{"id":55048,"date":"2020-01-11T00:00:00","date_gmt":"2020-01-10T21:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/blog\/blog_prohoster\/istoriya-interneta-arpanet-paket"},"modified":"2020-02-18T14:03:07","modified_gmt":"2020-02-18T11:03:07","slug":"istoriya-interneta-arpanet-paket","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/ro\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-interneta-arpanet-paket","title":{"rendered":"Istoria internetului: ARPANET \u2014 pachet","gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"text"}]},"content":{"rendered":"<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Istoria internetului: ARPANET \u2014 pachet\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/9bc4fc8c536e15d3e2d4d90e4454cc66.png\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Schema re\u021belei de calculatoare ARPA din iunie 1967. Cercul gol \u2013 computer cu acces distribuit, cercul cu linie \u2013 terminal pentru un singur utilizator<\/i><\/p>\n<p><b class=\"spoiler_title\">Alte articole din ciclu:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Istoria releului\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404373\/\">Metoda de 'transfer rapid de informa\u021bii', sau na\u0219terea releului<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404475\/\">Telegrafist<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/370545\/\">Galvanism<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404657\/\">Antreprenori<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404723\/\">\u0218i iat\u0103, \u00een sf\u00e2r\u0219it, releul<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404889\/\">Telegraful vorbitor<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405025\/\">Pur \u0219i simplu conecta\u021bi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/company\/mailru\/blog\/370471\/\">O genera\u021bie uitat\u0103 de computere cu relee<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">Era electronic\u0103<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Istoria calculatoarelor electronice\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408611\/\">Prolog<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/374043\/\">Colosul<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408597\/\">ENIAC <\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Revolu\u021bia electronic\u0103<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Istoria tranzistorului\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">P\u0103trunz\u00e2nd \u00een \u00eentuneric<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">Din focul r\u0103zboiului<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\"><\/a><\/noindex><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/449760\/\">Reinventare multipl\u0103<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Istoria internetului\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450168\/\">Re\u021beaua de baz\u0103<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450522\/\">Dezintegrarea, partea 1<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/451606\/\">Dezintegrarea, partea 2<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/452030\/\">Deschiz\u00e2nd interactivitatea<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/453154\/\">Extinz\u00e2nd interactivitatea<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">ARPANET \u2014 na\u0219terea<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">ARPANET \u2014 pachet<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/461177\/\">ARPANET \u2014 subre\u021bea<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/472582\/\">Computerul ca dispozitiv de