Missouri anyamata
Joseph Carl Robert Licklider adachita chidwi kwambiri ndi anthu. Ngakhale ali wamng’ono, asanayambe kugwiritsa ntchito makompyuta, anali ndi njira yofotokozera anthu zonse bwinobwino.
"Lick ayenera kuti anali katswiri wanzeru kwambiri yemwe ndakhala ndikumudziwa," William McGill pambuyo pake adalengeza mu zokambirana zomwe zinalembedwa Licklider atangomwalira mu 1997. McGill anafotokoza m'mafunsowa kuti anakumana ndi Lick koyamba pamene adalembetsa ku yunivesite ya Harvard monga psychology. womaliza maphunziro mu 1948: “Pamene ndinapita ku Leek ndi umboni wa maunansi ena a masamu, ndinapeza kuti anali kudziŵa kale za maunansi ameneŵa. Koma sanawafotokoze mwatsatanetsatane, amangowadziwa. Akhoza mwanjira ina kuyimira kutuluka kwa chidziwitso, ndikuwona maubwenzi osiyanasiyana omwe anthu ena omwe amangogwiritsa ntchito zizindikiro za masamu sakanatha kuwona. Zinali zodabwitsa kwambiri kuti adakhala wachinsinsi kwa tonsefe: Kodi gehena amachita bwanji Lik? Kodi amaona bwanji zinthu zimenezi?
"Kulankhula ndi Lick za vuto," anawonjezera McGill, yemwe pambuyo pake adakhala pulezidenti wa yunivesite ya Columbia, "kunakulitsa luntha langa ndi ma IQ pafupifupi makumi atatu."
(Zikomo chifukwa cha kumasulira kwa Stanislav Sukhanitsky, yemwe akufuna kuthandizira kumasulira - lembani mwaumwini kapena imelo [imelo ndiotetezedwa])
Leek anachita chidwi mofananamo ndi George A. Miller, amene anayamba kugwira naye ntchito pa Harvard Psycho-Acoustic Laboratory mkati mwa Nkhondo Yadziko II. "Lick anali 'munthu waku America' weniweni - wamtali, wowoneka bwino wa blond yemwe anali wabwino pachilichonse." Miller adzalemba izi zaka zambiri pambuyo pake. "Wanzeru kwambiri komanso wopanga, komanso wokoma mtima wopanda chiyembekezo - mutalakwitsa, Lik adatsimikizira aliyense kuti mumanena nthabwala zanzeru kwambiri. Iye ankakonda nthabwala. Zambiri zomwe ndimakumbukira ndi za iye akunena zachabechabe zochititsa chidwi, nthawi zambiri kuchokera pazomwe adakumana nazo, akugwira manja ndi botolo la Coca-Cola m'dzanja limodzi. "
Panalibe chinthu choterocho kuti anagawanitsa anthu. Panthawi yomwe Lik adawonetsa bwino mawonekedwe a munthu wokhala ku Missouri, palibe amene akanatha kukana kumwetulira kwake kwa mbali imodzi, oyankhulana onse adamwetulira poyankha. Anayang'ana dziko ladzuwa komanso laubwenzi, adawona aliyense yemwe adakumana naye ngati munthu wabwino. Ndipo nthawi zambiri zinkagwira ntchito.
Anali munthu waku Missouri, pambuyo pake. Dzinalo lidayamba kale ku Alsack-Lorraine, tawuni yomwe inali kumalire a France ndi Germany, koma banja lake mbali zonse limakhala ku Missouri kuyambira Nkhondo Yapachiweniweni isanayambe. Bambo ake, a Joseph Lixider, anali mnyamata wakumidzi wochokera pakati pa chigawocho, ndipo ankakhala pafupi ndi mzinda wa Sedalia. Yosefe ankaonekanso kuti anali mnyamata waluso komanso wanyonga. Mu 1885, bambo ake atamwalira pa ngozi ya kavalo, Joseph wa zaka khumi ndi ziwiri anatenga udindo wosamalira banja. Pozindikira kuti iye, amayi ake, ndi mlongo wake sakanatha kuyendetsa famuyo paokha, anawasamutsira onse ku Saint Louis ndipo anayamba kugwira ntchito pa siteshoni ya njanji ya m’deralo asanatumize mlongo wake kusukulu yasekondale ndi koleji. Atachita zimenezi, Joseph anapita kukaphunzira pakampani ina yotsatsa malonda kuti akaphunzire kulemba ndi kupanga. Ndipo pamene adaphunzira luso limeneli, adasinthira ku inshuwaransi, ndipo pamapeto pake adakhala wogulitsa wopambana mphoto komanso mtsogoleri wa Saint Louis Chamber of Commerce.
