{"id":55071,"date":"2020-01-11T00:00:00","date_gmt":"2020-01-10T21:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/blog\/blog_prohoster\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote"},"modified":"2020-02-18T14:03:09","modified_gmt":"2020-02-18T11:03:09","slug":"istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/ro\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote","title":{"rendered":"Istoria transistorului: navig\u00e2nd \u00een \u00eentuneric","gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"text"}]},"content":{"rendered":"<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Istoria transistorului: navig\u00e2nd \u00een \u00eentuneric\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/16ad3c6eaa7f0e32992939696172bd90.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<br \/>\n<b class=\"spoiler_title\">Alte articole din ciclu:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Istoria releului\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404373\/\">Metoda de 'transfer rapid de informa\u021bii', sau na\u0219terea releului<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404475\/\">Telegrafist<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/370545\/\">Galvanism<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404657\/\">Antreprenori<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404723\/\">\u0218i iat\u0103, \u00een sf\u00e2r\u0219it, releul<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404889\/\">Telegraful vorbitor<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405025\/\">Pur \u0219i simplu conecta\u021bi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/company\/mailru\/blog\/370471\/\">O genera\u021bie uitat\u0103 de computere cu relee<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">Era electronic\u0103<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Istoria calculatoarelor electronice\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408611\/\">Prolog<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/374043\/\">Colosul<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408597\/\">ENIAC <\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Revolu\u021bia electronic\u0103<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Istoria tranzistorului\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">P\u0103trunz\u00e2nd \u00een \u00eentuneric<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">Din focul r\u0103zboiului<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\"><\/a><\/noindex><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/449760\/\">Reinventare multipl\u0103<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Istoria internetului\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450168\/\">Re\u021beaua de baz\u0103<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450522\/\">Dezintegrarea, partea 1<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/451606\/\">Dezintegrarea, partea 2<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/452030\/\">Deschiz\u00e2nd interactivitatea<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/453154\/\">Extinz\u00e2nd interactivitatea<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">ARPANET \u2014 na\u0219terea<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">ARPANET \u2014 pachet<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/461177\/\">ARPANET \u2014 subre\u021bea<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/472582\/\">Computerul ca dispozitiv de comunicare<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/483366\/\">Istoria internetului: interac\u021biunea \u00eentre re\u021bele<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\nDrumul c\u0103tre comutatoarele solide a fost lung \u0219i complicat. A \u00eenceput cu descoperirea c\u0103 anumite materiale se comport\u0103 ciudat \u00een prezen\u021ba electricit\u0103\u021bii \u2013 nu a\u0219a cum prevedea teoria existent\u0103 la acea vreme. A urmat o poveste despre cum tehnologia, \u00een secolul XX, devenea din ce \u00een ce mai \u0219tiin\u021bific\u0103 \u0219i o disciplin\u0103 institu\u021bional\u0103. Diletan\u021bii, \u00eencep\u0103torii \u0219i inventatorii profesioni\u0219ti, care practic nu aveau educa\u021bie \u0219tiin\u021bific\u0103, au adus contribu\u021bii semnificative la formarea telegrafului, telefoniei \u0219i radio-ului. Dar, a\u0219a cum vom vedea, aproape toate avansurile din istoria electronicii solide au avut loc datorit\u0103 oamenilor de \u0219tiin\u021b\u0103 care studiul universit\u0103\u021bilor (\u0219i de obicei cu un doctorat \u00een fizic\u0103) \u0219i care au lucrat \u00een universit\u0103\u021bi sau laboratoare de cercetare corporative.