comunicare<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/483366\/\">Istoria internetului: interac\u021biunea \u00eentre re\u021bele<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\nP\u00e2n\u0103 la sf\u00e2r\u0219itul anului 1966 <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80,_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_(%D1%83%D1%87%D1%91%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9)\">Robert Taylor<\/a><\/noindex> ARPA a lansat un proiect de conectare a mai multor computere \u00eentr-un singur sistem, inspirat de ideea \u201e<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">re\u021belei intergalactice<\/a><\/noindex>\u201e <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%84_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82\">Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/p>\n<p>Responsabilitatea pentru realizarea proiectului a fost \u00eencredin\u021bat\u0103 \u00een m\u00e2ini pricepute <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%81,_%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81\">Larry Roberts<\/a><\/noindex>. \u00cen anul urm\u0103tor, Roberts a luat c\u00e2teva decizii critic importante, care ulterior vor influen\u021ba arhitectura tehnic\u0103 \u0219i cultura ARPANET \u0219i a urma\u0219ilor s\u0103i, \u00een unele cazuri chiar timp de c\u00e2teva decenii. Prima decizie ca importan\u021b\u0103, de\u0219i nu ca cronologie, a fost definirea unui mecanism de rutare a mesajelor de la un calculator la altul.<br \/>\n<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" name=\"habracut\"><\/a><\/noindex><\/p>\n<h2>Problema<\/h2>\n<p>\nDac\u0103 calculatorul A dore\u0219te s\u0103 trimit\u0103 un mesaj calculatorului B, cum poate acest mesaj s\u0103 g\u0103seasc\u0103 drumul de la unul la altul? Teoretic, am putea permite fiec\u0103rui nod al re\u021belei de comunica\u021bii s\u0103 interac\u021bioneze cu toate celelalte, conect\u00e2nd fiecare nod cu un cablu fizic la fiecare alt nod. Pentru a comunica cu B, calculatorul A va trimite pur \u0219i simplu mesajul prin cablul de ie\u0219ire care \u00eel leag\u0103 de B. Aceast\u0103 re\u021bea se nume\u0219te complet conectat\u0103. Totu\u0219i, la orice dimensiune semnificativ\u0103 a re\u021belei, aceast\u0103 abordare devine rapid impracticabil\u0103, deoarece num\u0103rul de conexiuni cre\u0219te propor\u021bional cu p\u0103tratul num\u0103rului de noduri (dac\u0103 s\u0103 fim exac\u021bi, ca (n2 - n) \/ 2).<\/p>\n<p>Prin urmare, este necesar s\u0103 existe o modalitate de a construi un traseu pentru mesaj, astfel \u00eenc\u00e2t, la sosirea mesajului la un nod intermediar, acesta s\u0103 fie trimis mai departe c\u0103tre destina\u021bie. La \u00eenceputul anilor 1960, erau cunoscute dou\u0103 abord\u0103ri de baz\u0103 pentru a rezolva aceast\u0103 problem\u0103. Prima \u2013 metoda comut\u0103rii mesajelor prin \u201estocare \u0219i transmitere\u201d. Aceast\u0103 abordare era utilizat\u0103 de sistemul telegrafic. C\u00e2nd un mesaj ajungea la un nod intermediar, era stocat temporar acolo (de obicei sub form\u0103 de band\u0103 de h\u00e2rtie), p\u00e2n\u0103 c\u00e2nd aparea oportunitatea de a-l transmite mai departe c\u0103tre destina\u021bie sau c\u0103tre un alt centru intermediar, mai aproape de destina\u021bie.