Nthawi yomweyo, pamsonkhano wa Achinyamata a Baptist Revival, a Joseph Licklider adachita chidwi ndi Abiti Margaret Robnett. “Ndinamuyang’ana kamodzi kokha,” iye anatero pambuyo pake, “ndipo ndinamva mawu ake okoma akuimba m’kwaya, ndipo ndinadziŵa kuti ndapeza mkazi amene ndimam’konda. Nthawi yomweyo anayamba kukwera sitima kupita ku famu ya makolo ake kumapeto kwa mlungu uliwonse, n’cholinga choti amukwatire. Wachita bwino. Mwana wawo yekhayo anabadwira ku Saint Louis pa March 11, 1915. Anatchedwa Joseph pambuyo pa abambo ake ndi Carl Robnett pambuyo pa mchimwene wake wamkulu wa amayi ake.
Maonekedwe adzuwa a mwanayo anali omveka. Joseph ndi Margaret anali okulirapo kwa makolo a mwana woyamba, ndiye iye anali makumi anayi ndi ziwiri ndipo iye anali makumi atatu ndi zinayi, ndipo anali okhwima ndithu pankhani zachipembedzo ndi khalidwe labwino. Koma analinso banja lachikondi, lokondana lomwe linkakonda mwana wawo ndi kumuchitira chikondwerero mosalekeza. Momwemonso ena onse: Robnett wamng'ono, monga momwe amamutchulira kunyumba, sanali mwana yekhayo, koma mdzukulu yekhayo kumbali zonse za banja. Pamene anakula, makolo ake anam’limbikitsa kuchita maphunziro a piyano, maphunziro a tenesi, ndi chirichonse chimene iye anachita, makamaka pankhani ya luntha. Ndipo Robnett sanawakhumudwitse, kukhwima kukhala munthu wowala, wamphamvu ndi nthabwala zachisangalalo, chidwi chosakhutitsidwa, ndi chikondi chosalephera chaukadaulo.
Ali ndi zaka khumi ndi ziwiri, mwachitsanzo, iye, monga mnyamata wina aliyense ku Saint Louis, adayamba kukonda kupanga ndege zachitsanzo. Mwina izi zinali chifukwa cha kukula kwa ndege mu mzinda wake. Mwina chifukwa cha Lindbergh, yemwe adangoyenda yekhayekha panyanja ya Atlantic mu ndege yotchedwa Mzimu wa Saint Louis. Kapena mwina chifukwa chakuti ndege zinali zodabwitsa zaumisiri za mbadwo wina. Zilibe kanthu — anyamata a ku Saint Louis anali opanga ndege openga. Ndipo palibe amene angawapangenso bwino kuposa Robnett Licklider. Ndi chilolezo cha makolo ake, iye anasandutsa chipinda chake kukhala chinthu chofanana ndi mitengo yodula mitengo. Anagula zithunzi ndi mapulani a ndege, ndipo adajambula mwatsatanetsatane za ndegezo. Ankasema matabwa a basamu mosamalitsa mopweteka. Ndipo adagona usiku wonse ndikuyika tinthu tating'onoting'ono, kuphimba mapiko ndi thupi ndi cellophane, kujambula mwatsatanetsatane, ndipo mosakayikira kupitilira ndi guluu wa ndege. Anali waluso kwambiri kotero kuti kampani yopanga zida zopangira ma modeling idamulipira kuti apite kuwonetsero wandege ku Indianapolis, ndipo adatha kuwonetsa abambo ndi ana aamuna kumeneko momwe zitsanzozo zidapangidwira.
Ndiyeno, pamene nthawi ikuyandikira tsiku lofunika kwambiri la khumi ndi zisanu ndi chimodzi, zofuna zake zinasintha ku magalimoto. Sichinali chikhumbo choyendetsa makina, iye ankafuna kumvetsa bwino mapangidwe awo ndi ntchito. Chotero makolo ake anamlola kuti agule galimoto yangozi yachikale, malinga ndi mkhalidwe wakuti iye sakayiyendetsa kutali kuposa msewu wawo wautali, wokhotakhota.