<br \/>\n<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" name=\"habracut\"><\/a><\/noindex><br \/>\nOricine are acces la un atelier \u0219i abilit\u0103\u021bi de baz\u0103 \u00een lucru cu materialele poate asambla un releu din fire, metal \u0219i lemn. Crearea l\u0103mpilor electrice necesit\u0103 unelte mai specializate, capabile s\u0103 creeze un bulb de sticl\u0103 \u0219i s\u0103 evacueze aerul din el. Dispozitivele solide au disp\u0103rut \u00een o groap\u0103 de iepure din care comutatorul digital nu s-a \u00eentors niciodat\u0103 \u0219i au fost tot mai ad\u00e2nc \u00een lumi \u00een\u021belese doar de matematica abstract\u0103 \u0219i accesibile doar prin echipamente extrem de scumpe.<\/p>\n<h2>Galena<\/h2>\n<p>\n\u00cen 1874 <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD,_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4\">Ferdinand Braun<\/a><\/noindex>, un fizician de 24 de ani de la \u0218coala Sf. Toma din Leipzig, a publicat prima dintr-o serie lung\u0103 de lucr\u0103ri \u0219tiin\u021bifice importante \u00een cariera sa. Lucrarea sa \u201eDespre trecerea curen\u021bilor electrici prin sulfuri de metale\u201d a fost acceptat\u0103 \u00een revista Pogendorff\u2019s Annalen, o revist\u0103 prestigioas\u0103 dedicat\u0103 \u0219tiin\u021belor fizice. \u00cen ciuda titlului plictisitor, lucrarea lui Braun descria c\u00e2teva rezultate experimentale uimitoare \u0219i misterioase.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Istoria transistorului: navig\u00e2nd \u00een \u00eentuneric\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/dba4a5648572427d3c139ff9560f92f9.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Ferdinand Braun<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Braun a fost intrigat de sulfuri \u2013 cristale minerale compuse din combina\u021bii de sulf cu metale \u2013 datorit\u0103 lucr\u0103rilor <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%93%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC\">Johann Wilhelm Hittorff<\/a><\/noindex>. \u00cen 1833, Michael Faraday a observat c\u0103 conductivitatea sulfului de argint cre\u0219te odat\u0103 cu temperatura, ceea ce contrazice complet comportamentul conductorilor metalici. Gittorf a realizat un raport cantitativ detaliat al m\u0103sur\u0103torilor acestui efect \u00een anii 1850, pentru sulfi\u021bii at\u00e2t de argint, c\u00e2t \u0219i de cupru. Acum Brown, folosind un dispozitiv experimental ingenios care ap\u0103sa un conductor metalic pe un cristal de sulfid cu un arc pentru a asigura un contact bun, a descoperit ceva \u0219i mai ciudat. Conductivitatea cristalelor depindea de direc\u021bie \u2013 de exemplu, curentul putea s\u0103 curg\u0103 bine \u00eentr-o direc\u021bie, dar la schimbarea polarit\u0103\u021bii bateriei, curentul putea s\u0103 scad\u0103 brusc. Cristele \u00eentr-o direc\u021bie se comportau mai mult ca ni\u0219te conductori (precum metalele normale), iar \u00een cealalt\u0103 \u2013 mai mult ca ni\u0219te izolatori (precum sticla sau cauciucul). Aceast\u0103 proprietate a devenit cunoscut\u0103 sub numele de rectificare, datorit\u0103 capacit\u0103\u021bii sale de a transforma curentul alternativ \u201e\u00een zigzag\u201d \u00een curent continuu \u201eplat\u201d.<\/p>\n<p>Aproape \u00een aceea\u0219i perioad\u0103, cercet\u0103torii au descoperit \u0219i alte propriet\u0103\u021bi ciudate ale unor materiale, cum ar fi seleniul, care putea fi topit din anumite minereuri sulfuroase de metale. Sub influen\u021ba luminii, seleniul \u00ee\u0219i cre\u0219te conductivitatea \u0219i chiar \u00eencepea s\u0103 genereze electricitate, \u0219i putea fi folosit, de asemenea, pentru rectificare. Exista vreo leg\u0103tur\u0103 \u00eentre asta \u0219i cristalele de sulfi\u021bi? F\u0103r\u0103 modele teoretice capabile s\u0103 explice ce se \u00eent\u00e2mpla, \u00een acest domeniu domnea confuzia.<\/p>\n<p>Cu toate acestea, lipsa teoriei nu a oprit \u00eencerc\u0103rile de aplicare practic\u0103 a rezultatelor. La sf\u00e2r\u0219itul anilor 1890, Brown a devenit profesor la Universitatea din Strasbourg \u2013 recent anexat\u0103 Fran\u021bei \u00een urma <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0\">R\u0103zboiului Franco-Prusac<\/a><\/noindex> \u0219i redenumit\u0103 Universitatea Kaiser Wilhelm. Acolo a fost atras de noul \u0219i captivantul domeniu al radiotelegraficii. El a acceptat invita\u021bia unui grup de antreprenori de a colabora la crearea unui sistem de comunica\u021bie wireless bazat pe transmiterea undelor radio prin ap\u0103. Cu toate acestea, el \u0219i partenerii s\u0103i au abandonat rapid ideea ini\u021bial\u0103 \u00een favoarea transmisiei aeriene de semnale, similar cu ceea ce folosea Marconi \u0219i al\u021bii.