<\/p>\n<p>Apoi a ap\u0103rut telefonul, iar un nou mod de abordare a devenit necesar. O \u00eent\u00e2rziere de c\u00e2teva minute dup\u0103 fiecare afirma\u021bie f\u0103cut\u0103 prin telefon, care trebuia decodificat\u0103 \u0219i transmis\u0103 la destina\u021bie, ar fi dat senza\u021bia unui dialog cu cineva aflat pe Marte. \u00cen schimb, telefonul folosea comutarea de canale. Cel care suna \u00eencepea fiecare apel cu trimiterea unui mesaj special, care indica cui dore\u0219te s\u0103 sune. La \u00eenceput, acest lucru se f\u0103cea discut\u00e2nd cu operatorul, iar apoi tast\u00e2nd num\u0103rul, procesat de echipamente automate pe comutator. Operatorul sau echipamentul stabileau o conexiune electric\u0103 dedicat\u0103 \u00eentre apelant \u0219i abonatul apelat. \u00cen cazul apelurilor \u00eentre ora\u0219e, acest proces putea necesita c\u00e2teva itera\u021bii, conect\u00e2nd apelul prin mai multe comutatoare. Dup\u0103 stabilirea conexiunii putea \u00eencepe conversa\u021bia propriu-zis\u0103, iar conexiunea era men\u021binut\u0103 p\u00e2n\u0103 c\u00e2nd una dintre p\u0103r\u021bi o \u00eentrerupea, pun\u00e2nd receptorul jos.<\/p>\n<p>Comunicarea digital\u0103, pe care s-a decis s\u0103 o utilizeze ARPANET pentru conectarea computerelor, func\u021biona pe baza <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8\">\u00eemp\u0103r\u021birii timpului<\/a><\/noindex>, folosea caracteristici at\u00e2t ale telegrafului, c\u00e2t \u0219i ale telefonului. Pe de o parte, mesajele cu date erau transmise \u00een pachete separate, ca la telegraf, nu sub form\u0103 de conversa\u021bii continue la telefon. Cu toate acestea, aceste mesaje puteau avea dimensiuni diferite pentru scopuri diferite, de la comenzi de consol\u0103 de c\u00e2\u021biva simboluri p\u00e2n\u0103 la fi\u0219iere mari de date transmise de la un computer la altul. Dac\u0103 fi\u0219ierele erau \u00eent\u00e2rziate pe parcurs, nimeni nu se lamenta. Dar interactivitatea de la distan\u021b\u0103 necesita o reac\u021bie rapid\u0103, la fel ca \u00een cazul unui apel telefonic.<\/p>\n<p>O diferen\u021b\u0103 important\u0103 \u00eentre re\u021belele de date pe de o parte \u0219i telefonul cu telegraful pe de alt\u0103 parte, a fost sensibilitatea la erori \u00een datele procesate de ma\u0219ini. O modificare sau pierdere \u00een timpul transmiterii unui caracter \u00een telegram\u0103, sau dispari\u021bia unei p\u0103r\u021bi dintr-un cuv\u00e2nt \u00eentr-o conversa\u021bie telefonic\u0103 ar fi avut dificult\u0103\u021bi \u00een a afecta grav comunicarea dintre dou\u0103 persoane. Dar dac\u0103 zgomotul pe linie schimba un singur bit de la 0 la 1 \u00een comanda trimis\u0103 c\u0103tre un computer la distan\u021b\u0103, acest lucru putea schimba complet sensul comenzii. De aceea, fiecare mesaj trebuia verificat pentru erori \u0219i retransmis \u00een cazul \u00een care acestea erau descoperite. Astfel de retransmiteri ar fi fost prea costisitoare pentru mesaje mari, iar probabilitatea apari\u021biei erorilor \u00een acestea era mai mare, deoarece erau transmise mai mult timp.<\/p>\n<p>Solu\u021bia acestei probleme a venit datorit\u0103 a dou\u0103 evenimente independente care au avut loc \u00een 1960, totu\u0219i, cel care a ap\u0103rut mai t\u00e2rziu a fost observat primul de Larry Roberts \u0219i ARPA.<\/p>\n<h2>\u00cent\u00e2lnire<\/h2>\n<p>\n\u00cen toamna lui 1967, Roberts a ajuns \u00een Gatlinburg, Tennessee, din cauza v\u00e2rfurilor acoperite de p\u0103duri ale Muntelui Great Smoky, pentru a livra un document despre planurile ARPA pentru desf\u0103\u0219urarea re\u021belei. Lucrase deja aproape un an \u00een biroul de tehnologie a proces\u0103rii informa\u021biilor (Information Processing Technology Office, IPTO), dar multe detalii ale proiectului re\u021belei erau \u00eenc\u0103 destul de neclare, inclusiv solu\u021bia pentru problema rut\u0103rii. Pe l\u00e2ng\u0103 men\u021biunile vag referitoare la blocuri \u0219i dimensiunile acestora, singura referin\u021b\u0103 la aceasta \u00een lucrarea lui Roberts a fost o observa\u021bie scurt\u0103 \u0219i evaziv\u0103 la sf\u00e2r\u0219it: \u201eSe pare c\u0103 este necesar