Kulakwitsa kwa Wopulumuka

"Chitetezo" ndi chizindikiro chabwino cha zinthu zoipa.
Milton Friedman "Ufulu Wosankha"

Lembali linapezedwa chifukwa chopenda ndemanga zina m'nkhani "Monga Zowonongeka" и "Economics ndi Ufulu Wachibadwidwe".

Pomasulira mfundo iliyonse ndi kufotokoza maganizo ake, othirira ndemanga ena anapanga “kulakwitsa kwa wopulumuka” kumene.

Kodi kukondera kwa opulumuka ndi chiyani? Izi poganizira zodziwika ndi kunyalanyaza zosadziwika koma zomwe zilipo.

Chitsanzo cha “mtengo” wa kulakwa kwa wopulumuka ndi chitsanzo cha kugonjetsa mwachipambano cholakwacho ndicho ntchito ya katswiri wa masamu wa ku Hungary Abraham Wald, amene anagwira ntchito kwa gulu lankhondo la Amereka mkati mwa Nkhondo Yadziko II.

Lamuloli linapatsa Wald ntchito yofufuza mabowo a zipolopolo ndi zipolopolo za ndege za ku America ndi kupempha njira yosungitsira kuti oyendetsa ndege ndi ndege asafe.

Zinali zosatheka kugwiritsa ntchito zida zosalekeza - ndegeyo inali yolemera kwambiri. Zinali zofunikira kusungitsa malo omwe adawonongeka, pomwe zipolopolo zimagunda, kapena malo omwe sanawonongeke. Otsutsa a Wald adanena kuti asungire mipando yowonongeka (yomwe ili ndi madontho ofiira pachithunzichi).

Wald anatsutsa. Ananenanso kuti ndege zomwe zidawonongeka ngati izi zimatha kubwerera, pomwe ndege zomwe zidawonongeka m'malo ena sizimatha kubwerera. Malingaliro a Wald adapambana. Ndegezo zidasungidwa pomwe palibe kuwonongeka kwa ndege yobwerera. Chifukwa chake, kuchuluka kwa ndege zomwe zidapulumuka zidakwera kwambiri. Malinga ndi malipoti ena, Wald anapulumutsa moyo wa pafupifupi 30 peresenti ya oyendetsa ndege a ku America motere. (Ndikhoza kukhala ndikulakwitsa paziwerengerozi, koma zotsatira zake zinali zazikulu. Wald anapulumutsa miyoyo yambiri).

Chitsanzo china cha “chinyengo cha wopulumuka” ndi nkhani ya Cicero ya mawu a Diagoras wa ku Melos, amene, poyankha mkangano wokomera malumbiro kwa milungu, chifukwa pali “zithunzi zambiri za chipulumutso cha anthu amene anagwidwa. mumkuntho ndi kulumbira kwa milungu kupanga lumbiro la mtundu wina,” anayankha motero, kuti “komabe zifaniziro zirizonse za iwo amene anafera panyanja chifukwa cha kusweka kwa ngalawa palibe.

Ndipo choyamba "cholakwa chopulumuka" mu ndemanga za nkhaniyi "Monga Zowonongeka" ndikuti sitikudziwa kuti ndi malingaliro angati abwino, othandiza, anzeru, zolengedwa, zopanga, ntchito zasayansi zomwe zidakwiriridwa ndi "zosakonda" zosiyanasiyana, "zonyalanyaza" ndi "zoletsa".

Ndidzatenga mawu a Mr. @Sen: "Palibe amene akudziwa kuti ndi malingaliro angati abwino omwe adatulutsidwa, osasindikizidwa, osapangidwa chifukwa choopa kuletsedwa. Panali zoyesayesa zambiri zomwe zinatha mwakachetechete ndi wolemba akuletsedwa, nayenso. Chimene chikuwoneka tsopano ndicho kuchuluka kwa malingaliro opambana omwe amazindikiridwa mwamsanga kapena mochedwerapo, ndi angati omwe sanapambane omwe sakudziwika. Ngati mumangodalira zomwe zikuwoneka, ndiye kuti zonse zili bwino. "

Izi ndi zoona kwa dongosolo lililonse lowerengera malinga ndi zomwe ambiri amakonda. Khalani sayansi, malo ochezera a pa Intaneti, malo osakira, mafuko akale, magulu azipembedzo kapena madera ena a anthu.