Robnett wamng'onoyo anachotsa makina a malotowa mosangalala ndikugwirizanitsa kachiwiri, kuyambira ndi injini ndikuwonjezera gawo latsopano nthawi iliyonse kuti awone zomwe zinachitika: "Chabwino, umu ndi momwe zimagwirira ntchito." Margaret Licklider, wosangalatsidwa ndi luso laukadaulo lomwe likukwera, anayima pambali pake pomwe amagwira ntchito pansi pagalimoto ndikumupatsa makiyi omwe amafunikira. Mwana wake wamwamuna adalandira layisensi yake yoyendetsa pa Marichi 11, 1931, tsiku lake lobadwa la khumi ndi zisanu ndi chimodzi. Ndipo m’zaka zamtsogolo, iye anakana kulipira madola oposa makumi asanu a galimoto, ziribe kanthu kuti inali yooneka motani, iye akanakhoza kuikonza ndi kuipangitsa iyo kuyendetsa. (Poyang’anizana ndi ukali wa kukwera kwa mitengo, anakakamizika kukweza malirewo kufika pa $150.)
Rob wazaka khumi ndi zisanu ndi chimodzi, monga momwe adadziwidwira ndi anzake a m'kalasi, adakula kukhala wamtali, wokongola, wothamanga komanso waubwenzi, ali ndi tsitsi lopaka dzuwa ndi maso a buluu, zomwe zinamupangitsa kukhala wofanana kwambiri ndi Lindbergh mwiniwake. Anasewera mpira wampikisano wothamanga (ndipo anapitirizabe kusewera mpaka pamene anali ndi zaka 20, pamene anavulala zomwe zinamulepheretsa kusewera). Ndipo, ndithudi, anali ndi makhalidwe abwino akummwera. Anakakamizika kukhala nawo: nthawi zonse ankazunguliridwa ndi akazi abwino ochokera kumwera. Nyumba yakale ndi yaikulu, yomwe inali ku University City, m’dera la ku yunivesite ya Washington, inakhala limodzi ndi a Lickliders ndi amayi a Joseph, mlongo wake wa Margaret amene anakwatiwa ndi atate wake, ndi mlongo wina wosakwatiwa, Margaret. Madzulo aliwonse, kuyambira ali ndi zaka zisanu, Robnett anali ndi udindo ndi ulemu wopereka dzanja lake kwa azakhali ake, kuwaperekeza ku gome la chakudya, ndi kuwagwira ngati njonda. Ngakhale atakula, Leek ankadziwika kuti anali munthu wodzikuza komanso wanzeru yemwe samakweza mawu mokwiya, yemwe pafupifupi nthawi zonse ankavala jekete ndi tayi ya uta ngakhale kunyumba, ndipo amapeza kuti sizingatheke kukhala mkazi atalowa m'chipinda. .
Komabe, Rob Licklider nayenso anakula kukhala mnyamata wamaganizo akeake. Pamene anali mnyamata wamng’ono kwambiri, malinga ndi nkhani imene anapitiriza kunena pambuyo pake, atate wake anali mtumiki wa mpingo wawo wa Baptist. Pamene Yosefe ankapemphera, ntchito ya mwana wake inali kulowa pansi pa makiyi a chiwalo ndi kugwiritsa ntchito makiyi, kuthandiza wokalamba wa limba amene sakanatha kuchita izo yekha. Loweruka lina madzulo madzulo, pamene Robnett anali pafupi kugona pansi pa chiwalo, anamva nkhosa za atate wake zikufuula kuti, “Inu amene mukufuna chipulumutso, dzukani!” . M’malo mopeza chipulumutso, iye anawona nyenyezi.
Chokumana nacho chimenechi, Leek anati, chinam’thandiza kuzindikira mwamsanga njira ya sayansi: Nthaŵi zonse khalani wosamala monga momwe mungathere m’ntchito yanu ndi polengeza chikhulupiriro chanu.
Gawo limodzi mwa magawo atatu a zaka zana pambuyo pa chochitika ichi, ndithudi, n'zosatheka kudziwa ngati Robnett wamng'ono adaphunziradi phunziroli pomenya makiyi. Koma ngati tipenda zimene anachita m’moyo wake wamtsogolo, tinganene kuti anaphunziradi phunziro limeneli penapake. Chifukwa cha chikhumbo chake chofuna kuchita zinthu mwachidwi komanso chikhumbo chofuna kudziwa zambiri, analibe kuleza mtima pantchito yosasamala, kupeza mayankho osavuta, kapena mayankho opanda pake. Iye anakana kukhutitsidwa ndi anthu wamba. Mnyamata yemwe pambuyo pake adzalankhula za "Intergalactic Computer System" ndikusindikiza mapepala apamwamba otchedwa "System of Systems" ndi "Frameless, Wireless Rat Shocker" adawonetsa malingaliro omwe nthawi zonse ankayang'ana zinthu zatsopano komanso kusewera nthawi zonse.