s\u0103 men\u021binem linia de comunica\u021bie utilizat\u0103 periodic pentru a ob\u021bine r\u0103spunsuri \u00eentr-un interval de timp de la o zecime p\u00e2n\u0103 la o secund\u0103, necesare pentru lucrul interactiv. Aceasta este foarte costisitoare din punct de vedere al resurselor re\u021belei \u0219i, dac\u0103 nu avem posibilitatea de a apela mai repede, comutarea mesajelor \u0219i concentrarea vor deveni foarte importante pentru participan\u021bii re\u021belei\u201d. Evident, p\u00e2n\u0103 la acel moment, Roberts nu decisese \u00eenc\u0103 dac\u0103 s\u0103 renun\u021be la abordarea pe care a folosit-o \u00eempreun\u0103 cu Tom Marill \u00een 1965, adic\u0103, conectarea computerelor printr-o re\u021bea telefonic\u0103 comutat\u0103 prin apelare automat\u0103.<\/p>\n<p>La acela\u0219i simpozion a fost prezent \u0219i o alt\u0103 persoan\u0103, cu o idee mult mai bine articulat\u0103 pentru solu\u021bionarea problemei rut\u0103rii \u00een re\u021belele de date. Roger Scantlebury a traversat Atlanticul, sosind de la Laboratorul Na\u021bional Britanic de Fizic\u0103 (British National Physical Laboratory - NPL) cu o prezentare. Scantlebury l-a dus pe Roberts deoparte dup\u0103 prezentarea sa \u0219i i-a povestit despre ideea sa. <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2\">comutarea pachetelor<\/a><\/noindex>. Aceast\u0103 tehnologie a fost dezvoltat\u0103 de \u0219eful s\u0103u de la NPL, Donald Davies. \u00cen Statele Unite, realiz\u0103rile \u0219i istoria lui Davies sunt pu\u021bin cunoscute, de\u0219i \u00een toamna anului 1967, grupul lui Davies de la NPL era cu cel pu\u021bin un an \u00eenaintea ARPA cu ideile sale.<\/p>\n<p>Davies, ca \u0219i mul\u021bi dintre primii pionieri ai calculatoarelor electronice, avea o preg\u0103tire \u00een fizic\u0103. El a absolvit Colegiul Imperial din Londra \u00een 1943, la v\u00e2rsta de 19 ani, \u0219i a fost imediat acceptat \u00eentr-un program secret de dezvoltare a armelor nucleare, sub numele de cod <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tube_Alloys\">Tube Alloys<\/a><\/noindex>. Acolo a condus un grup de oameni care foloseau calculatoare mecanice \u0219i electrice pentru a ob\u021bine rapid solu\u021bii numerice pentru problemele legate de sinteza nuclear\u0103 (iar conduc\u0103torul s\u0103u era <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%81,_%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%AE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81\">Emil Julius Klaus Fuchs<\/a><\/noindex>, un fizician german expatriat, care la acea vreme a \u00eenceput deja s\u0103 transmit\u0103 secretele armelor nucleare Uniunii Sovietice). Dup\u0103 r\u0103zboi, a aflat de la matematicianul John Womersley despre un proiect pe care acesta \u00eel conducea la NPL - era vorba despre crearea unui calculator electronic care urma s\u0103 realizeze acelea\u0219i calcule, dar cu o vitez\u0103 mult mai mare. <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Computerul dezvoltat de Alan Turing<\/a><\/noindex> a fost numit ACE, \u201ema\u0219ina de calcul automat\u0103\u201d.<\/p>\n<p>Davis s-a apucat de aceast\u0103 idee \u0219i s-a angajat la NPL c\u00e2t mai repede posibil. Contribuind la proiectul detaliat \u0219i la crearea computerului ACE, a r\u0103mas profund implicat \u00een domeniul calculatoarelor ca lider al cercet\u0103rilor la NPL. \u00cen 1965, s-a \u00eent\u00e2mplat c\u0103 era \u00een SUA la o \u00eent\u00e2lnire profesional\u0103 legat\u0103 de munca sa \u0219i a profitat de ocazie pentru a vizita mai multe loca\u021bii importante de computere cu timp partajat, pentru a vedea despre ce este toat\u0103 agita\u021bia. \u00cen mediul britanic de calculatoare, conceptul de timp partajat \u00een sensul american al utiliz\u0103rii interactive a calculatoarelor de c\u0103tre mai mul\u021bi utilizatori nu era cunoscut. \u00cen schimb, la ei, timpul partajat \u00eensemna distribu\u021bia sarcinii calculatorului \u00eentre mai multe programe de procesare \u00een lot (pentru ca, de exemplu, un program s\u0103 func\u021bioneze \u00een timp ce altul este ocupat cu citirea de pe band\u0103). Apoi, aceast\u0103 variant\u0103 va fi numit\u0103 multiprogramare.