{"id":83942,"date":"2020-06-04T07:42:41","date_gmt":"2020-06-04T05:42:41","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/blog\/administrirovanie\/vvedenie-v-teoriyu-avtomaticheskogo-upravleniya-osnovnye-ponyatiya-teorii-upravleniya-tehnicheskim-sistemami"},"modified":"2020-06-04T07:42:41","modified_gmt":"2020-06-04T05:42:41","slug":"vvedenie-v-teoriyu-avtomaticheskogo-upravleniya-osnovnye-ponyatiya-teorii-upravleniya-tehnicheskim-sistemami","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/ro\/blog\/administrirovanie\/vvedenie-v-teoriyu-avtomaticheskogo-upravleniya-osnovnye-ponyatiya-teorii-upravleniya-tehnicheskim-sistemami","title":{"rendered":"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice","gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"text"}]},"content":{"rendered":"<p>Public prima capitolul conferin\u021belor despre teoria controlului automat, dup\u0103 care via\u021ba voastr\u0103 nu va mai fi niciodat\u0103 la fel. <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Conferin\u021bele din cursul \u201eManagementul Sistemelor Tehnice\u201d sunt sus\u021binute de Kozlov Oleg Stepanovich la facultatea \u201eReactoare Nucleare \u0219i Instala\u021bii Energetice\u201d, facultatea \u201eInginerie Energetic\u0103\u201d a MGTU im. N.E. Bauman. \u00cei suntem foarte recunosc\u0103tori. <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Aceste conferin\u021be sunt \u00een curs de preg\u0103tire pentru publicare sub form\u0103 de carte, iar deoarece aici sunt speciali\u0219ti \u00een TAU, studen\u021bi \u0219i doar persoane interesate de subiect, orice critic\u0103 este binevenit\u0103. <\/p>\n<p>\n<img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/51ec35e261067ae210b961e3a4259d87.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" name=\"habracut\"><\/a><\/noindex><\/p>\n<h1>1. No\u021biunile de baz\u0103 ale teoriei managementului sistemelor tehnice<\/h1>\n<p><\/p>\n<h2>1.1. Scopurile, principiile managementului, tipurile de sisteme de management, defini\u021biile de baz\u0103, exemplele<\/h2>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Dezvoltarea \u0219i \u00eembun\u0103t\u0103\u021birea produc\u021biei industriale (energetic\u0103, transport, inginerie mecanic\u0103, tehnic\u0103 aerospa\u021bial\u0103 etc.) necesit\u0103 o cre\u0219tere continu\u0103 a productivit\u0103\u021bii ma\u0219inilor \u0219i agregatelor, \u00eembun\u0103t\u0103\u021birea calit\u0103\u021bii produselor, reducerea costurilor, \u0219i, \u00een special \u00een domeniul energiei nucleare, o cre\u0219tere drastic\u0103 a siguran\u021bei (nucleare, radia\u021bii etc.) oper\u0103rii centralelor nucleare \u0219i instala\u021biilor nucleare.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Realizarea obiectivelor stabilite este imposibil\u0103 f\u0103r\u0103 implementarea sistemelor moderne de management, inclusiv at\u00e2t sistemele automatizate (cu participarea operatorului uman), c\u00e2t \u0219i sistemele automate (f\u0103r\u0103 participarea operatorului uman).<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><b>Defini\u021bie: <\/b><i>Managementul este organizarea unui anumit proces tehnologic care asigur\u0103 atingerea obiectivului stabilit.<\/i><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><i>Teoria managementului<\/i> este un domeniu al \u0219tiin\u021bei \u0219i tehnicii moderne. Se bazeaz\u0103 (se fundamenteaz\u0103) at\u00e2t pe discipline fundamentale (\u0219tiin\u021bifice generale) (de exemplu, matematic\u0103, fizic\u0103, chimie etc.), c\u00e2t \u0219i pe discipline aplicate (electronic\u0103, tehnologia microprocesoarelor, programare etc.).<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Orice proces de management (automat) const\u0103 din urm\u0103toarele etape (elemente) principale:<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li> ob\u021binerea informa\u021biilor despre sarcina de management;<\/li>\n<li> ob\u021binerea informa\u021biilor despre rezultate;<\/li>\n<li> analiza informa\u021biilor ob\u021binute;<\/li>\n<li> executarea deciziei (influenta asupra obiectului de management). <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Pentru a implementa Procesul de Management, sistemul de management (SM) trebuie s\u0103 aib\u0103:<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li> surse de informa\u021bii pentru sarcina de management;<\/li>\n<li> surse de informa\u021bie despre rezultatele gestion\u0103rii (diferite senzori, dispozitive de m\u0103surare, detectoare etc.);<\/li>\n<li> dispozitive pentru analiza informa\u021biilor ob\u021binute \u0219i elaborarea solu\u021biilor;<\/li>\n<li> dispozitive de execu\u021bie care ac\u021bioneaz\u0103 asupra Obiectului de Management, con\u021bin\u00e2nd: regulator, motoare, dispozitive amplificatoare de transformare etc.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><b>Defini\u021bie:<\/b><i> Dac\u0103 sistemul de management (SM) con\u021bine toate componentele enumerate mai sus, atunci este un sistem \u00eenchis.<\/i><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><b>Defini\u021bie:<\/b> <i>Gestionarea unui obiect tehnic folosind informa\u021bii despre rezultatele gestion\u0103rii se nume\u0219te principiu de feedback.