<\/p>\n<p>Printre aspectele radioului pe care grupul Brown a c\u0103utat s\u0103 le \u00eembun\u0103t\u0103\u021beasc\u0103 se num\u0103ra receptorul standard de la acea vreme, <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%80\">cogerer<\/a><\/noindex>El a fost bazat pe faptul c\u0103 undele radio determinau f\u00e2\u0219iile metalice s\u0103 se adune \u00eentr-un morman, ceea ce permitea curentului de la baterie s\u0103 treac\u0103 c\u0103tre dispozitivul de semnalizare. A func\u021bionat, dar sistemul r\u0103spundea doar la semnale relativ puternice, iar pentru a desf\u0103\u0219ura mormanul de f\u00e2\u0219ii era necesar s\u0103 se loveasc\u0103 constant dispozitivul. Brown \u0219i-a amintit de vechile sale experimente cu cristalele de sulfit \u0219i, \u00een 1899, \u0219i-a recreat vechea instala\u021bie experimental\u0103 cu un nou scop \u2013 s\u0103 serveasc\u0103 drept detector pentru semnalele f\u0103r\u0103 fir. Efectul de redresare l-a folosit pentru a transforma un curent mic oscilant, generat de undele radio, \u00eentr-un curent continuu, care putea alimenta un difuzor mic ce emitea clicuri audibile pentru fiecare punct sau linie. Dispozitivul a devenit ulterior cunoscut sub numele de &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80\">detector cu must\u0103\u021bi de pisic\u0103<\/a><\/noindex>&#187; datorit\u0103 aspectului firului care se atingea cu u\u0219urin\u021b\u0103 de partea superioar\u0103 a cristalului. \u00cen India Britanic\u0103 (unde se afl\u0103 ast\u0103zi Bangladesh), savantul \u0219i inventatorul Jagadish Bose a construit un dispozitiv similar, posibil chiar \u00een 1894. Ceilal\u021bi au \u00eenceput rapid s\u0103 produc\u0103 detectoare similare pe baz\u0103 de siliciu \u0219i carborundum (carbid de siliciu).<\/p>\n<p>Cu toate acestea, <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82\">galenit<\/a><\/noindex>, sulfat de plumb, care a fost topit pentru a ob\u021bine plumb \u00eenc\u0103 din vremuri antice, a devenit materialul preferat pentru detectoarele cristaline. Acestea erau u\u0219or de fabricat \u0219i ieftine, devenind, astfel, extrem de populare printre prima genera\u021bie de pasiona\u021bi de radio. Mai mult, \u00een contrast cu cogererul binar (cu pl\u0103cu\u021bele care se aglomerau sau nu), redresorul cristalin putea reproduce un semnal continuu. Prin urmare, putea emite transmisii vocale \u0219i muzic\u0103 audibile, nu doar cod Morse cu puncte \u0219i linii.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Istoria transistorului: navig\u00e2nd \u00een \u00eentuneric\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/b43382b70622d1171b8d3e65e5927526.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Detectorul \u201emust\u0103\u021bi de pisic\u0103\u201d din galenit. Un mic segment de s\u00e2rm\u0103 din st\u00e2nga este musta\u021ba, iar bucata de material argintiu din partea de jos este cristalul de galenit.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Cu toate acestea, a\u0219a cum au aflat rapid radioamatorii sup\u0103ra\u021bi, g\u0103sirea punctului magic de pe suprafa\u021ba cristalului, care ar oferi o rectificare bun\u0103, putea dura minute sau chiar ore. Iar semnalele f\u0103r\u0103 amplificare erau slabe \u0219i aveau un ton metalic. P\u00e2n\u0103 \u00een anii 1920, recep\u021bioarele pe l\u0103mpi electronice cu amplificatoare triode practic au scos detectoarele cristaline din uz aproape peste tot. Singurul lor avantaj atractiv a r\u0103mas pre\u021bul mic.<\/p>\n<p>Aceast\u0103 apari\u021bie scurt\u0103 pe scena recep\u021bioarelor radio p\u0103rea a fi limita utiliz\u0103rii practice a propriet\u0103\u021bilor electrice ciudate ale materialului, descoperite de Brown \u0219i al\u021bii.<\/p>\n<h2>Oxid de cupru<\/h2>\n<p>\nApoi, \u00een anii 1920, un alt fizician pe nume Lars Grondahl a descoperit ceva ciudat cu ajutorul instala\u021biei sale experimentale. Grondahl, primul dintr-o serie de b\u0103rba\u021bi inteligen\u021bi \u0219i neobosi\u021bi din istoria vestului american, era fiul unui inginer constructor. Tat\u0103l s\u0103u, emigrat din Norvegia \u00een 1880, a lucrat timp de c\u00e2teva decenii pe c\u0103ile ferate din California, Oregon \u0219i Washington. La \u00eenceput, Grondahl p\u0103rea c\u0103 vrea s\u0103 p\u0103r\u0103seasc\u0103 lumea ingineriei tat\u0103lui s\u0103u \u0219i a mers la Institutul Johns Hopkins pentru a ob\u021bine un doctorat \u00een fizic\u0103, urm\u00e2nd o carier\u0103 academic\u0103. Dar apoi s-a implicat \u0219i el \u00een afacerea feroviar\u0103, angaj\u00e2ndu-se ca director de cercetare la compania Union Switch and Signal, un bra\u021b al gigantului industrial <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Westinghouse_Electric\">Westinghouse<\/a><\/noindex>, care furniza echipamente pentru industria feroviar\u0103.