"Kuletsa" ndi "kusakonda" sikuchitika nthawi zonse chifukwa cha "cholinga choipa." Zomwe "kukwiyitsa" kuzinthu zatsopano ndi zachilendo ndizochita chizolowezi chakuthupi ndi m'maganizo chotchedwa buzzword "cognitive dissonance" - ndi gawo chabe la mitundu yonse ya Homo sapiens, osati katundu wa gulu linalake. Koma gulu lirilonse likhoza kukhala ndi zokhumudwitsa zake. Ndipo "zatsopano" ndi "zachilendo kwambiri", kukwiyitsa kwamphamvu, kumapangitsanso kusagwirizana. Ndipo muyenera kuwongolera psyche yanu bwino kwambiri kuti musawukire "woyambitsa mavuto". Chimene, komabe, sichilungamitsa konse woukirayo. “Wosokoneza” “amakwiyitsa” kokha, pamene zochita za woukirayo zimangofuna kuwononga.

Kulakwitsa kwa wopulumuka kungapezekenso mu ndemanga za nkhaniyi. "Economics ndi Ufulu Wachibadwidwe". Ndipo ikukhudza chiphaso cha mankhwala.

Pansipa ndipereka ndemanga yayikulu kuchokera m'buku la "Ufulu Wosankha" lolemba mphotho ya Nobel mu economics Milton Friedman, koma pakadali pano ndingowona kuti mayeso ambiri azachipatala, ziphaso ndi zinthu zina pazifukwa zina sizipangitsa kuti anthu onse azikhulupirira. kuti alandire katemera, imwani maantibayotiki ndi mahomoni. Iwo. Licensing ndi certification "sikugwira ntchito" pankhaniyi. Panthawi imodzimodziyo, pali anthu ambiri omwe amagwiritsa ntchito zakudya zowonjezera zakudya kapena homeopathy, zomwe siziri (kunena mofatsa) kulamulidwa kwambiri monga mankhwala. Pali anthu ambiri omwe amakonda kupita kwa asing'anga ndi asing'anga, m'malo mopita kwa asing'anga ndikumwa "chemistry", yomwe ili ndi ziphaso, ziphaso komanso yomwe yadutsa maulamuliro ndi mayeso ambiri.

Mtengo wa chisankho choterocho ukhoza kukhala wokwera kwambiri - kuyambira kulumala mpaka imfa. Imfa yofulumira. Nthawi imene wodwalayo amathera pa chithandizo ndi zakudya zowonjezera zakudya, kunyalanyaza chemistry ndi kupita kwa dokotala, kumabweretsa mwayi wosowa kuchiza matendawa atangoyamba kumene, otchedwa. "Lucid interval".

Ndikofunika kumvetsetsa kuti mankhwala asanatumizidwe ku "certification", kampani yopanga mankhwala imapanga zoyesa zake zambiri, kuphatikizapo. pagulu.

Chitsimikizo chimangobwereza ndondomekoyi. Komanso, m'dziko lililonse zonse zimabwerezedwa, zomwe pamapeto pake zimawonjezera mtengo wamankhwala kwa ogula.

Uku kunali kupatuka pang'ono pamutuwu. Tsopano, kuti ndifupikitse kwambiri, ndimagwira mawu a Milton Friedman.

«Kukonzekera ntchito zopindulitsa anthu onse sikufuna kulowererapo kwa mphamvu zakunja, kukakamiza kapena kuletsa ufulu ... Tsopano pali umboni wochuluka wosonyeza kuti ntchito zoyendetsera FDA ndi zovulaza, kuti awononga kwambiri poletsa kupita patsogolo pakupanga ndi kugawa mankhwala othandiza kusiyana ndi kuteteza msika ku mankhwala ovulaza komanso osagwira ntchito.
Chikoka cha Food and Drug Administration (FDA) pa mlingo woyambitsa mankhwala atsopano ndi ofunika kwambiri ... tsopano zimatenga nthawi yaitali kuti mankhwala atsopano avomerezedwe ndipo, mwa zina, ndalama zopangira mankhwala atsopano. zachulukirachulukira ... kuti muwonetse chinthu chatsopano pamsika muyenera kugwiritsa ntchito madola 54 miliyoni ndi zaka pafupifupi 8, i.e. panali kuwonjezereka kwa ndalama zowirikiza ka zana limodzi ndi kuwonjezereka kwa nthaŵi kanayi poyerekeza ndi kuwonjezereka kwa mitengo kuwirikiza kawiri. Zotsatira zake, makampani opanga mankhwala aku US sakuthanso kupanga mankhwala atsopano ochizira odwala omwe ali ndi matenda osowa. Kuonjezera apo, sitingathe ngakhale kupindula mokwanira ndi kupita patsogolo kwa mayiko akunja, popeza Bungweli silivomereza umboni wochokera kunja monga umboni wa mphamvu ya mankhwala.