<\/i><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Schema schematic\u0103 a unui astfel de sistem de management poate fi reprezentat\u0103 prin:<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/8c48f4621773bbe8620934de7b1c2e16.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Fig. 1.1.1 \u2014 Structura sistemului de management (SM) <\/i><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p> Dac\u0103 sistemul de management (SM) are o schem\u0103 structural\u0103, a c\u0103rei aparen\u021b\u0103 corespunde fig. 1.1.1, \u0219i func\u021bioneaz\u0103 f\u0103r\u0103 implicarea unei persoane (operator), atunci se nume\u0219te <u>sistem de gestionare automat\u0103 (SGA)<\/u>.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p> Dac\u0103 SM func\u021bioneaz\u0103 cu implicarea unei persoane (operator), atunci se nume\u0219te <u>SM automatizat<\/u>.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p> Dac\u0103 gestionarea asigur\u0103 o lege dat\u0103 de modificare a obiectului \u00een timp, indiferent de rezultatele gestion\u0103rii, atunci aceast\u0103 gestionare se realizeaz\u0103 \u00eentr-un ciclu deschis, iar gestionarea \u00eens\u0103\u0219i se nume\u0219te <u>control software<\/u>.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p> Printre sistemele care func\u021bioneaz\u0103 pe un ciclu deschis se num\u0103r\u0103 automatele industriale (linii de conveior, linii rotative etc.), ma\u0219ini cu control numeric (CNC): vezi exemplul de la fig. 1.1.2.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/20c14fed7423b8be82da94b8e0eceae7.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Fig. 1.1.2 \u2014 Exemplu de gestionare programat\u0103<\/i><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Dispozitivul de comand\u0103 poate fi, de exemplu, \u0219i un \u201ecopiator\u201d.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Deoarece \u00een acest exemplu nu exist\u0103 senzori (m\u0103sur\u0103tori) care s\u0103 verifice piesa fabricat\u0103, dac\u0103, de exemplu, unelte au fost instalate gre\u0219it sau s-au rupt, atunci obiectivul stabilit (fabricarea piesei) nu poate fi atins (realizat). De obicei, \u00een sistemele de acest tip este necesar un control de ie\u0219ire, care va \u00eenregistra doar devia\u021bia dimensiunilor \u0219i formei piesei de la cea dorit\u0103.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p> Sistemele automatizate de management sunt \u00eemp\u0103r\u021bite \u00een 3 tipuri: <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li> sisteme de gestionare automat\u0103 (SGA); <\/li>\n<li> sisteme de reglare automat\u0103 (SRA);<\/li>\n<li> sisteme de urm\u0103rire (SU). <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>SRA \u0219i SU sunt subseturi ale SGA ==&gt; <img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/21f340c84febe0f6ab25cc5c9256dfb1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/>.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Defini\u021bie: Un sistem automat de control care asigur\u0103 constan\u021ba unei anumite valori fizice (sau a unui grup de valori) \u00eentr-un obiect de control se nume\u0219te sistem de reglare automat\u0103 (SRA).<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p> Sistemele de reglare automat\u0103 (SRA) sunt cel mai r\u0103sp\u00e2ndit tip de sisteme de control automat.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p> Primul regulator automat din lume (secolul 18) \u2013 regulatorul Watt. Acest sistem (vezi figura 1.1.3) a fost realizat de Watt \u00een Anglia pentru a men\u021bine o vitez\u0103 constant\u0103 de rotire a ro\u021bii ma\u0219inii cu abur \u0219i, \u00een consecin\u021b\u0103, pentru a men\u021bine constan\u021ba vitezei de rotire (mi\u0219care) a scripetelui (curelei) de transmisie.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p> \u00cen acest sistem <i>elementele sensibile<\/i> (senzorii de m\u0103surare) sunt \u201egreut\u0103\u021bi\u201d (sfere). \u201eGreut\u0103\u021bile\u201d (sferele) \u201e\u00eemping\u201d de asemenea levierul \u0219i apoi van\u0103. Prin urmare, acest sistem poate fi considerat un sistem de reglare direct\u0103, iar regulatorul \u2013 un <u>regulator de ac\u021biune direct\u0103<\/u>, deoarece \u00eendepline\u0219te simultan func\u021biile at\u00e2t de \u201em\u0103surare\u201d, c\u00e2t \u0219i de \u201ereglare\u201d. <\/p>\n<p>\n\u00cen reglatorii de ac\u021biune direct\u0103 <i>o surs\u0103 suplimentar\u0103<\/i> de energie pentru mi\u0219carea organului de reglare nu este necesar\u0103. <\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/95d2c1901c2cc5e962a5c5c23643f155.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Figura 1.1.3 \u2014 Schema regulatorului automat Watt<\/i><\/p>\n<p>\u00cen sistemele de reglare indirect\u0103 este necesar\u0103 prezen\u021ba (existen\u021ba) unui amplificator (de exemplu, de putere), a unui mecanism executiv suplimentar, care poate con\u021bine, de exemplu, un motor electric, un servomotor, un sistem hidraulic etc.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p> Un exemplu de SAA (sistem de automatizare a controlului), \u00een sensul complet al defini\u021biei, poate fi un sistem de control care asigur\u0103 lansarea unei rachete pe orbit\u0103, unde valoarea controlat\u0103 poate fi, de exemplu, unghiul dintre axa rachetei \u0219i normal\u0103 la P\u0103m\u00e2nt ==&gt; vezi figurile 1.1.4.a \u0219i 1.1.4.b <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/e524a79caac45ea0e624938463f7b48e.