Pakazosvika makore ekuma1980, hwaro hwezvatinoziva nhasi se "Internet" dzakanga dzateyiwa - nheyo dzayo dzakagadzirwa uye dzakaedzwa mumunda - asi hurongwa hwakaramba hwakavharwa, pasi pekutonga kunenge kwakazara kwechimwe chinhu, US. Department of Defense. Izvi zvichachinja munguva pfupi - iyo sisitimu ichawedzerwa kune ese madhipatimendi esainzi yemakomputa emasangano akasiyana anoshandisa CSNET. Iyo network yaizoramba ichikura muzvidzidzo zvedzidzo isati yazovhura zvizere kune zvekutengesa zvekutengesa muma1990s.
Asi kuti iyo Internet yaizova musimboti wenyika iri kuuya yedhijitari, iyo yakanyanya kutaurwa "nharaunda yeruzivo," yakanga isiri pachena muma1980s. Kunyange kuvanhu vakanga vanzwa nezvayo, yakaramba ichingova kuedza kwesayenzi kunovimbisa. Asi nyika yose haina kumira, yakabata mweya wayo, ichimirira kusvika kwayo. Pane kudaro, sarudzo dzakasiyana-siyana dzakakwikwidzana nemari uye kutarisisa kupa mukana kune masevhisi epamhepo kune ruzhinji.
Personal Computing
Munenge muna 1975, kubudirira mukugadzira semiconductor kwakatungamira pakubuda kwerudzi rutsva rwekombuta. Makore mashoma apfuura, mainjiniya anga afunga nzira yekurovera dhata rekutanga data pane imwechete microchip-iyo microprocessor. Makambani akadai seIntel atanga kupa yakakwira-kumhanya-yenguva pfupi ndangariro pamachipisi kutsiva iyo magineti-musimboti ndangariro yezvizvarwa zvakapfuura zvemakomputa. Nekuda kweizvozvo, zvakakosha uye zvinodhura zvikamu zvekombuta zvakawira pasi pesimba remutemo waMoore, uyo mumakumi emakore akatevera aigara achidzikisa mutengo we processor chips uye ndangariro. Pakati pemakore gumi, maitiro aya akange atodzikisa mutengo wezvikamu izvi zvekuti nhengo yeAmerican middle class yaigona kufunga kutenga nekuunganidza komputa yavo. Michina yakadaro yakasvika pakunzi microcomputer (kana kuti dzimwe nguva makombiyuta omunhu).
Pakave nekurwira kunotyisa kwekodzero yekunzi komputa yako yekutanga. Vamwe vaifunga Wes Clark's LINC kana Lincoln Labs 'TX-0 seyakadaro - mushure mezvose, yaingogona kushandiswa zvinopindirana nemunhu mumwechete. Kana tikaisa parutivi mibvunzo yehukuru, saka chero mumiriri wenzvimbo yekutanga, kana tikaongorora kutevedzana kwenhoroondo yezviitiko, anosungirwa kurasikirwa nayo kune imwe shasha iri pachena. Hapana mumwe muchina wakawana mhedzisiro yakaburitswa neMITS Altair 8800 mukuputika mukuzivikanwa kwemamicrocomputer mukupera kwema1970.
Altair 8800 yakamira pane imwe module ine 8" drive
Altair yakava kristaro yembeu yenharaunda yemagetsi. Akanyengetedza vanoita zvekuzvivaraidza kuti munhu azvivakire komputa yake nemutengo unonzwisisika, uye ava vanoita zvekuzvivaraidza vakatanga kuumba nharaunda kuti vakurukure michina yavo mitsva, yakadai seHomebrew Computer Club muMenlo Park. Aya maseru ehobbyist akatangisa mafungu ane simba ekutengesa mamicrocomputers, zvichibva pamakina akagadzirwa-zhinji aisada hunyanzvi hwemagetsi, seApple II neRadio Shack TRS-80.