Ngati muyang’ana ubwino wochiritsa wa mankhwala amene sanayambitsidwe ku United States koma akupezeka ku England, mwachitsanzo, mudzapeza zochitika zingapo pamene odwala anavutika ndi kusowa kwa mankhwala. Mwachitsanzo, pali mankhwala otchedwa beta blockers amene angalepheretse kufa chifukwa cha matenda a mtima—wachiwiri mpaka kuletsa imfa ya kudwala kwa mtima—ngati mankhwalawa analipo ku United States. atha kupulumutsa miyoyo pafupifupi zikwi khumi pachaka...

Zotsatira zosalunjika kwa wodwalayo ndikuti zosankha zachipatala, zomwe kale zinali pakati pa dokotala ndi wodwala, zikupangidwa mochulukira kudziko lonse ndi makomiti a akatswiri. Kwa Food and Drug Administration, kupewa ngozi ndiye kofunika kwambiri ndipo, chifukwa chake, tili ndi mankhwala otetezeka, koma palibenso othandiza.

Sizongochitika mwangozi kuti Bungwe la Food and Drug Administration, ngakhale liri ndi zolinga zabwino, likuchitapo kanthu kuti lilepheretse chitukuko ndi malonda a mankhwala atsopano komanso omwe angakhale othandiza.

Dziyeseni nokha mu nsapato za mkulu wa FDA yemwe ali ndi udindo wovomereza kapena kutsutsa mankhwala atsopano. Mutha kupanga zolakwika ziwiri:

1. Vomerezani mankhwala, zomwe zimakhala ndi zotsatira zosayembekezereka zomwe zingabweretse imfa kapena kuwonongeka kwakukulu kwa thanzi la anthu ambiri.

2. Kukana kuvomereza mankhwala, zomwe zingapulumutse miyoyo ya anthu ambiri kapena kuchepetsa kuvutika kwakukulu ndipo zilibe zotsatirapo zake zoipa.

Ngati mwalakwitsa koyamba ndikuvomereza, dzina lanu lidzawonekera patsamba loyamba la nyuzipepala zonse. Mudzagwa m’manyazi aakulu. Ngati mwalakwitsa kachiwiri, ndani angadziwe? Kampani yopangira mankhwala yomwe imalimbikitsa mankhwala atsopano omwe anganenedwe ngati chithunzithunzi cha amalonda adyera omwe ali ndi mitima yamwala? Ochepa okwiya azamankhwala ndi madokotala akupanga ndikuyesa mankhwala atsopano?

Odwala omwe moyo wawo ukadapulumutsidwa sadzathanso kutsutsa. Mabanja awo sangadziwe kuti anthu omwe amawakonda ataya miyoyo yawo chifukwa cha "nzeru" za mkulu wosadziwika wa Food and Drug Administration.

Ngakhale mutakhala ndi zolinga zabwino kwambiri padziko lapansi, mungaletse mosadziwa mankhwala ambiri abwino kapena kuchedwetsa kuvomereza kuti musalole kuti mankhwala agulitsidwe pamsika omwe angakhale ndi zotsatirapo zopanga mitu ...
Kuwonongeka kobwera chifukwa cha ntchito za Food and Drug Administration sichifukwa cha zofooka za anthu omwe ali ndi maudindo. Ambiri a iwo ndi ogwira ntchito m'boma odziwa ntchito komanso odzipereka. Komabe, mavuto a chikhalidwe, ndale, ndi azachuma amakhudza kwambiri khalidwe la anthu omwe ali ndi udindo wa bungwe la boma kuposa momwe iwowo amaonera khalidwe lake. Pali zosiyana, mosakayikira, koma ndizosowa kwambiri ngati amphaka akuwuwa." Mapeto a mawu.