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Figura 1.1.4 (a)<\/i><br \/>\n<img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/a1f4ec58f29971dc866627f3cd5f8f44.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Figura 1.1.4 (b)<\/i><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<h2>1.2. Structura sistemelor de control: sisteme simple \u0219i multidimensionale<\/h2>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>\u00cen teoria Controlului Sistemelor Tehnice, orice sistem este \u00eemp\u0103r\u021bit \u00een seturi de linkuri conectate \u00een structuri de re\u021bea. \u00cen cel mai simplu caz, sistemul con\u021bine un singur link, la care se aplic\u0103 un impact de intrare (input), iar la ie\u0219ire se ob\u021bine r\u0103spunsul sistemului (output).<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>\u00cen teoria Controlului Sistemelor Tehnice se folosesc 2 moduri principale de reprezentare a linkurilor sistemelor de control:<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p> \u2014 \u00een variabilele \u201eintrare-ie\u0219ire\u201d;<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p> \u2014 \u00een variabilele de st\u0103ri (detalii suplimentare \u00een sec\u021biunile 6\u20267). <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Reprezentarea \u00een variabilele \u201eintrare-ie\u0219ire\u201d este utilizat\u0103 de obicei pentru a descrie sisteme relativ simple, cu o \u201eintrare\u201d (o interven\u021bie de control) \u0219i o \u201eie\u0219ire\u201d (o m\u0103rime reglat\u0103, vezi figura 1.2.1).<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/5771bf37f683d56890681a739ec80416.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Fig. 1.2.1 \u2013 Reprezentarea schematic\u0103 a unui sistem de control simplu<\/i><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>De obicei, aceast\u0103 descriere este utilizat\u0103 pentru S.A.U. (sisteme automate de control) tehnic nenotabile.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Recent, reprezentarea \u00een variabilele de st\u0103ri a c\u0103p\u0103tat o popularitate considerabil\u0103, \u00een special pentru sisteme tehnic complexe, inclusiv pentru S.A.U. multidimensionale. \u00cen figura 1.2.2 este prezentat\u0103 o reprezentare schematic\u0103 a unui sistem de control multidimensional, unde <b><i>u1(t)\u2026um(t)<\/i><\/b> \u2014 interven\u021biile de control (vectorul de control), <i><b>y1(t)\u2026yp(t)<\/b><\/i> \u2014 parametrii reglabili ai S.A.U. (vectorul de ie\u0219ire). <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/d0025fbc783222e6f87a5a9f56945785.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Fig. 1.2.2 \u2014 Reprezentarea schematic\u0103 a unui sistem de control multidimensional<\/i><\/p>\n<p>S\u0103 examin\u0103m mai detaliat structura S.A.U., prezentat\u0103 \u00een variabilele \u201eintrare-ie\u0219ire\u201d \u0219i av\u00e2nd o intrare (o interven\u021bie de control sau de referin\u021b\u0103) \u0219i o ie\u0219ire (o interven\u021bie ie\u0219it\u0103 sau o variabil\u0103 reglat\u0103).<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>S\u0103 presupunem c\u0103 schema structural\u0103 a acestui S.A.U. const\u0103 dintr-un num\u0103r de elemente (linkuri). Grup\u00e2nd linkurile dup\u0103 principiu func\u021bional (ce fac linkurile), schema structural\u0103 a S.A.U. poate fi adus\u0103 la urm\u0103toarea form\u0103 tipic\u0103: <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/21b4fe1c08c1a168d1d68c0f47c3c186.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Fig. 1.2.3 \u2014 Schema structural\u0103 a unui sistem de control automat<\/i><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Simbolul <b><i>\u03b5(t)<\/i><\/b> sau variabila<b> <i>\u03b5(t)<\/i><\/b> denoteaz\u0103 necorespunderea (eroarea) la ie\u0219irea dispozitivului de comparare, care poate \u201efunc\u021biona\u201d \u00een moduri at\u00e2t simple aritmetice (de obicei, sc\u0103dere, mai rar adunare), c\u00e2t \u0219i moduri de compara\u021bie mai complexe (proceduri).<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Deoarece<i> <b>y1(t) = y(t)*k1<\/b><\/i>, unde <i><b>k1<\/b><\/i> \u2014 coeficientul de amplificare, rezult\u0103 c\u0103 ==&gt; <br \/>\n<b><i>\u03b5(t) = x(t) \u2014 y1(t) = x(t) \u2014 k1*y(t)<\/i><\/b><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Sarcina sistemului de control const\u0103 \u00een a elimina necorespunderea (eroarea), dac\u0103 acesta este stabil. <b><i>\u03b5(t)<\/i><\/b>, adic\u0103 ==&gt;<b> <i>\u03b5(t) \u2192 0<\/i><\/b>.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Este important de men\u021bionat c\u0103 sistemul de control este influen\u021bat at\u00e2t de factori externi (control, perturbare, interferen\u021be), c\u00e2t \u0219i de interferen\u021bele interne. Interferen\u021ba se deosebe\u0219te de influen\u021b\u0103 prin stochasticitatea (randomizarea) existen\u021bei sale, \u00een timp ce influen\u021ba este aproape \u00eentotdeauna determinat\u0103.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Pentru a desemna influen\u021ba de control (ceea ce determin\u0103 influen\u021ba), vom folosi fie<i><b> x(t)<\/b><\/i>, sau <i><b>u(t)<\/b><\/i>.