Analinso ndi chipwirikiti choyipa chochepa. Mwachitsanzo, pamene adakumana ndi zopusa za boma, sanakumane nazo mwachindunji, chikhulupiriro chakuti njonda samapanga zochitika chinali m'magazi ake. Iye ankakonda kumusokoneza iye. Pamene adalowa nawo gulu la Sigma Chi m'chaka chake chatsopano ku yunivesite ya Washington, adalangizidwa kuti membala aliyense wa gululo azinyamula ndudu zamitundu iwiri nthawi zonse, ngati membala wachikulire apempha ndudu. nthawi iliyonse masana kapena usiku. Posakhala wosuta, iye mwamsanga anatuluka ndi kukagula ndudu zoipitsitsa za Aigupto zomwe iye akanakhoza kuzipeza mu Saint Louis. Palibe amene adamupempha kuti asutenso pambuyo pake.
Panthaŵiyi, kukana kwake kosatha kukhutiritsidwa ndi zinthu wamba kunampangitsa kukhala ndi mafunso osatha ponena za cholinga cha moyo. Anasinthanso umunthu wake. Anali "Robnett" kunyumba ndi "Rob" kwa anzake a m'kalasi, koma tsopano, mwachiwonekere kuti agogomeze udindo wake watsopano monga wophunzira wa koleji, anayamba kudzitcha dzina lake lapakati: "Ndiyimbireni Lick." Kuyambira pamenepo, abwenzi ake akale okha ndi omwe amadziwa kuti "Rob Licklider" anali ndani.
Pakati pa zinthu zonse zomwe zikanatheka ku koleji, mnyamatayo Leek anasankha kuphunzira - anakulira mosangalala monga katswiri wa chidziwitso chilichonse ndipo nthawi zonse Leek atamva kuti wina akusangalala ndi gawo latsopano la maphunziro, ankafunanso kuyesa. kuphunzira dera lino . M'chaka chake choyamba cha maphunziro, adakhala katswiri wa zaluso, kenako adasinthira ku engineering. Kenako anasamukira ku physics ndi masamu. Ndipo, zododometsa kwambiri, adakhalanso katswiri wadziko lenileni: kumapeto kwa chaka chake chachiwiri, akuba adawononga kampani ya inshuwaransi ya abambo ake ndipo idatseka, ndikusiya Joseph kuti asagwire ntchito komanso mwana wake asamuphunzitse. Leek anakakamizika kusiya sukulu kwa chaka chimodzi ndikupita kukagwira ntchito ngati woperekera zakudya mu lesitilanti ya oyendetsa galimoto. Inali imodzi mwa ntchito zochepa zomwe zingapezeke panthawi ya Kuvutika Kwakukulu. (Joseph Licklider, akuyamba misala atakhala kunyumba atazunguliridwa ndi akazi ochokera kumwera, ndipo tsiku lina anapeza msonkhano wa Baptist kumidzi wosowa mtumiki; iye ndi Margaret anamaliza masiku awo onse akutumikira mipingo imodzi ndi ina. kumverera mosangalala kwambiri kuposa kale lonse.) Pamene Lik pomalizira pake anabwerera ku ntchito yophunzitsa, atabwera ndi changu chosatha chomwe chinali chofunika pa maphunziro apamwamba, imodzi mwa ntchito zake zaganyu inali kuyang'anira zinyama zoyesera mu dipatimenti ya psychology. Ndipo pamene anayamba kumvetsa mitundu ya akatswiri ofufuza anali kuchita, anazindikira kuti kufufuza kwake kunatha.
Zomwe adakumana nazo zinali psychology ya "physiological" - gawo lachidziwitso ili panthawiyo lili mkati mwa kukula kwake. Masiku ano, gawo lachidziwitso ili lapeza dzina la neuroscience: akuchita kafukufuku wolondola, mwatsatanetsatane waubongo ndi momwe amagwirira ntchito.