<\/p>\n<p>Diverse surse sugereaz\u0103 motive contradictorii care l-au determinat pe Grondahl s\u0103 \u00ee\u0219i desf\u0103\u0219oare cercet\u0103rile, dar indiferent de situa\u021bie, el a \u00eenceput s\u0103 experimenteze cu discuri de cupru \u00eenc\u0103lzite pe o latur\u0103 pentru a crea un strat oxidat. Lucr\u00e2nd cu acestea, el a observat asimetria curentului \u2013 rezisten\u021ba \u00eentr-o direc\u021bie era de trei ori mai mare dec\u00e2t \u00een cealalt\u0103. Un disc din cupru \u0219i oxid de cupru rectifica curentul, exact ca un cristal de sulfid.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Istoria transistorului: navig\u00e2nd \u00een \u00eentuneric\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/5ea17aa0272848adb9fdb122b650dc19.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Schema rectificatorului din oxid de cupru<\/i><\/p>\n<p>\u00cen urm\u0103torii \u0219ase ani, Grondahl a dezvoltat un redresoare comercial utilizabil pe baza acestui fenomen, cu ajutorul altei cercet\u0103toare din SUA, Paul Geiger, apoi a depus o cerere de brevet \u0219i \u0219i-a anun\u021bat descoperirea la Societatea American\u0103 de Fizic\u0103 \u00een 1926. Dispozitivul a devenit imediat un mare succes comercial. Datorit\u0103 absen\u021bei firului fragil, era mult mai fiabil dec\u00e2t redresoarele pe tuburi electronice, bazate pe principiul lui Fleming, \u0219i era ieftin de produs. Spre deosebire de cristalele redresoare Brown, acesta func\u021biona din prima \u00eencercare \u0219i, datorit\u0103 suprafe\u021bei mai mari de contact dintre metal \u0219i oxid, func\u021biona pe un interval mai larg de curen\u021bi \u0219i tensiuni. Putea \u00eenc\u0103rca baterii, detecta semnale \u00een diverse sisteme electrice \u0219i func\u021biona ca un \u0219unt de siguran\u021b\u0103 \u00een generatoare puternice. C\u00e2nd era folosit ca un fotodetector, discurile puteau m\u0103sura cantitatea de lumin\u0103 \u0219i erau deosebit de utile \u00een fotografie. Al\u021bi cercet\u0103tori aproximativ \u00een aceea\u0219i perioad\u0103 au dezvoltat redresoare pe baz\u0103 de seleniu, care au avut aplica\u021bii similare.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Istoria transistorului: navig\u00e2nd \u00een \u00eentuneric\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/61c76a25b892e1064316faf461bd3da1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Un pachet de redresoare pe baz\u0103 de oxid de cupru. Montajul din mai multe discuri cre\u0219tea rezisten\u021ba invers\u0103, permi\u021b\u00e2nd utilizarea lor la tensiuni \u00eenalte.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Dup\u0103 c\u00e2\u021biva ani, doi fizicieni de la Laboratoarele Bell, Joseph Becker \u0219i <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD,_%D0%A3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80\">Walter Brattain<\/a><\/noindex>, au decis s\u0103 studieze principiul de func\u021bionare al redresoarelor de cupru \u2013 erau interesa\u021bi s\u0103 afle cum func\u021bioneaz\u0103 \u0219i cum ar putea fi folosit \u00een compania Bell System.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Istoria transistorului: navig\u00e2nd \u00een \u00eentuneric\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/a670707a5c9ee86ae7b7f129fd8fdee1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Brattain \u00een v\u00e2rst\u0103 \u2013 aprox. 1950<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Brattain era originar din aceea\u0219i zon\u0103 ca \u0219i Grondahl, din Nord-Vestul Pacificului, unde a crescut pe o ferm\u0103 situat\u0103 la c\u00e2\u021biva kilometri de grani\u021ba canadian\u0103. \u00cen clasele superioare, fizica l-a interesat, a ar\u0103tat abilit\u0103\u021bi \u00een acest domeniu \u0219i, \u00een cele din urm\u0103, a ob\u021binut doctoratul la Universitatea din Minnesota la sf\u00e2r\u0219itul anilor 1920 \u0219i a \u00eenceput s\u0103 lucreze la Laboratoarele Bell \u00een 1929. Printre altele, la universitate a studiat cele mai noi fizici teoretice, care c\u00e2\u0219tigau popularitate \u00een Europa \u0219i cunoscute sub numele de mecanica cuantic\u0103 (supraveghetorul s\u0103u a fost <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA\">John Hazbrook Van Fleck<\/a><\/noindex>, de asemenea, mentor \u0219i pentru John Atanasoff).