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<h2>1.3. Legile fundamentale ale controlului<\/h2>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Dac\u0103 ne \u00eentoarcem la ultimul desen (schema structural\u0103 a SCA la fig. 1.2.3), este necesar s\u0103 \u201edecript\u0103m\u201d rolul pe care \u00eel joac\u0103 dispozitivul de amplificare \u0219i transformare (ce func\u021bii \u00eendepline\u0219te).<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Dac\u0103 dispozitivul de amplificare \u0219i transformare (DAM) \u00eendepline\u0219te doar amplificarea (sau atenuarea) semnalului de neconcordan\u021b\u0103 \u03b5(t), \u0219i anume: <b><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/0c09aa2ad2d14cb6d2f5666e33441afa.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/b>, unde <img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/be9dd549e8715f43c40c581217f29e3b.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/>\u2013 coeficientul de propor\u021bionalitate (\u00een cazul particular <img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/e16fccbb0217b69120081cd963525f6e.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/> = Const), atunci acest mod de control al SCA \u00eenchis se nume\u0219te mod <u>de control propor\u021bional <\/u>(P-control).<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Dac\u0103 DAM formeaz\u0103 un semnal de ie\u0219ire \u03b51(t), propor\u021bional cu eroarea \u03b5(t) \u0219i integrala din \u03b5(t), adic\u0103 <img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/6e6dbb0b4de0d9aaa3f6f788e61a3830.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/>, atunci acest mod de control se nume\u0219te <u>propor\u021bional-integrativ<\/u> (PI-control). ==&gt; <img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/9dd1d2b339c33e975225d3438d39bc6c.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/>, unde <i>b<\/i> \u2013 coeficientul de propor\u021bionalitate (\u00een cazul particular <i>b = Const<\/i>). \n <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>De obicei, controlul PI este folosit pentru a \u00eembun\u0103t\u0103\u021bi precizia controlului (regl\u0103rii).<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Dac\u0103 DAM formeaz\u0103 un semnal de ie\u0219ire \u03b51(t), propor\u021bional cu eroarea \u03b5(t) \u0219i derivata acesteia, atunci acest mod se nume\u0219te<u> propor\u021bional-diferential<\/u> (PD-control): ==&gt; <img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/53491162f89bb3eb6d3afe53f8499ef7.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>De obicei, utilizarea controlului PD \u00eembun\u0103t\u0103\u021be\u0219te rapiditatea SCA.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Dac\u0103 DAM formeaz\u0103 un semnal de ie\u0219ire \u03b51(t), propor\u021bional cu eroarea \u03b5(t), derivata acesteia \u0219i integral\u0103 din eroare ==&gt; <img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/8ebae93d72b03b5c107a1246c077c348.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/>, atunci acest mod de control se nume\u0219te <u>mod de control propor\u021bional-integrativ-diferential<\/u> (PID-control).<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Controlul PID permite adesea asigurarea unei precizii \u201ebune\u201d a controlului cu o rapiditate \u201ebun\u0103\u201d. <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<h2>1.4. Clasificarea sistemelor de control automat <\/h2>\n<p><\/p>\n<h3>1.4.1. Clasificarea pe baza tipului de descriere matematic\u0103<\/h3>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Pe baza tipului de descriere matematic\u0103 (ecua\u021biile de dinamic\u0103 \u0219i statica), sistemele de control automat (SCA) sunt \u00eemp\u0103r\u021bite \u00een <u>sisteme liniare<\/u> \u0219i <u>sisteme neliniare<\/u> sisteme (SCA sau SAR). <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Fiecare \u201esubclas\u0103\u201d (linie \u0219i neliniar\u0103) este \u00eemp\u0103r\u021bit\u0103 \u00een \u00eenc\u0103 o serie de \u201esubclase\u201d. De exemplu, sistemele automate de control liniare (SACL) au diferen\u021be \u00een func\u021bie de tipul descrierii matematice. <br \/>\nDeoarece \u00een acest semestru se vor analiza propriet\u0103\u021bile dinamice ale doar sistemelor liniare de control automat (reglare), mai jos vom prezenta clasificarea \u00een func\u021bie de tipul descrierii matematice pentru SACL: <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>1) Sistemele liniare de control automat, descrise prin variabilele \u201eintrare-ie\u0219ire\u201d cu ajutorul ecua\u021biilor diferen\u021biale ordinare (EDO) cu <u>coeficienti <\/u>:<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/cb3af3b0b89fc1e74c2b8d6d2d7fdb22.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/58090b17da60d2b517d3c94501cd59a2.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<p>\nunde <i>x(t)<\/i> \u2013 ac\u021biunea de intrare; <i>y(t)<\/i> \u2013 ac\u021biunea de ie\u0219ire (valoarea reglat\u0103). <\/p>\n<p>Dac\u0103 utiliz\u0103m forma operatorului (\u201ecompact\u0103\u201d) de scriere a EDO liniare, atunci ecua\u021bia (1.4.1) poate fi reprezentat\u0103 astfel: \n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/b1c5ee221af3668d5f176a70ed14418f.