<\/p>\n<p>Peripe\u021biile lui Davis l-au condus la Project MAC la MIT, la JOSS Project de la RAND Corporation din California \u0219i la sistemul de timp partajat de la Dartmouth din New Hampshire. Pe drumul de \u00eentoarcere, unul dintre colegii s\u0103i a propus organizarea unui seminar privind utilizarea colaborativ\u0103, pentru a informa comunitatea britanic\u0103 despre noile tehnologii pe care le-au descoperit \u00een SUA. Davis a fost de acord \u0219i a primit \u00een vizit\u0103 mul\u021bi dintre principalii actori ai domeniului american de calculatoare, inclusiv <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE,_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE_%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5\">Fernando Jos\u00e9 Corbato<\/a><\/noindex> (creatorul \u201esistemului de timp partajat compatibil\u201d la MIT) \u0219i pe \u00eensu\u0219i Larry Roberts.<\/p>\n<p>\u00cen timpul seminarului (sau poate imediat dup\u0103), ideea c\u0103 filosofia partaj\u0103rii timpului poate fi aplicat\u0103 \u0219i liniilor de comunica\u021bie ale calculatoarelor, nu doar calculatoarelor \u00een sine, l-a uimit pe Davis. Calculatoarele cu partajare de timp ofer\u0103 fiec\u0103rui utilizator un mic interval de timp procesor, apoi comut\u0103 pe altul, cre\u00e2nd pentru fiecare utilizator iluzia c\u0103 are propriul s\u0103u computer interactiv. \u00cen mod similar, prin fragmentarea fiec\u0103rui mesaj \u00een buc\u0103\u021bi de dimensiuni standard, pe care Davis le-a numit \u201epachete\u201d, un canal de comunicare poate fi \u00eemp\u0103r\u021bit \u00eentre mai multe calculatoare sau utilizatori ai aceluia\u0219i computer. Mai mult, aceasta ar rezolva toate aspectele transmiterii datelor pentru care comutatoarele telefonice \u0219i telegrafice erau prost adaptate. Un utilizator care lucreaz\u0103 cu un terminal interactiv, trimite comenzi scurte \u0219i prime\u0219te r\u0103spunsuri scurte, nu va fi blocat de transferul unui fi\u0219ier mare, deoarece aceast\u0103 transmisie va fi \u00eemp\u0103r\u021bit\u0103 \u00een mai multe pachete. Orice deteriorare \u00een astfel de mesaje mari va afecta un singur pachet, care poate fi retransmis cu u\u0219urin\u021b\u0103 pentru finalizarea mesajului.<\/p>\n<p>Davis \u0219i-a descris ideile \u00eentr-o lucrare nepublicat\u0103 din 1966, \u201ePropunere pentru o re\u021bea de comunica\u021bii digitale\u201d. La acel moment, cele mai avansate re\u021bele telefonice erau la limita automatiz\u0103rii comutatoarelor, iar Davis a propus s\u0103 integreze comutarea pachetelor \u00een noua genera\u021bie de re\u021bele telefonice, cre\u00e2nd o re\u021bea de comunica\u021bii broadband unificat\u0103 capabil\u0103 s\u0103 r\u0103spund\u0103 diferitelor cereri, de la apeluri telefonice simple p\u00e2n\u0103 la acces de la distan\u021b\u0103 la calculatoare. \u00centre timp, Davis a fost promovat la conducerea NPL \u0219i a format un grup de lucru \u00een domeniul comunica\u021biilor digitale sub conducerea lui Scantlebury pentru a implementa proiectul s\u0103u \u0219i a crea o versiune de demonstra\u021bie func\u021bional\u0103.