<\/p>\n<h2>Revolu\u021bia cuantic\u0103<\/h2>\n<p>\nNoua platform\u0103 teoretic\u0103 a evoluat \u00eencet \u00een ultimele trei decenii, iar la un moment dat va putea explica toate fenomenele ciudate observate de-a lungul anilor \u00een materiale precum galenitul, seleniul \u0219i oxidul de cupru. O \u00eentreag\u0103 cohort\u0103, \u00een mare parte tineri fizicieni din Germania \u0219i \u021b\u0103rile vecine, a provocat o revolu\u021bie cuantic\u0103 \u00een fizic\u0103. Oriunde te ui\u021bi, ei descopereau nu un univers neted \u0219i continuu, a\u0219a cum fuseser\u0103 \u00eenv\u0103\u021ba\u021bi, ci ciudate aglomer\u0103ri discrete.<\/p>\n<p>Totul a \u00eenceput \u00een anii 1890. Max Planck, celebrul profesor al Universit\u0103\u021bii din Berlin, a decis s\u0103 lucreze la o problem\u0103 bine cunoscut\u0103 \u0219i nerezolvat\u0103: cum &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%87%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE\">corpul perfect negru<\/a><\/noindex>&#187; (substan\u021ba ideal\u0103 care absoarbe toat\u0103 energia \u0219i nu o reflect\u0103) emite radia\u021bie \u00een spectrul electromagnetic? Au fost testate diferite modele, niciunul dintre ele necorespunz\u00e2nd rezultatelor experimentale \u2013 ele nu func\u021bionau fie la un cap\u0103t, fie la cel\u0103lalt al spectrului. Planck a descoperit c\u0103, dac\u0103 presupunem c\u0103 energia este emis\u0103 de corp \u00eentr-o form\u0103 de \u201epachete\u201d mici de dimensiuni discrete, atunci se poate scrie o lege simpl\u0103 de rela\u021bie \u00eentre frecven\u021b\u0103 \u0219i energie, care coincide perfect cu rezultatele empirice.<\/p>\n<p>Cur\u00e2nd dup\u0103 aceea, Einstein a descoperit c\u0103 acela\u0219i lucru este valabil \u0219i pentru absorb\u021bia luminii (prima sugestie de fotoni), iar J.J. Thomson a ar\u0103tat c\u0103 electricitatea este de asemenea transferat\u0103 nu printr-un lichid sau und\u0103 continu\u0103, ci prin particule discrete - electroni. Apoi, Niels Bohr a creat un model care explica cum atomii excita\u021bi emit radia\u021bie, atribuind electronilor orbite separate \u00een atom, fiecare av\u00e2nd propria energie. Totu\u0219i, acest nume poate induce \u00een eroare, deoarece comportamentul lor nu seam\u0103n\u0103 deloc cu orbitele planetelor - \u00een modelul lui Bohr, electronii treceau instantaneu de la o orbit\u0103 sau nivel de energie la altul, f\u0103r\u0103 a trece printr-o stare intermediar\u0103. \u0218i, \u00een cele din urm\u0103, \u00een anii 1920, Erwin Schr\u00f6dinger, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born \u0219i al\u021bii au creat o platform\u0103 matematic\u0103 generalizat\u0103, cunoscut\u0103 sub numele de mecanica cuantic\u0103, care a inclus toate modelele cuantice speciale dezvoltate \u00een ultimii dou\u0103zeci de ani.<\/p>\n<p>La acea vreme, fizicienii erau deja convin\u0219i c\u0103 materiale precum seleniul \u0219i galenitul, care demonstreaz\u0103 propriet\u0103\u021bi fotogeneratorice \u0219i de rectificare, apar\u021bin unui alt tip de materiale, pe care le-au numit semiconductori. Clasificarea a durat at\u00e2t de mult din mai multe motive. \u00cen primul r\u00e2nd, categoriile \u201econductori\u201d \u0219i \u201eizolatori\u201d erau destul de expansive. A\u0219a-numi\u021bii \u201econductori\u201d variau extrem de mult \u00een ceea ce prive\u0219te conductivitatea, de\u0219i aceea\u0219i (\u00eentr-o m\u0103sur\u0103 mai mic\u0103) era adev\u0103rat\u0103 \u0219i pentru izolatori, \u0219i nu era evident cum un anumit conductor poate fi atribuit uneia sau alteia dintre aceste clase. Mai mult, p\u00e2n\u0103 la mijlocul secolului XX, era imposibil s\u0103 ob\u021bii sau s\u0103 creezi substan\u021be foarte pure, iar orice anomalii \u00een conductivitatea materialelor naturale puteau fi \u00eentotdeauna atribuite contamin\u0103rii.<\/p>\n<p>Acum fizicienii aveau at\u00e2t instrumente matematice din mecanica cuantic\u0103, c\u00e2t \u0219i o nou\u0103 clas\u0103 de materiale la care s\u0103 le aplice. Teoreticianul britanic <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Herries_Wilson\">Alan Wilson<\/a><\/noindex> a fost primul care a adunat toate acestea \u0219i a construit un model general al semiconductoarelor \u0219i al principiului lor de func\u021bionare \u00een 1931.