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<p> unde, <i>p = d\/dt<\/i> \u2013 operator de diferen\u021biere; <i>L(p), N(p)<\/i> \u2013 operatori diferen\u021biali liniare corespunz\u0103tori, care sunt egali cu:<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/d43a08bffa114c25041a2f0980042c51.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/42636426b82dce860e9e17987f50c057.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>2) Sistemele liniare de control automat, descrise prin ecua\u021bii diferen\u021biale ordinare (EDO) liniare cu <u>coeficien\u021bi <\/u>(\u00een func\u021bie de timp): \n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/6dbc99fe9b268fe6f6ff996975637e1c.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/829ce6f7e73bfb06b4b76d0d4eeeef34.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>\u00cen general, astfel de sisteme pot fi clasificate \u0219i ca apar\u021bin\u00e2nd clasei sistemelor neliniare de control automat (SACL).<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>3) Sistemele liniare de control automat, descrise prin ecua\u021bii liniare de diferen\u021b\u0103: <\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/3ff7a042761c218b77ac2263e548642c.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/1adb8b5de9da0717c1d8af58023709db.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<p> unde <i>f(\u2026)<\/i> \u2013 func\u021bie liniar\u0103 a argumentelor;<i> k = 1, 2, 3\u2026<\/i> \u2013 numere \u00eentregi; <i>\u0394t<\/i> \u2013 interval de cuantizare (interval de discretizare). <\/p>\n<p>Ecua\u021bia (1.4.4) poate fi prezentat\u0103 \u00een forma \u201ecompact\u0103\u201d:\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/3a555933ea0689d2adee3746d6ddeaad.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>\u00cen general, o astfel de descriere a SACL este utilizat\u0103 \u00een sistemele de control digitale (utiliz\u00e2nd computere). <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>4) Sistemele liniare de control automat cu \u00eent\u00e2rziere:\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/7feca1e387cb0c6a1689e22d95e28a63.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<p>\nunde <i>L(p), N(p)<\/i> \u2013 operatori diferen\u021biali liniare; <i>\u03c4<\/i> \u2013 timpul de \u00eent\u00e2rziere sau constant\u0103 de \u00eent\u00e2rziere. <\/p>\n<p>Dac\u0103 operatorii <i>L(p)<\/i> \u0219i <i>N(p)<\/i> se reduc (<i>L(p) = 1; N(p) = 1<\/i>), atunci ecua\u021bia (1.4.6) corespunde descrierii matematice a dinamicii unui element de \u00eent\u00e2rziere ideal: \n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/f3906140de2cd69b5ececf8b527a11e7.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<p> iar ilustrarea grafic\u0103 a propriet\u0103\u021bilor sale este prezentat\u0103 \u00een fig. 1.4.1<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/862f0d412914840cf9f0722087ccfb50.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Fig. 1.4.1 \u2013 Graficele de intrare \u0219i ie\u0219ire ale unui element de \u00eent\u00e2rziere ideal<\/i><\/p>\n<p>5) Sistemele liniare de control automat, descrise prin ecua\u021bii diferen\u021biale liniare \u00een <i>derivate par\u021biale.<\/i>Adesea aceste SACL sunt numite <u>sisteme de control distribuite.<\/u> ==&gt; \u201eExemplul abstract\u201d al acestei descrieri:<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/669b5c3c53ba7845842b18e5928ce839.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Sistemul de ecua\u021bii (1.4.7) descrie dinamica unui sistem de automatizare distribuit liniar, adic\u0103 m\u0103rimea reglat\u0103 depinde nu doar de timp, ci \u0219i de o coordonat\u0103 spa\u021bial\u0103. <br \/>\nDac\u0103 sistemul de control constituie un obiect \u201espa\u021bial\u201d, atunci ==&gt;<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/3448a365047c1bab4de5e8f25546f50e.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>unde <img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/f9ff2f7da6ef14612bc7debb1a6b13df.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/> depinde de timp \u0219i de coordonatele spa\u021biale definite de vectorul radial <img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/779241bc6119457bd084ae3b359be126.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/>\n<\/p>\n<p>6) Sisteme de automatizare descrise <u>de sisteme<\/u> de ecua\u021bii diferen\u021biale ordinare sau de sisteme de ecua\u021bii diferen\u021biale par\u021biale ==&gt;&nbsp; \u0219i a\u0219a mai departe...<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>O clasificare similar\u0103 poate fi propus\u0103 \u0219i pentru sistemele de automatizare neliniare (SAN)...<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Pentru sistemele liniare se impun urm\u0103toarele cerin\u021be:<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li> linealitatea caracteristicii statice a sistemului de automatizare; <\/li>\n<li> linealitatea ecua\u021biei de dinamic\u0103, adic\u0103 variabilele din ecua\u021bia de dinamic\u0103 intr\u0103 <u>doar \u00eentr-o combina\u021bie liniar\u0103.