Unali mwambo umene unayambira m’zaka za m’ma 19, pamene asayansi monga Thomas Huxley, woimira Darwin wakhama kwambiri, anayamba kutsutsa kuti khalidwe, zochitika, malingaliro, ngakhalenso kuzindikira zinali ndi maziko akuthupi omwe amakhala mu ubongo. Uwu unali mkhalidwe wovuta kwambiri masiku amenewo, chifukwa sunakhudze kwambiri sayansi monga chipembedzo. Zoonadi, asayansi ambiri ndi afilosofi kumayambiriro kwa zaka za zana la khumi ndi zisanu ndi zinayi anayesa kunena kuti sikuti ubongo unapangidwa ndi zinthu zachilendo, koma kuti unali malo a malingaliro ndi mpando wa moyo, kuphwanya malamulo onse a fizikiki. Komabe, posapita nthaŵi zinasonyeza zosiyana. Kumayambiriro kwa 1861, kufufuza mwadongosolo kwa odwala omwe anawonongeka ndi ubongo ndi katswiri wa sayansi ya zakuthambo wa ku France, Paul Broca, adapanga maulalo oyambirira pakati pa ntchito inayake yamaganizo - chinenero - ndi dera linalake la ubongo: dera la kumanzere kwa dziko lapansi. ubongo tsopano umadziwika kuti dera la Broca. Pofika kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 20, zinali zodziwika kuti ubongo ndi chiwalo chamagetsi, chomwe chimatuluka kudzera m'maselo opyapyala mabiliyoni ambiri otchedwa ma neuron. Pofika m'chaka cha 1920, zidadziwika kuti zigawo zaubongo zomwe zimayendetsa luso la magalimoto ndi kukhudza zili m'mizere iwiri yofananira ya minofu ya neuronal yomwe ili m'mbali mwa ubongo. Zinkadziwikanso kuti malo omwe ali ndi masomphenya ali kumbuyo kwa ubongo - modabwitsa, malowa ndi akutali kwambiri ndi maso - pamene malo omvera ali pomwe, momveka bwino, wina angaganize: mu lobe temporal, kuseri kwa makutu.
Koma ngakhale ntchito imeneyi inali yovuta kwambiri. Kuyambira pomwe Leek adakumana ndi ukatswiri uwu m'zaka za m'ma 1930, ofufuza adayamba kugwiritsa ntchito zida zamagetsi zomwe zidagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri ndi makampani a wailesi ndi mafoni. Mothandizidwa ndi electroencephalography, kapena EEG, amatha kutchera khutu ku mphamvu yamagetsi ya muubongo, kuwerengera molondola kuchokera ku zowunikira zomwe zidayikidwa pamitu yawo. Asayansi amathanso kulowa mkati mwa chigaza ndikuyika chokondoweza cholembedwa ndendende ku ubongo womwewo, ndikuwunika momwe mayankhidwe amisempha amafalikira kumadera osiyanasiyana amanjenje. (Pofika m’zaka za m’ma 1950, ankatha kusonkhezera ndi kuŵerenga mmene ma neuroni amodzi amagwirira ntchito.) Pogwiritsa ntchito njirayi, asayansi anatha kuzindikira minyewa ya muubongo m’njira yolondola kwambiri kuposa kale lonse. Mwachidule, akatswiri a sayansi ya zakuthambo achoka kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m'ma 19 kuti ubongo unali chinthu chodabwitsa ku masomphenya a zaka za m'ma 20 pomwe ubongo unali chinthu chodziwika bwino. Unali dongosolo la zovuta zosaneneka, kunena ndendende. Komabe, inali dongosolo lomwe silinali losiyana kwambiri ndi machitidwe amagetsi ovuta kwambiri omwe akatswiri a sayansi ndi mainjiniya amamanga m'ma laboratories awo.