Chotero, “cholakwa cha wopulumuka” popenda mphamvu ya bungwe lolamulira “zimawonongetsa” moyo wa anthu 10000 pachaka kaamba ka mankhwala amodzi okha m’dziko limodzi. Kukula kwa mbali yonse yosaoneka ya “mapiri oundana” ameneŵa n’kovuta kuyerekezera. Ndipo, mwina, mantha.

“Odwala omwe akanapulumutsidwa sangathenso kufotokoza ziwonetsero zawo. Mabanja awo sangadziwe n’komwe kuti anthu amene ankawakonda anataya miyoyo yawo chifukwa cha “chenjezo” la mkulu wina wosadziwika.. Palibe wopanga ndi mmodzi yemwe wosasamala yemwe wawononga chotero kwa nzika zake.

Mwa zina, ntchito ya certification ndiyokwera mtengo kwambiri kwa okhometsa msonkho. Iwo. kwa okhalamo onse. Malinga ndi kuwerengetsera kwa Milton Friedman, gawo la "kudyedwa" ndi akuluakulu oyang'anira mapulogalamu osiyanasiyana a chikhalidwe cha anthu ku United States ndi pafupifupi theka la misonkho yonse yomwe imaperekedwa pazinthu zosiyanasiyana. Theka ili limagwiritsidwa ntchito pamalipiro ndi ndalama zina za akuluakulu a bungwe logawa anthu komanso kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka kayendetsedwe ka anthu. Bizinesi iliyonse ikadakhala kuti yasokonekera kalekale ndi ndalama zosapindulitsa zotere.

Izi ndizofanana ndi kulipira woperekera zakudya pazantchito zoyipa mu lesitilanti nsonga yofanana ndi mtengo wa chakudya chamadzulo. Kapena lipirani zolongedza katundu mu sitolo mu kuchuluka kwa mtengo wake wonse chifukwa chakuti adzakupakirani.

Kukhalapo kwa wogwira ntchito pagulu la opanga-katundu-ogula kapena ogula ntchito kumachulukitsa mtengo wa chinthu chilichonse ndi ntchito. Iwo. Malipiro a munthu aliyense akanatha kugula katundu ndi ntchito zambiri kuwirikiza kawiri ngati wogwira ntchitoyo sakukhudzidwa ndi kuyang'anira katundu ndi ntchitozi.
Monga momwe Justice Louis Brandeis ananenera: “Zokumana nazo zimaphunzitsa kuti ufulu umafunikira chitetezo makamaka pamene boma likulunjika ku zinthu zabwino.”

Kupereka zilolezo, komanso njira zina zoletsa zowongolera (kugwetsa) chuma, sizili zatsopano konse ndipo zadziwika kuyambira ku Middle Ages. Mitundu yonse yamabungwe, ma castes, ma estate sali kanthu koma kupereka ziphaso ndi ziphaso, zomasuliridwa m'zilankhulo zamakono. Ndipo cholinga chawo chakhala chofanana - kuchepetsa mpikisano, kukweza mitengo, kuwonjezera ndalama za "zawo" ndikuletsa "akunja" kulowa. Iwo. tsankho lomwelo ndi mgwirizano wa banal cartel, kuwonjezereka kwa khalidwe ndi kuonjezera mitengo kwa ogula.

Mwinamwake tiyenera mwanjira ina kuchoka ku Middle Ages? Ndi zaka za zana la 21.

Ngozi zapamsewu zimachitika chifukwa cha madalaivala omwe ali ndi ufulu ndi ziphaso. Zolakwa zachipatala zimapangidwa ndi madokotala ovomerezeka ndi ovomerezeka. Aphunzitsi omwe ali ndi ziphatso ndi ziphaso amaphunzitsa molakwika ndipo amayambitsa kupwetekedwa m'maganizo kwa ophunzira. Nthawi yomweyo, asing'anga, ma homeopaths, shamans ndi charlatans amatha bwino popanda ziphaso ndi mayeso ndipo amapita bwino, akuchita bizinesi yawo, kukhutiritsa zomwe anthu amafuna.