<\/p>\n<p>Ini\u021bial, Wilson a sus\u021binut c\u0103 materialele conductoare se deosebesc de dielectrici prin starea zonelor energetice. Mecanica cuantic\u0103 afirm\u0103 c\u0103 electronii pot exista \u00een num\u0103r limitat de nivele energetice specifice shell-urilor sau orbitalelor atomilor individuali. Dac\u0103 aceste atomi sunt comprima\u021bi \u00eempreun\u0103 \u00een structura unui material, ar fi mai corect s\u0103 ne imagin\u0103m zone energetice continue care traverseaz\u0103 materialul. \u00cen conductoare, \u00een regiunile energetice superioare exist\u0103 locuri libere, iar c\u00e2mpul electric poate muta electronii acolo f\u0103r\u0103 dificultate. \u00cen izolatori, zonele sunt complet umplute, iar pentru a ajunge la zona superioar\u0103, conductivitatea c\u0103reia este mai u\u0219oar\u0103, este necesar s\u0103 te c\u0103\u021b\u0103ri destul de departe.<\/p>\n<p>Aceasta l-a dus la concluzia c\u0103 impurit\u0103\u021bile \u2013 atomii str\u0103ini \u00een structura materialului \u2013 trebuie s\u0103 contribuie la propriet\u0103\u021bile sale semiconductoare. Ele pot fie s\u0103 ofere electroni suplimentari, care ies cu u\u0219urin\u021b\u0103 \u00een zona de conduc\u021bie, fie goluri \u2013 absen\u021ba electronilor \u00een compara\u021bie cu restul materialului \u2013 ceea ce creeaz\u0103 locuri energetice goale, \u00een care pot migra electronii liberi. Prima variant\u0103 a fost denumit\u0103 ulterior semiconductori de tip n (sau electronici) \u2013 datorit\u0103 \u00eenc\u0103rc\u0103turii negative excesive, iar a doua \u2013 de tip p, sau goluri \u2013 datorit\u0103 \u00eenc\u0103rc\u0103turii pozitive excesive.<\/p>\n<p>\u00cen cele din urm\u0103, Wilson a sugerat c\u0103 drectificarea curentului de c\u0103tre semiconductori poate fi explicat\u0103 \u00een termeni de <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%8D%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82\">efect tunnel<\/a><\/noindex>, saltul brusc al electronilor printr-o barier\u0103 electric\u0103 sub\u021bire \u00een material. Teoria p\u0103rea plauzibil\u0103, totu\u0219i prezicea c\u0103 \u00een redresor curentul ar trebui s\u0103 circule de la oxid c\u0103tre cupru, de\u0219i \u00een realitate totul era invers.<\/p>\n<p>Astfel, \u00een ciuda tuturor avansurilor lui Wilson, semiconductoarele r\u0103m\u00e2neau greu de explicat. Pe m\u0103sur\u0103 ce devenea din ce \u00een ce mai clar, modific\u0103rile microscopice ale structurii cristaline \u0219i concentra\u021biei de impurit\u0103\u021bi influen\u021bau dispropor\u021bionat comportamentul lor electric macroscopic. Ignor\u00e2nd lipsa de \u00een\u021belegere \u2013 av\u00e2nd \u00een vedere c\u0103 nimeni nu putea s\u0103 explice observa\u021biile experimentale f\u0103cute de Brown cu 60 de ani \u00eenainte \u2013 Brattain \u0219i Becker au dezvoltat un proces eficient de produc\u021bie a redresoarelor cu cupru-oxid pentru angajatorul lor. Bell System a \u00eenceput rapid s\u0103 \u00eenlocuiasc\u0103 redresoarele cu tuburi electronice din \u00eentreaga re\u021bea cu un nou dispozitiv pe care inginerii lor l-au numit <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80\">varistor<\/a><\/noindex>, deoarece rezisten\u021ba sa varia \u00een func\u021bie de direc\u021bie.<\/p>\n<h2>Medalie de aur<\/h2>\n<p>\nMerwin Kelly, fizician \u0219i fost \u0219ef al departamentului de tuburi electronice de la Laboratoarele Bell, a fost foarte interesat de aceast\u0103 realizare. De-a lungul a c\u00e2teva decenii, tuburile electronice au prestat servicii nepre\u021buite pentru Bell \u0219i au putut \u00eendeplini func\u021bii inaccesibile genera\u021biei anterioare de componente mecanice \u0219i electromecanice. Dar acestea se \u00eenc\u0103lzeau mult, se supra\u00eenc\u0103lzeau frecvent, consumau mult\u0103 energie \u0219i erau dificile de \u00eentre\u021binut. Kelly inten\u021biona s\u0103 reconstruiasc\u0103 de la zero sistemul Bell pe baza unor componente electronice solide, mai fiabile \u0219i mai rezistente, cum ar fi varistorii, care nu necesitau carcase etan\u0219e, umplute cu gaz sau goale, nici filament incandescent. \u00cen 1936, el a devenit \u0219eful departamentului de cercetare de la Laboratoarele Bell \u0219i a \u00eenceput s\u0103 redirec\u021bioneze organiza\u021bia pe o nou\u0103 cale.