Nkhopeyo inali kumwamba. Psychological psychology anali ndi zonse zomwe amakonda: masamu, zamagetsi, ndi vuto lotha kuzindikira chipangizo chovuta kwambiri, ubongo. Anadziponyera m'munda, ndipo pophunzira kuti, ndithudi, sakanatha kudziwiratu, adatenga sitepe yake yoyamba yopita ku ofesi ya Pentagon. Poganizira zonse zomwe zidachitika m'mbuyomu, chidwi choyambirira cha Lick ndi psychology chikhoza kuwoneka ngati chosokoneza, chosokoneza, chododometsa kwa mwana wazaka makumi awiri ndi zisanu kuchokera pachisankho chake chomaliza mu sayansi yamakompyuta. Koma kwenikweni, chiyambi chake mu psychology chinali msana wa lingaliro lake la kugwiritsa ntchito makompyuta. Ndipotu, apainiya onse a sayansi ya makompyuta a m'badwo wake anayamba ntchito zawo m'ma 1940 ndi 1950, omwe ali ndi masamu, physics, kapena engineering yamagetsi, omwe luso lawo laukadaulo lidawatsogolera kuti aziganizira kwambiri zomanga ndi kukonza zida - kupanga makina akulu, mwachangu. , ndi odalirika kwambiri. Leek anali wapadera chifukwa adabweretsa kulemekeza kwambiri luso laumunthu: kuthekera kozindikira, kusintha, kupanga zisankho, ndikupeza njira zatsopano zothetsera mavuto omwe sanathenso kuthetsedwa. Monga katswiri wazamisala woyesera, adapeza kuti lusoli ndi losawoneka bwino komanso lolemekezeka monga kuthekera kwa makompyuta kuchita ma algorithms. Ndipo ndicho chifukwa kwa iye chiyeso chenicheni chinali kupanga kugwirizana pakati pa makompyuta ndi anthu omwe amawagwiritsa ntchito, kuti agwiritse ntchito mphamvu za onse awiri.
Mulimonsemo, panthawiyi, njira ya kukula kwa Lik inali yomveka bwino. Mu 1937, anamaliza maphunziro ake ku yunivesite ya Washington ndi madigiri atatu mu physics, masamu, ndi psychology. Anakhalanso chaka chimodzi kuti amalize digiri yake ya master mu psychology. ( Mbiri ya kulandira digiri ya masters, yomwe inaperekedwa kwa "Robnett Licklider", mwina inali mbiri yomaliza ya iye yomwe inasindikizidwa.) Ndipo mu 1938 adalowa pulogalamu ya udokotala ku yunivesite ya Rochester ku New York - imodzi mwa maphunzirowa. malo otsogola adziko lonse ophunzirira gawo lomveka la ubongo, dera lomwe limatiuza momwe tiyenera kumva.
Kuchoka kwa Lick ku Missouri kunakhudza zambiri kuposa kusintha kwake adilesi. Kwa zaka makumi awiri zoyamba za moyo wake, Leek anali mwana wachitsanzo chabwino kwa makolo ake, amapita ku misonkhano ya Baptisti mokhulupirika katatu kapena kanayi pa sabata. Komabe, atatuluka m’nyumbamo, phazi lake silinadutsenso pakhomo la tchalitchi. Iye analephera kuuza makolo ake zimenezi, pozindikira kuti adzawapweteka kwambiri akadzamva kuti wasiya chikhulupiriro chimene ankachikonda. Koma adapeza zofooka za moyo waku Southern Baptist kukhala wopondereza kwambiri. Chofunika koposa, sakanatha kunena chikhulupiriro chomwe sanamve. Monga momwe ananenera pambuyo pake, atafunsidwa za malingaliro ake, amene anapeza pamisonkhano ya mapemphero, iye anayankha kuti “Sindinamve kalikonse.
Ngati zinthu zambiri zitasintha, osachepera mmodzi adatsalira: Lick anali nyenyezi mu Dipatimenti ya Psychology ku yunivesite ya Washington, ndipo anali nyenyezi ku Rochester. Pakafukufuku wake wa Ph.D., adapanga mapu oyamba a zochitika za neuronal m'malo omvera. Makamaka, adazindikira madera omwe kupezeka kwake kunali kofunikira pakusiyanitsa ma frequency osiyanasiyana - luso lalikulu lomwe limakupatsani mwayi wowunikira kamvekedwe ka nyimbo. Ndipo potsirizira pake anakhala katswiri wotero wa vacuum chubu zamagetsi - osanenapo kukhala mfiti weniweni pokhazikitsa zoyesera - moti ngakhale pulofesa wake anabwera kudzamufunsa.
Leake adachita bwino kwambiri ku Swarthmore College, kunja kwa Philadelphia, komwe adakhala ndi udindo wa postdoctoral atalandira chidziwitso chake cha Ph.D. Tsitsi la mutu likuima pamapeto.
Pazonse, 1942 sichinali chaka chabwino kwa moyo wopanda nkhawa. Ntchito ya Leek, monga ya ofufuza ena ambiri, inali pafupi kusintha kwambiri.
Zomasulira zokonzeka
Zomasulira zapano zomwe mutha kulumikizana nazo
Source: www.habr.com