Nthawi yomweyo, ziphaso zonsezi ndi zilolezo zimadyetsa akuluakulu ambiri omwe satulutsa katundu kapena ntchito zothandiza kwa nzika, koma pazifukwa zina kukhala ndi ufulu wosankha nzika komwe angalandire chithandizo ndi kuphunzira pamisonkho yake.

Munthu angadabwe kuti, ngakhale kuti vekitala yoletsa ntchito ya akuluakulu, makampani opanga mankhwala adakwanitsabe kulembetsa mankhwala ambiri m'zaka za zana la 20 zomwe zidapulumutsa miyoyo ya anthu mamiliyoni ambiri.

Ndipo munthu akhoza kudabwa kuti ndi mankhwala angati omwe sanapangidwe, sanalembetsedwe, ndipo amaonedwa kuti alibe chiyembekezo pazachuma chifukwa cha kukwera mtengo ndi kutalika kwa ndondomeko ya chilolezo. Ndizomvetsa chisoni kuti anthu angati ataya miyoyo yawo ndi thanzi lawo chifukwa cha ntchito zoletsa za akuluakulu aboma.

Panthawi imodzimodziyo, kukhalapo kwa chiwerengero chachikulu cha zilolezo, kulamulira, kuyang'anira ndi kulipira akuluakulu ndi akuluakulu aboma sikunachepetse chiwerengero cha ma charlatans, mankhwala owerengeka, mitundu yonse ya mankhwala ndi mapiritsi amatsenga. Zina mwazo zimapangidwa motengera zakudya zowonjezera zakudya, zina zimangogawidwa podutsa ma pharmacies aliwonse, masitolo ndi maulamuliro.

Kodi tiyenera kupitiriza kukankhira njira yolakwika ya chilolezo ndi malamulo? sindikuganiza ayi.

Ngati ubongo wa wowerenga wolemekezeka wolemekezeka yemwe wawerenga nkhaniyi mpaka kumapeto sunayambe kuyaka ndi chiwawa chodziwika bwino, ndiye kuti ndikufuna kulangiza mabuku anayi a "priming", olembedwa m'chinenero chosavuta kwambiri ndikuwononga nthano zambiri zokhudzana ndi capitalism, opulumuka. zolakwika, zachuma ndi ulamuliro wa boma. Awa ndi mabuku: Milton Friedman "Ufulu wosankha" Ayi Rand "Capitalism. "Njira Yosadziwika" Steven Levitt "Freakonomics" Malcolm Gladwell "Anzeru ndi Akunja" Frederic Bastia "Zowoneka ndi zomwe sizikuwoneka."
А pano Nkhani ina yonena za "kulakwitsa kwa wopulumuka" yaikidwa.

Mafanizo: McGeddon, SERGEY Elkin, Akrolesta.

PS Okondedwa owerenga, ndikupemphani kuti mukumbukire kuti “Makhalidwe a polemic ndi ofunika kwambiri kuposa nkhani ya polemic. Zinthu zimasintha, koma kalembedwe kamene kamapangitsa kuti chitukuko chikhale chitukuko. (Grigory Pomerantz). Ngati sindinayankhe ndemanga yanu, ndiye kuti pali cholakwika ndi kalembedwe kanu.

Kuwonjezera.
Ndipepese kwa aliyense amene analemba ndemanga yomveka ndipo sindinayankhe. Chowonadi ndi chakuti m'modzi mwa ogwiritsa ntchito adazolowera kutsitsa ndemanga zanga. Aliyense. Zikangowoneka. Izi zimandilepheretsa kupeza "charge" ndikuyika chowonjezera mu karma ndikuyankha omwe amalemba ndemanga zomveka.
Koma ngati mukufunabe kupeza yankho ndikukambirana nkhaniyi, mutha kundilembera uthenga wachinsinsi. Ndimawayankha.