<\/p>\n<p>Dup\u0103 ob\u021binerea unui redresor solid, urm\u0103torul pas evident a fost crearea unui amplificator solid. Firesc, la fel ca amplificatorul pe tuburi, un astfel de dispozitiv ar putea func\u021biona \u0219i ca un comutator digital. Acest lucru era deosebit de interesant pentru compania Bell, deoarece \u00een centralele telefonice \u00eenc\u0103 func\u021bionau o mul\u021bime de comutatoare digitale electromecanice. Compania c\u0103uta o \u00eenlocuire mai fiabil\u0103, compact\u0103, eficient\u0103 energetic \u0219i rece pentru tuburile electronice \u00een sistemele telefonice, radiorecep\u021bioare, radare \u0219i alte echipamente analogice, unde acestea erau utilizate pentru amplificarea semnalelor slabe la un nivel accesibil urechii umane.<\/p>\n<p>\u00cen 1936, Laboratoarele Bell au ridicat, \u00een sf\u00e2r\u0219it, interdic\u021bia de angajare a personalului impus\u0103 \u00een timpul <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F\">Mari Depresiuni<\/a><\/noindex>. Kelly a \u00eenceput imediat s\u0103 angajeze exper\u021bi \u00een mecanica cuantic\u0103 pentru a-l ajuta s\u0103 \u00ee\u0219i demareze programul de cercetare \u00een domeniul dispozitivelor solide, printre care se num\u0103ra \u0219i <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8,_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%91%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4\">William Shockley<\/a><\/noindex>, un alt emigrant de pe coasta de vest, din Palo Alto (California). Tema tezei sale recent finalizate la MIT se potrivea perfect nevoilor lui Kelly: \u201eZone electronice \u00een clorura de sodiu\u201d.<\/p>\n<p>Brattain \u0219i Becker continuau \u00een aceast\u0103 perioad\u0103 cercet\u0103rile pentru un redresor pe baz\u0103 de oxid de cupru, dorind s\u0103 dezvolte un amplificator solid. Cea mai evident\u0103 metod\u0103 de fabricare a acestuia era s\u0103 se mearg\u0103 pe analogia cu o lamp\u0103 electronic\u0103. Exact a\u0219a cum Lee de Forest a luat un amplificator cu tuburi \u0219i <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">a plasat o re\u021bea electric\u0103<\/a><\/noindex> \u00eentre catod \u0219i anod, tot astfel Brattain \u0219i Becker \u0219i-au imaginat cum ar putea insera o re\u021bea \u00een locul de contact dintre cupru \u0219i oxidul de cupru, unde se presupunea c\u0103 are loc redresarea. Totu\u0219i, din cauza grosimii reduse a stratului, au considerat c\u0103 este imposibil s\u0103 fac\u0103 acest lucru \u0219i nu au reu\u0219it.<\/p>\n<p>\u00centre timp, alte dezvolt\u0103ri au ar\u0103tat c\u0103 Laboratoarele Bell nu erau singura companie interesat\u0103 de electronica solid\u0103. \u00cen 1938, Rudolf Hilfs \u0219i Robert Paul au publicat rezultatele experimentelor efectuate la Universitatea din G\u00f6ttingen cu un amplificator solid operativ, creat prin introducerea unei re\u021bele \u00een cristalul bromurii de potasiu. Aceast\u0103 dispozitiv de laborator nu avea o valoare practic\u0103 \u2013 \u00een principal, deoarece func\u021biona la o frecven\u021b\u0103 de cel mult 1 Hz. Cu toate acestea, aceast\u0103 realizare nu putea s\u0103 nu \u00eenc\u00e2nte pe to\u021bi cei interesa\u021bi de electronica solid\u0103. \u00cen acela\u0219i an, Kelly l-a numit pe Shockley \u00eentr-un nou grup independent de cercetare a dispozitivelor solide \u0219i i-a oferit, \u00eempreun\u0103 cu colegii s\u0103i \u2013 Foster Hick \u0219i Dean Woolridge \u2013 un mandat complet pentru a explora posibilit\u0103\u021bile lor.<\/p>\n<p>Cel pu\u021bin \u00eenc\u0103 doi inventatori au reu\u0219it s\u0103 dezvolte amplificatoare solide \u00eenainte de cel de-al Doilea R\u0103zboi Mondial. \u00cen 1922, fizicianul \u0219i inventorul sovietic <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2,_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87\">Oleg Vladimirovici Losev<\/a><\/noindex> a publicat rezultatele experimentelor sale reu\u0219ite cu semiconductori de zincit, dar lucr\u0103rile sale au r\u0103mas neobservate de comunitatea vestic\u0103; \u00een 1926, inventatorul american Julius Lillenfeld a depus o cerere de patent pentru un amplificator solid, totu\u0219i nu exist\u0103 dovezi ale func\u021bionalit\u0103\u021bii inven\u021biei sale.<\/p>\n<p>Prima sa lumin\u0103 principal\u0103 a lui Shockley \u00een noua sa func\u021bie a avut loc \u00een timpul lecturii lucr\u0103rii fizicianului britanic Neville Mott \"Teoria drepte de cristal\" din 1938, unde, \u00een sf\u00e2r\u0219it, era explicat principiul de func\u021bionare al dreptei Grondal pe oxid de cupru. Mott a folosit matematica mecanicii cuantice pentru a descrie formarea c\u00e2mpului electric la interfa\u021ba dintre metalul conductor \u0219i oxidul semiconductor, \u0219i modul \u00een care electronii \"s\u0103rind\" peste aceast\u0103 barier\u0103 electric\u0103, \u00een loc s\u0103 tuneleze, a\u0219a cum a propus Wilson. Curentul curge mai u\u0219or de la metal c\u0103tre semiconductor dec\u00e2t invers, deoarece metalul are mult mai mul\u021bi electroni liberi.