<\/u> <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Caracteristica static\u0103 se refer\u0103 la dependen\u021ba ie\u0219irii de magnitudinea influen\u021bei de intrare \u00een regimul stabilit (c\u00e2nd toate procesele tranzitorii s-au stins). <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Pentru sistemele descrise de ecua\u021biile diferen\u021biale ordinare liniare cu coeficien\u021bi constan\u021bi, caracteristica static\u0103 se ob\u021bine din ecua\u021bia de dinamic\u0103 (1.4.1) prin egalizarea tuturor termenilor non-stationari cu zero ==&gt;\n<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/bf0c596f0264b56e910f26fb3572d495.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>\u00cen figura 1.4.2 sunt prezentate exemple de caracteristici statice lineare \u0219i neliniare ale sistemelor de control automat (reglare). <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/492e67e54fc30c8ffc81dbd922d44d69.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Fig. 1.4.2 \u2014 Exemple de caracteristici statice liniare \u0219i neliniare<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Neliniaritatea termenilor care con\u021bin derivate \u00een timp \u00een ecua\u021biile de dinamic\u0103 poate ap\u0103rea prin utilizarea opera\u021biunilor matematice neliniare (*, \/, <img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/2cb392451693aaecdf1b0b3c9d893b64.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/>, <img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/9b1e329d4a85a2633bbbc4f4ab024200.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/>, sin, ln etc.). De exemplu, analiz\u00e2nd ecua\u021bia de dinamic\u0103 a unui sistem de automatizare \u201eabstract\u201d anumit<\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/dae16ed9af4777cc0574d633840de24b.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>s\u0103 observ\u0103m c\u0103 \u00een aceast\u0103 ecua\u021bie, av\u00e2nd o caracteristic\u0103 static\u0103 liniar\u0103 <img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/ef499e876cf4b9835a61605b9155144c.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/> al doilea \u0219i al treilea termen (termeni dinamici) din partea st\u00e2ng\u0103 a ecua\u021biei \u2014 <u>sisteme neliniare<\/u>, de aceea sistemul de automatizare descris de o astfel de ecua\u021bie este <u>neliniar \u00een <i>planul<\/i> dinamic<\/u>.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<h3>1.4.2. Clasificarea dup\u0103 caracterul semnalelor transmise<\/h3>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Dup\u0103 caracterul semnalelor transmise, sistemele de automatizare (sau reglare) se \u00eempart \u00een: <\/p>\n<ul>\n<li> sisteme continue (sisteme cu ac\u021biune continu\u0103);<\/li>\n<li> sisteme cu relee (sisteme cu ac\u021biune prin relee);<\/li>\n<li> sisteme cu ac\u021biune discret\u0103 (impulsuri \u0219i digitale).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Un sistem <u>continuum<\/u> ac\u021biunilor se nume\u0219te un astfel de sistem de automatizare, \u00een care fiecare dintre verigile sale <u>pentru continuu<\/u> schimb\u0103rii semnalului de intrare \u00een timp <u>corespunde unei schimb\u0103ri continue<\/u> semnalului de ie\u0219ire, \u00een timp ce legea de schimbare a semnalului de ie\u0219ire poate fi arbitrar\u0103. Pentru ca S.A.U. s\u0103 fie continuu, este necesar ca caracteristicile statice ale tuturor <u>verigilor s\u0103 fie continue.<\/u><\/p>\n<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/73b156157b5a43c62fdc848170722c2d.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Fig. 1.4.3 - Exemplul unui sistem continuu<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Un sistem <u>de ac\u021biune<\/u> se nume\u0219te S.A.U. \u00een care, \u00een cel pu\u021bin una dintre verigi, printr-o schimbare continu\u0103 a magnitudinii de intrare, magnitudinea de ie\u0219ire se schimb\u0103 \u201ebrusc\u201d \u00een anumite momente ale procesului de control, \u00een func\u021bie de magnitudinea semnalului de intrare. Caracteristica static\u0103 a unei astfel de verigi are <u>puncte de discontinuitate<\/u> sau <u>cu discontinuitate<\/u>.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/edfc6a65398bb0f409297d40a3aee0e2.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Fig. 1.4.4 - Exemple de caracteristici statice de ac\u021biune intermitent\u0103<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Un sistem <u>de ac\u021biune<\/u> se nume\u0219te un sistem \u00een care, \u00een cel pu\u021bin una dintre verigi, printr-o schimbare continu\u0103 a magnitudinii de intrare, magnitudinea de ie\u0219ire are <u>forma de impulsuri separate<\/u>, ap\u0103r\u00e2nd la un anumit interval de timp. <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Veriga care transform\u0103 un semnal continuu \u00eentr-un semnal discret se nume\u0219te impuls. O astfel de form\u0103 de semnale transmise are loc \u00een S.A.U. cu un PC sau un controler. <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Se realizeaz\u0103 cel mai frecvent urm\u0103toarele metode (algoritmi) de transformare a semnalului continuu de intrare \u00een semnalul de ie\u0219ire sub form\u0103 de impuls: <\/p>\n<ul>\n<li> modula\u021bia amplitudinal-impulsual\u0103 (MAI); <\/li>\n<li> modula\u021bia l\u0103\u021bimii impulsurilor (MLI). <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>\u00cen