamu oyenera, angathandize kukulitsa chiwalo pambuyo povulala kwambiri ndikuchepetsa zotsatira zoyipa za kuvulala koopsa. Choncho, asayansi akugwiritsa ntchito kwambiri sayansi ya ubongo kuthandiza anthu.
Mwachitsanzo, mu 2016, asayansi a ku America ochokera ku yunivesite ya Johns Hopkins adapanga mawonekedwe a neural omwe amathandiza kulamulira zala zamtundu wa biomechanical prosthesis. Patatha chaka chimodzi, anzawo aku Austrian ochokera ku yunivesite ya Graz adapanga njira yolembera nyimbo pogwiritsa ntchito mphamvu yamalingaliro. Zapangidwira anthu olumala omwe ali ndi luso loimba.
Akatswiri ochokera ku yunivesite ya California pogwiritsa ntchito mawonekedwe a neural, neuromuscular stimulation ndi kuyimitsidwa wopuwala kuyambira m'chiuno kupita pansi. Ndipo ofufuza aku Brazil, pamodzi ndi anzawo aku USA, Switzerland ndi Germany, adatha pang'ono mwa odwala omwe amagwiritsa ntchito mawonekedwe a neural, zenizeni zenizeni ndi exoskeleton. Kupititsa patsogolo kukuchitikanso kuti azitha kulumikizana ndi odwala omwe ali ndi vuto lotsekeka. Ukadaulowu udzathandiza kuzindikira odwala otere, kulumikizana nawo, ndikubwezeretsa kuwongolera thupi.
Facebook yayamba ntchito pa mawonekedwe osasokoneza a neural omwe angathandize ogwiritsa ntchito kulemba popanda kiyibodi. Nissan yapanga mawonekedwe amakina aubongo kuti awerenge malingaliro akuyendetsa galimoto kuti asinthe nthawi yochitira. Ndipo Elon Musk akufuna ngakhale kulumikiza ubongo ndi kompyuta kuti asatenge dziko lapansi ndi nzeru zopangira.
Makampani aku Russia sangadzitamandebe pazochita zambiri m'munda waukadaulo wama neurotechnologies. Komabe, Rostec posachedwapa anapereka chitsanzo choyambirira cha chipangizo chomwe chingathandize kusinthana pakati pa ubongo ndi chipangizo chakunja. Chisoticho chinapangidwa ndi Institute of Electronic Control Machines (INEUM) yotchedwa. I. S. Brook. Zimaganiziridwa kuti mawonekedwe a neural apangitsa kuti athe kuwongolera zida zamagetsi ndi zamagetsi: ma prosthetics, magalimoto.
Ndi chiyani chomwe chikuyembekezera msika wa neural interface?
Malingana ndi , msika wamakompyuta wapadziko lonse lapansi udzafika $2022 biliyoni pofika 1,72. Tsopano gawo lalikulu la kugwiritsa ntchito ma neural interfaces ndi mankhwala, koma malo osangalatsa, komanso magulu ankhondo ndi mafakitale, akukula mwachangu. Chomverera m'makutu chowongolera loboti yankhondo sichikhalanso chongopeka chokoma cha anthu ovala yunifolomu, koma vuto lomwe lingathetsedwe.
Chifukwa chakuti ma headset a neural amapereka malo otseguka omwe angagwiritsidwe ntchito kupanga mapulogalamu anu, neuroprogramming yachinsinsi ikukulanso. Mwachitsanzo, m'modzi mwa atsogoleri amsika, NeuroSky, amapezeka kwa opanga kwaulere. Zotsatira zake, mapulogalamu ochulukirachulukira akuwonekera omwe amagwiritsa ntchito luso la nsanja iyi.
Tiyeni tizindikire kuti kuyambitsa kufalikira kwa ma neural interfaces ndi tchipisi taubongo sikungoyang'ana kuthandizira, komanso kutsutsidwa. Kumbali imodzi, ma neural interfaces amatha kusintha chithandizo chamankhwala ovulala muubongo, ziwalo, khunyu kapena schizophrenia. Kumbali ina, matekinoloje oterowo angapangitse kusiyana pakati pa anthu.
Pali zodetsa nkhawa kuti pakali pano palibe malamulo kapena malamulo oyendetsera ma elekitirodi kwa munthu wathanzi. Kuonjezera apo, mawonekedwe a neural angapangitse ubongo waumunthu kukhala chinthu chomwe maboma, otsatsa malonda, owononga, reptilians ndi anthu ena angafune kulowamo, zomwe munthu wabwinobwino sangasangalale nazo. Ndipo kawirikawiri, mawonekedwe a neural ndi mahedifoni amatha kusintha mawonekedwe a munthu, kukhudza psyche yake ndi zochitika zake payekha, ndikusokoneza kumvetsetsa kwa anthu monga zolengedwa zakuthupi.
Mwambiri, zikuwonekeratu kuti ma neurotechnologies apitiliza kukula. Koma n’zosatheka kuneneratu kuti ndi liti pamene zidzafikadi ndipo n’zothandiza kwambiri.
Ndi chiyani chinanso chomwe chili chosangalatsa pabulogu?
→
→
→
→
→
Source: www.habr.com