<\/p>\n<p>Aceasta l-a condus pe Shockley la exact aceea\u0219i idee pe care Bardeen \u0219i Becker au luat-o \u00een considerare \u0219i au respins-o cu mul\u021bi ani \u00eenainte - de a fabrica un amplificator cu stare solid\u0103, inser\u00e2nd o plas\u0103 de oxid de cupru \u00eentre cupru \u0219i oxidul de cupru. El avea speran\u021ba c\u0103 curentul care curgea prin plas\u0103 va cre\u0219te bariera care limiteaz\u0103 curentul de la cupru c\u0103tre oxid, cre\u00e2nd o versiune inversat\u0103 \u0219i amplificat\u0103 a semnalului pe plas\u0103. Prima sa \u00eencercare brut\u0103 a e\u0219uat complet, a\u0219a c\u0103 s-a \u00eendreptat c\u0103tre cineva cu abilit\u0103\u021bi de laborator mai rafinate \u0219i bine familiarizat cu dreptele \u2013 Walter Brattain. \u0218i, de\u0219i nu avea dubii cu privire la rezultat, Brattain a fost de acord s\u0103 satisfac\u0103 curiozitatea lui Shockley \u0219i a creat o versiune mai complex\u0103 a \u201eamplificatorului cu plas\u0103\u201d. Acesta a e\u0219uat \u0219i el.<\/p>\n<p>Apoi a intervenit r\u0103zboiul, l\u0103s\u00e2nd noul program de cercetare al lui Kelly \u00eentr-o stare de haos. Kelly a preluat conducerea grupului de lucru pe radare din Laboratoarele Bell, care lucra sub auspiciile principalului centru de cercetare radar din SUA de la MIT. Brattain a lucrat pe scurt cu el, apoi a trecut la cercet\u0103rile privind detectarea submarinelor pe comanda flotei militare. Wuldridge a lucrat la sistemele de control al focului, Nix \u2013 la difuzia gazelor pentru Proiectul Manhattan, iar Shockley a trecut la cercet\u0103ri opera\u021bionale, ocup\u00e2ndu-se ini\u021bial de combaterea submarinelor \u00een Atlantic \u0219i apoi de bombardamente strategice \u00een Pacific.<\/p>\n<p>Cu toate acestea, interven\u021bia nu a oprit dezvoltarea electronicii cu stare solid\u0103. Dimpotriv\u0103, a organizat o infuzie masiv\u0103 de resurse \u00een acest domeniu \u0219i a condus la concentrarea cercet\u0103rilor pe dou\u0103 materiale: germaniu \u0219i siliciu.<\/p>\n<h2>Ce altceva s\u0103 citim<\/h2>\n<p>\nErnest Bruan \u0219i Stuart MacDonald, Revolu\u021bie \u00een Miniatur\u0103 (1978)<\/p>\n<p>Friedrich Kurylo \u0219i Charles Susskind, Ferdinand Braun (1981)<\/p>\n<p>G. L. Pearson \u0219i W. H. Brattain, \u201cIstoria cercet\u0103rii semiconductorilor,\u201d Proceedings of the IRE (decembrie 1955).<\/p>\n<p>Michael Riordan \u0219i Lillian Hoddeson, Foc Cristalin (1997)<br \/>\n<br \/>Sursa: <a content=\"nofollow\" rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">habr.com<\/a><\/p>","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430: \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u041c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434 \u00ab\u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439\u00bb, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0417\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0414\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0446 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\u041a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u0441 ENIAC \u042d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0437\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u044f\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0449\u0443\u043f\u044c \u0432 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0442\u0435 \u0418\u0437 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b \u041c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u041e\u043f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u0442\u044c \u0420\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0434, [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[688],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-55071","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-administrirovanie"],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t<!-- All in One SEO 5.0.2.1 - aioseo.com -->\n\t<meta name=\"description\" content=\"\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438.\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"max-image-preview:large\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"author\" content=\"Yuri Gagarin\"\/>\n\t<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/ro\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"generator\" content=\"All in One SEO (AIOSEO) 5.0.2.1\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"ro_RO\" 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