figura 1.4.5 este prezentat\u0103 o ilustrare grafic\u0103 a algoritmului de modula\u021bie amplitudinal-impulsual\u0103 (MAI). \u00cen partea de sus a fig. este prezentat\u0103 dependen\u021ba temporal\u0103 <i>x(t)<\/i> \u2014 semnalului <u>la intrarea<\/u> \u00een veriga impulsurilor. Semnalul de ie\u0219ire al blocului de impulsuri (veriga) <i>y(t)<\/i> \u2013 o secven\u021b\u0103 de impulsuri dreptunghiulare, ap\u0103r\u00e2nd cu <u>permanent\u0103<\/u> perioada de cuantizare \u0394t (vezi partea inferioar\u0103 a fig.). Durata impulsurilor este constant\u0103 \u0219i egal\u0103 cu \u0394. Amplitudinea impulsului la ie\u0219ire este propor\u021bional\u0103 cu magnitudinea corespunz\u0103toare a semnalului continuu x(t) la intrarea acestui bloc. <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/c9a3c132c1ad71a56582f30d6d11f847.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Fig. 1.4.5 - Implementarea modula\u021biei amplitudinal-impulsuale<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Aceast\u0103 metod\u0103 de modula\u021bie a impulsurilor a fost foarte comun\u0103 \u00een aparatele electronice de m\u0103surare ale sistemelor de control \u0219i protec\u021bie (S.U.Z.) ale instala\u021biilor nucleare de energie (Y.A.E.) \u00een anii '70 - '80 ai secolului trecut. <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>\u00cen figura 1.4.6 este prezentat\u0103 o ilustra\u021bie grafic\u0103 a algoritmului de modula\u021bie prin l\u0103\u021bime de impulsuri (PWM). \u00cen partea de sus a figurii 1.14 este reprezentat\u0103 dependen\u021ba \u00een timp <i>x(t)<\/i> \u2013 semnalului la intrarea blocului de impulsuri. Semnalul de ie\u0219ire al blocului de impulsuri (elementului) <i>y(t)<\/i> \u2013 o secven\u021b\u0103 de impulsuri dreptunghiulare, care apar cu o perioad\u0103 constant\u0103 de cuantizare <i>\u0394t <\/i>(vezi partea inferioar\u0103 a figurii 1.14). Amplitudinea tuturor impulsurilor este identic\u0103. Durata impulsului <i>\u0394t<\/i> la ie\u0219irea blocului este propor\u021bional\u0103 cu valoarea corespunz\u0103toare a semnalului continuu <i>x(t)<\/i> la intrarea blocului de impulsuri.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/e9375a87c49f84b4b20891b024160264.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Figura 1.4.6 \u2014 Implementarea modula\u021biei prin l\u0103\u021bime de impulsuri<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Aceast\u0103 metod\u0103 de modula\u021bie a impulsurilor este \u00een prezent cea mai r\u0103sp\u00e2ndit\u0103 \u00een aparatele de m\u0103surare electronic\u0103 ale sistemelor de control \u0219i protec\u021bie (CUP) ale instala\u021biilor nucleare de energie (INE) \u0219i ale altor sisteme tehnice.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>\u00cencheind acest subcapitol, este necesar s\u0103 men\u021bion\u0103m c\u0103, dac\u0103 constantele de timp caracteristice din alte elemente ale SCA (SAR) <u>sunt semnificativ mai mari<\/u> \u0394t (cu ordini \u00eentregi), atunci sistemul de impulsuri <u>poate fi considerat un sistem continuu de control automat (at\u00e2t utiliz\u00e2nd<\/u> PWM, c\u00e2t \u0219i PWM). <\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<h3>1.4.3. Clasificarea dup\u0103 natura controlului<\/h3>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Dup\u0103 natura proceselor de control, sistemele de control automat se \u00eempart \u00een urm\u0103toarele tipuri: <\/p>\n<ul>\n<li> sisteme determinate de SCA, \u00een care semnalului de intrare \u00eei poate fi corespunz\u0103toare o ie\u0219ire clar\u0103 (\u0219i invers);<\/li>\n<li> sisteme stocastice de SCA (statistice, probabilistice), \u00een care semnalul de intrare la acest SCA \"r\u0103spunde\" <u>cu un<\/u> (semnificativ) semnal de ie\u0219ire stocastic. <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Semnalul de ie\u0219ire stocastic este caracterizat de: <\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>legea distribu\u021biei; <\/li>\n<li>a\u0219teptarea matematic\u0103 (valoarea medie); <\/li>\n<li>varian\u021ba (devia\u021bia standard).<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\nStocasticitatea caracterului procesului de control este observat\u0103, de obicei, \u00een <u>SAR semnificativ non-liniare<\/u> at\u00e2t din punct de vedere al caracteristicii statice, c\u00e2t \u0219i din perspectiva (chiar \u0219i mai mult) non-linearit\u0103\u021bii membrilor dinamici \u00een ecua\u021biile dinamice.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Introducere \u00een teoria controlului automat. No\u021biuni de baz\u0103 ale teoriei controlului sistemelor tehnice\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/06\/30bfdc2e2b7df726f11ebfb859c8f094.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Figura 1.4.7 \u2014 Distribu\u021bia valorii ie\u0219irii sistemului stocastic de SCA<\/i><\/p>\n<p>\u00cen afar\u0103 de principalele tipuri de clasificare a sistemelor de control, exist\u0103 \u0219i alte clasific\u0103ri. De exemplu, clasificarea poate fi realizat\u0103 \u00een func\u021bie de metoda de control \u0219i poate fi bazat\u0103 pe interac\u021biunea cu mediul extern \u0219i pe capacitatea sistemului de a se adapta la modific\u0103rile parametrilor mediului \u00eenconjur\u0103tor. Sistemele sunt \u00eemp\u0103r\u021bite \u00een dou\u0103 mari clase:<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>1) Sistemele obi\u0219nuite (neadapative) f\u0103r\u0103 adaptare; aceste sisteme apar\u021bin categoriei celor simple, care nu \u00ee\u0219i schimb\u0103 structura \u00een procesul de control. Sunt cele mai dezvoltate \u0219i aplicate pe scar\u0103 larg\u0103. Sistemele obi\u0219nuite sunt subdivizate \u00een trei subclase: sisteme deschise, \u00eenchise \u0219i sisteme de control combinate.