<\/p>\n<p>\u00cen anul care a precedat conferin\u021ba de la Gatlinburg, echipa Scantlbury a lucrat la toate detaliile cre\u0103rii unei re\u021bele cu comutare de pachete. O defec\u021biune a unui nod putea fi suportat\u0103 printr-o rutare adaptiv\u0103, capabil\u0103 s\u0103 func\u021bioneze cu mai multe c\u0103i c\u0103tre destina\u021bie, iar o pierdere a unui pachet putea fi rezolvat\u0103 prin retransmiterea acestuia. Simul\u0103rile \u0219i analiza au ar\u0103tat c\u0103 dimensiunea optim\u0103 a pachetului ar fi de 1000 de bytes \u2013 dac\u0103 ar fi prea mic\u0103, costurile de l\u0103\u021bime de band\u0103 pentru metadatele din antet ar fi prea mari, iar dac\u0103 ar fi prea mare, timpul de r\u0103spuns pentru utilizatorii interactivi ar cre\u0219te prea frecvent din cauza mesajelor voluminoase.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Istoria internetului: ARPANET \u2014 pachet\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/9e5ff363887f30af503522d67645ef70.png\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Activitatea Scantlbury a inclus detalii precum formatul pachetului\u2026<\/i><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Istoria internetului: ARPANET \u2014 pachet\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/27aaf70301d4564d088ab5106d8dc158.png\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>\u2026\u0219i analiza impactului dimensiunilor pachetului asupra \u00eent\u00e2rzierilor \u00een re\u021bea.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>\u00centre timp, c\u0103ut\u0103rile lui Davis \u0219i Scantlbury au dus la descoperirea unor lucr\u0103ri de cercetare detaliate efectuate de un alt american, care ajunsese la o idee similar\u0103 cu c\u00e2\u021biva ani \u00eenainte de ei. Dar, \u00een acela\u0219i timp, <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD,_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB\">Paul Baran<\/a><\/noindex>, inginer electric de la RAND Corporation, nu s-a g\u00e2ndit la nevoile utilizatorilor de computere cu \u00eemp\u0103r\u021bire de timp. RAND era un centru de analiz\u0103, care func\u021biona cu fonduri de la Ministerul Ap\u0103r\u0103rii al SUA \u00een Santa Monica, California, creat dup\u0103 Al Doilea R\u0103zboi Mondial pentru planificarea pe termen lung \u0219i analiza problemelor strategice pentru necesit\u0103\u021bile militare. Obiectivul lui Baran era de a preveni r\u0103zboiul nuclear, cre\u00e2nd o re\u021bea de comunica\u021bie militar\u0103 extrem de fiabil\u0103, capabil\u0103 s\u0103 reziste chiar \u0219i unei atacuri nucleare pe scar\u0103 larg\u0103. O astfel de re\u021bea ar face ca un atac preventiv din partea URSS s\u0103 fie mai pu\u021bin atractiv, deoarece ar fi foarte greu s\u0103 se distrug\u0103 capacitatea SUA de a riposta \u00eempotriva mai multor puncte sensibile. Pentru aceasta, Baran a propus un sistem care s\u0103 \u00eempart\u0103 mesajele \u00een ceea ce el a numit blocuri de mesaje, care puteau fi transmise independent printr-o re\u021bea de noduri de comunica\u021bie cu conexiuni redundante, apoi s\u0103 fie reunite la punctul final.<\/p>\n<p>ARPA avea acces la volumele rapoartelor B\u00e9ran pentru RAND, \u00eens\u0103, deoarece acestea nu erau legate de computerele interactive, importan\u021ba lor pentru ARPANET nu era evident\u0103. Roberts \u0219i Taylor, se pare, nu le-au observat. \u00cen schimb, datorit\u0103 unei \u00eent\u00e2lniri \u00eent\u00e2mpl\u0103toare, Scantlebury i-a prezentat totul lui Roberts pe o tav\u0103: un mecanism de comutare bine g\u00e2ndit, aplicabilitatea la sarcina de a crea re\u021bele de calculatoare interactive, materiale de referin\u021b\u0103 din partea RAND \u0219i chiar numele \u201epachet\u201d. Lucrarea NPL l-a convins de asemenea pe Roberts c\u0103 pentru a organiza o capacitate bun\u0103 de transfer, erau necesare viteze mai mari, a\u0219a c\u0103 \u0219i-a actualizat planurile la linii de comunica\u021bie de 50 Kbit\/s. O parte fundamental\u0103 a problemei rut\u0103rii pentru crearea ARPANET a fost rezolvat\u0103.