Zowonjezera 2.
"Kulakwitsa kwa Wopulumuka" pogwiritsa ntchito nkhaniyi monga chitsanzo.
Polemba izi, nkhaniyi ili ndi mawonedwe a 33,9k ndi ndemanga za 141.
Tiyerekeze kuti ambiri aiwo ndi olakwika ku nkhaniyo.
Iwo. Nkhaniyi inawerengedwa ndi anthu 33900. Kukalipira 100. 339 kucheperako.
Iwo. Ngati titenga movutikira komanso mongoganizira, ndiye kuti wolembayo alibe chidziwitso pamalingaliro a owerenga 33800, koma pamalingaliro a owerenga 100 (kwenikweni, ngakhale ocheperako, popeza owerenga ena amasiya ndemanga zingapo).
Ndipo wolemba amachita chiyani, i.e. ndimawerenga makomenti? Ndikupanga "kulakwitsa kwa wopulumuka." Ndimasanthula "minus" zana limodzi, kwathunthu (zamaganizo) kunyalanyaza mfundo yakuti awa ndi 0,3% chabe ya malingaliro. Ndipo kutengera izi 0,3%, zomwe zili mkati mwazowerengera, ndimaganiza kuti sindinakonde nkhaniyi. Ndakhumudwa, popanda chifukwa chaching'ono cha izi, ngati mukuganiza momveka bwino osati mwamalingaliro.
Kuti. Kulakwitsa kwa wopulumuka sikuli kokha masamu, komanso mwina mu psychology ndi neurophysiology, zomwe zimapangitsa kuzindikira ndikuwongolera kukhala "ntchito yowawa" muubongo wamunthu.

Zowonjezera 3.
Ngakhale izi ndizoposa zomwe zili m'nkhaniyi, popeza nkhani ya kuwongolera khalidwe la mankhwala imakambidwa mwamphamvu m'mawu, ndimayankha aliyense nthawi imodzi.
Njira ina yoyendetsera boma ikhoza kukhala kupanga ma laboratories apadera omwe angayang'ane ubwino wa mankhwala, kupikisana wina ndi mzake. (Ndipo ma laboratories oterowo, mabungwe, mabungwe ndi mabungwe alipo kale padziko lapansi).
Kodi chidzapereka chiyani? Choyamba, chidzathetsa ziphuphu, chifukwa nthawi zonse padzakhala mwayi wofufuza kawiri ndikutsutsa deta ya kafukufuku wachinyengo. Kachiwiri, idzakhala yachangu komanso yotsika mtengo. Chifukwa chakuti bizinesi yachinsinsi nthawi zonse imakhala yothandiza kwambiri kuposa bizinesi ya boma. Chachitatu, labotale ya akatswiri idzagulitsa ntchito zake, zomwe zikutanthauza kuti idzakhala ndi udindo wa khalidwe, mawu, mitengo. Chachinayi, ngati phukusili silikhala ndi chizindikiro pakuyezetsa mu labotale yodziyimira payokha ya akatswiri, kapena awiri kapena atatu, ndiye kuti wogula amvetsetsa kuti mankhwalawa sanayesedwe. Kapena kuyesedwa nthawi zambiri. Ndipo "adzavotera ndi ruble wake" kwa uyu kapena wopanga mankhwala.

Zowonjezera 4.
Ndikuganiza kuti ndikofunikira kutengera kukondera kwa wopulumuka popanga AI, makina ophunzirira makina, ndi zina zambiri.
Iwo. muphatikizepo mu pulogalamu yophunzitsira osati zitsanzo zodziwika zokha, komanso delta inayake, mwinanso zitsanzo zongopeka za "zomwe zingatheke zosadziwika".
Pogwiritsa ntchito chitsanzo cha "kujambula" AI, izi zikhoza kukhala, "van Gogh + delta", ndiye kuti ndi mtengo waukulu wa delta, makinawo adzapanga fyuluta yochokera ku Van Gogh, koma yosiyana kwambiri ndi iye.
Maphunziro ofanana angakhale zothandiza pomwe pali kusowa kwa data: mankhwala, genetics, quantum physics, astronomy, etc.
(Ndipepesa ngati ndafotokoza "mokhota").

Chidziwitso (mwachiyembekezo chomaliza)
Kwa aliyense amene amawerenga mpaka kumapeto - "Zikomo." Ndine wokondwa kuwona "ma bookmark" ndi "mawonedwe" anu.

Source: www.habr.com