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>2) Sistemele autoadaptative (adaptive). \u00cen aceste sisteme, atunci c\u00e2nd condi\u021biile externe sau caracteristicile obiectului de reglementare se schimb\u0103, se produce o modificare automat\u0103 (neprev\u0103zut\u0103) a parametrilor dispozitivului de control prin schimbarea coeficientilor sistemului sau a structurii acestuia sau chiar prin introducerea de noi elemente.<\/p>\n<p><\/p>\n<p>Un alt exemplu de clasificare: dup\u0103 criteriul ierarhic (un nivel, dou\u0103 niveluri, multe niveluri). <\/p>\n<p class=\"for_users_only_msg\">Numai utilizatorii \u00eenregistra\u021bi pot participa la sondaj. <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/auth\/login\/\">Conecta\u021bi-v\u0103<\/a><\/noindex>, v\u0103 rug\u0103m.<\/p>\n<h2 class=\"default-block__polling-title\">S\u0103 continu\u0103m publica\u021bia de cursuri despre UTC?<\/h2>\n<ul class=\"poll-result\">\n<li class=\"poll-result__item\">\n<p>                <strong class=\"poll-result__data-percent  poll-result__data-percent_winner\">88,7%<\/strong>Da118<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"poll-result__item\">\n<p>                <strong class=\"poll-result__data-percent\">7,5%<\/strong>Nu10<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<li class=\"poll-result__item\">\n<p>                <strong class=\"poll-result__data-percent\">3,8%<\/strong>Nu \u0219tiu5<\/p>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>    Au votat 133 de utilizatori. 10 utilizatori s-au ab\u021binut.<br \/>\n<br \/>Sursa: <a content=\"nofollow\" rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/503820\/\">habr.com<\/a> <\/p>","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u041f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0443\u044e \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0443\u044e \u0433\u043b\u0430\u0432\u0443 \u043b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0430\u0432\u0442\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f, \u043f\u043e\u0441\u043b\u0435 \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0445 \u0432\u0430\u0448\u0430 \u0436\u0438\u0437\u043d\u044c \u0443\u0436\u0435 \u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0433\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u0443\u0434\u0435\u0442 \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0436\u043d\u0435\u0439. \u041b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u043f\u043e \u043a\u0443\u0440\u0441\u0443 \u00ab\u0423\u043f\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0422\u0435\u0445\u043d\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u043c\u0438 \u0421\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0435\u043c\u0430\u043c\u0438\u00bb, \u0447\u0438\u0442\u0430\u0435\u0442 \u041a\u043e\u0437\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u041e\u043b\u0435\u0433 \u0421\u0442\u0435\u043f\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u0438\u0447 \u043d\u0430 \u043a\u0430\u0444\u0435\u0434\u0440\u0435 \u00ab\u042f\u0434\u0435\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u0430\u043a\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b \u0438 \u044d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0443\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043a\u0438\u00bb, \u0444\u0430\u043a\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u00ab\u042d\u043d\u0435\u0440\u0433\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0448\u0438\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044f\u00bb \u041c\u0413\u0422\u0423 \u0438\u043c. \u041d.\u042d. \u0411\u0430\u0443\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0430. \u0417\u0430 \u0447\u0442\u043e \u0435\u043c\u0443 \u043e\u0433\u0440\u043e\u043c\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0431\u043b\u0430\u0433\u043e\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c. \u0414\u0430\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043b\u0435\u043a\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0442\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u0433\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0432\u044f\u0442\u0441\u044f \u043a \u043f\u0443\u0431\u043b\u0438\u043a\u0430\u0446\u0438\u0438 \u0432 \u0432\u0438\u0434\u0435 \u043a\u043d\u0438\u0433\u0438, \u0430 [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"author":1,"featured_media":83943,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[688],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-83942","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-administrirovanie"],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t<!-- All in One SEO 5.0.2.1 - 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