<\/p>\n<p>Desigur, exist\u0103 \u0219i o alt\u0103 versiune a apari\u021biei ideii de comutare a pachetelor. Roberts a sus\u021binut mai t\u00e2rziu c\u0103 avea deja g\u00e2nduri asem\u0103n\u0103toare, datorit\u0103 lucr\u0103rii colegului s\u0103u, Len Kleinrock, care ar fi descris aceast\u0103 concept \u00eenc\u0103 din 1962, \u00een teza sa de doctorat pe re\u021bele de comunica\u021bie. Totu\u0219i, din aceast\u0103 lucrare este incredibil de greu s\u0103 extragi o idee similar\u0103, iar \u00een plus nu am putut g\u0103si alte confirm\u0103ri pentru aceast\u0103 versiune.<\/p>\n<h2>Re\u021bele care nu existau<\/h2>\n<p>\nDup\u0103 cum vedem, dou\u0103 echipe au fost \u00eenaintea ARPA \u00een dezvoltarea comut\u0103rii pachetelor, o tehnologie care s-a dovedit at\u00e2t de eficient\u0103 \u00eenc\u00e2t \u00een prezent st\u0103 la baza practic tuturor comunica\u021biilor. De ce a devenit ARPANET prima re\u021bea semnificativ\u0103 care a utilizat-o?<\/p>\n<p>Totul se reduce la subtilit\u0103\u021bile organiza\u021bionale. ARPA nu avea un mandat oficial pentru a crea o re\u021bea de comunica\u021bie, \u00eens\u0103 exista un num\u0103r mare de centre de cercetare deja existente cu propriile computere, o cultur\u0103 a \u201eobiceiurilor libere\u201d, asupra c\u0103reia practic nu se supraveghea, \u0219i o mul\u021bime de bani. Cererea ini\u021bial\u0103 a lui Taylor din 1966 pentru fonduri pentru crearea ARPANET a men\u021bionat suma de 1 milion de dolari, iar Roberts a continuat s\u0103 cheltuie aceea\u0219i sum\u0103 anual din 1969 \u00eencoace pentru crearea \u0219i operarea acestei re\u021bele. Pentru ARPA, ace\u0219ti bani erau o nimica toat\u0103, a\u0219a c\u0103 nimeni din conducerea sa nu era \u00eengrijorat de ceea ce f\u0103cea Roberts cu ei, at\u00e2ta timp c\u00e2t putea fi legat \u00een vreun fel de nevoile ap\u0103r\u0103rii na\u021bionale.<\/p>\n<p>Behran nu a avut nici oportunit\u0103\u021bi, nici autoritate \u00een cadrul RAND pentru a face ceva. Munca lui a fost exclusiv de cercetare \u0219i analiz\u0103, \u0219i putea fi aplicat\u0103, dac\u0103 se dorea, \u00een ap\u0103rare. \u00cen 1965, RAND a recomandat cu adev\u0103rat sistemul s\u0103u c\u0103tre For\u021bele Aeriene, iar acestea au fost de acord cu viabilitatea proiectului. \u00cens\u0103 implementarea a c\u0103zut \u00een sarcina agen\u021biei de comunica\u021bii pentru ap\u0103rare, care nu era foarte familiarizat\u0103 cu comunica\u021biile digitale. Behran a convins conducerea de la RAND c\u0103 este mai bine s\u0103 preia aceast\u0103 propunere dec\u00e2t s\u0103 permit\u0103 s\u0103 fie realizat\u0103 \u00een mod aleatoriu, compromi\u021b\u00e2nd astfel reputa\u021bia comunica\u021biilor digitale distribuite.<\/p>\n<p>Davis, \u00een calitate de director al NPL, avea mult mai mult\u0103 putere dec\u00e2t Behran, dar un buget mai restr\u00e2ns dec\u00e2t ARPA, \u0219i nu avea o re\u021bea social\u0103 \u0219i tehnic\u0103 preg\u0103tit\u0103 din computere de cercetare. A reu\u0219it s\u0103 dezvolte un prototip de re\u021bea local\u0103 cu comutare de pachete (avea un singur nod, dar multe terminale) la NPL la sf\u00e2r\u0219itul anilor '60, cu un buget modest de 120.000 de lire pe parcursul a trei ani. ARPANET cheltuia aproximativ jum\u0103tate din aceast\u0103 sum\u0103 anual pe func\u021bionare \u0219i \u00eentre\u021binere la fiecare dintre numeroasele noduri ale re\u021belei, excluz\u00e2nd investi\u021biile ini\u021biale \u00een hardware \u0219i software. Organiza\u021bia capabil\u0103 s\u0103 creeze o re\u021bea britanic\u0103 de mari dimensiuni cu comutare de pachete era po\u0219ta britanic\u0103, care gestiona re\u021belele de telecomunica\u021bii din \u021bar\u0103, pe l\u00e2ng\u0103 po\u0219ta \u00een sine. Davis a reu\u0219it s\u0103 capteze aten\u021bia c\u00e2torva oficiali influen\u021bi cu ideile sale despre o re\u021bea digital\u0103 unificat\u0103 la nivel na\u021bional, dar nu a putut schimba direc\u021bia unei astfel de sisteme imense.<\/p>\n<p>Licklider, combin\u00e2nd norocul cu planificarea, a g\u0103sit o wonderful ser\u0103 unde re\u021beaua sa intergalactic\u0103 ar putea \u00eenflori. Nu se poate afirma c\u0103 totul, \u00een afar\u0103 de comutarea pachetelor, \u021binea exclusiv de bani. Executarea conceptului a avut de asemenea un impact. Mai mult, spiritul ARPANET a fost determinat \u0219i de c\u00e2teva alte decizii importante \u00een stadiul de proiectare. De aceea, vom analiza cum era distribuit\u0103 responsabilitatea \u00eentre computerele care trimiteau \u0219i primeau mesaje \u0219i re\u021beaua prin care aceste mesaje erau transmise.<\/p>\n<h2>Ce altceva s\u0103 citim<\/h2>\n<p><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Janet Abbate, Inventing the Internet (1999)<\/li>\n<li>Katie Hafner \u0219i Matthew Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late (1996)<\/li>\n<li>Leonard Kleinrock, \u201cAn Early History of the Internet,\u201d IEEE Communications Magazine (august 2010)<\/li>\n<li>Arthur Norberg \u0219i Julie O\u2019Neill, Transformarea Tehnologiei Computerizate: Prelucrarea Informa\u021biilor pentru Pentagon, 1962-1986 (1996)<\/li>\n<li>M. Mitchell Waldrop, Ma\u0219ina Visurilor: J.C.R. Licklider \u0219i Revolu\u021bia Care a Facut Calculul Personal (2001)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Sursa: <a content=\"nofollow\" rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">habr.com<\/a><\/p>","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u0421\u0445\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u0442\u0438 ARPA \u043d\u0430 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044c 1967. \u041f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043e\u043a \u2013 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0441 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430, \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043e\u043a \u0441 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u2013 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430: \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u041c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434 \u00ab\u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439\u00bb, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0417\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0414\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0446 \u0413\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0410 \u0432\u043e\u0442, \u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0446, \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0413\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0417\u0430\u0431\u044b\u0442\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u042d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u044d\u0440\u0430 \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[688],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-55048","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-administrirovanie"],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t<!-- All in One SEO 5.0.2 - aioseo.com -->\n\t<meta name=\"description\" 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