Pakazosvika 1984, 8% yedzimba dzemuUS dzaive nekombuta yadzo, iyo yakaenzana . Zvichakadaro, mabhizinesi aitora ega ega emakomputa emunhu pachiyero chemazana ezviuru zvemayuniti pagore - kunyanya IBM 5150s nemakoni avo. Muchikamu chinodhura chemushandisi mumwe chete, pakanga paine musika uri kukura wenzvimbo dzekushandira kubva kuSilicon Graphics neSun Microsystems, makomputa ane simba zvakanyanya ane mifananidzo yemhando yepamusoro uye michina yetiweki yakagadzirirwa kushandiswa nesainzi, mainjiniya, uye dzimwe nyanzvi dzehunyanzvi.
Michina yakadaro haigone kukokwa munyika yakaoma yeARPANET. Nekudaro, vazhinji vevashandisi vavo vaida kuwana kubatanidzwa kwakavimbiswa kwemakombuta uye kutaurirana izvo theorists vanga vachiridza hwamanda mupepanhau rakakurumbira kubvira bepa raTaylor naLicklider ra1968 "The Computer as a Communication Device" uye mamwe kunyange kare. Kare muna 1966, musayendisiti John McCarthy akavimbisa muScientific American kuti βruzivo rwokugadzira zvinhu rwakatoratidzwa rwakakwana kufungidzira makombiyuta anonyaradza achionekwa mumusha uri wose, akabatanidzwa kumakombiyuta evoruzhinji norunhare.β Akataura kuti huwandu hwemasevhisi anopihwa nehurongwa hwakadai hahugone kunyorwa, asi akapa mienzaniso yakati wandei: "Munhu wese achawana Raibhurari yeCongress, uye yemhando iri nani pane iyo vachengeti veraibhurari parizvino. Mishumo yakazara yezviitiko zvazvino ichave iripo, ingave baseball scores, iyo Los Angeles smog index, kana tsananguro yemusangano wechi178 weKorea Armistice Commission. Mitero yemuhoro inozoverengerwa otomatiki kuburikidza nekuramba uchiunganidza marekodhi emari, kubviswa, mipiro uye mari. "
Zvinyorwa muzvinyorwa zvakakurumbira zvinotsanangura zvingangoitika zvee-mail, mitambo yedhijitari, uye marudzi ese emasevhisi kubva pakubvunzurudzwa kwemutemo nekurapa kusvika pakutenga online. Asi zvese izvi zvichange zvakaita sei chaizvo? Mhinduro dzakawanda dzakazova kure nechokwadi. Ndichitarisa kumashure, nguva iyoyo inoita segirazi rakaputsika. Masevhisi ese nemafungiro airatidzira Internet yekutengesa yemakore ekuma1990-uye nezvimwe zvakawanda-zvakabuda muma1980, asi muzvidimbu, zvakapararira mumakumi ehurongwa hwakasiyana. Nezvimwe zvisizvo, masisitimu aya haana kupindirana uye akamira akaparadzana. Pakanga pasina nzira yekuti vashandisi veimwe sisitimu vadyidzane kana kutaurirana nevashandisi veimwe, saka kuedza kuwana vashandisi vazhinji mune chero system kwainyanya. .
Muchikamu chino, tichatarisa chikamu chimwe chevatori vechikamu mune iyi nyowani yedhijitari yekubata nyika - makambani ari kutengesa kugovaniswa kuwana, achiedza kupinda mumusika mutsva nemashoko anoyevedza.
load factor
Muna 1892, Samuel Insall, mubatsiri , akaenda kumadokero kunotungamira chikamu chitsva cheEdison's empire empire, iyo Chicago Edison Company. Mune chinzvimbo ichi, akabatanidza akawanda emisimboti akakosha emazuva ano utility manejimendi, kunyanya iyo pfungwa yekuremedza chinhu-inoverengerwa seavhareji mutoro pane yemagetsi system yakakamurwa nemutoro wepamusoro. Iyo yakakwira iyo inotakura chinhu, zviri nani, sezvo chero kutsauka kubva kune yakanakira 1/1 reshiyo inomiririra kutambisa - yakawandisa mari inodiwa kubata mitoro yepamusoro, asi isingaite panguva yekunyudzwa kwehurongwa. Insal yakafunga kuzadza mapeji muchikamu chekudiwa nekugadzira makirasi matsva evatengi vaizoshandisa magetsi panguva dzakasiyana dzezuva (kana kunyange mwaka dzakasiyana), kunyangwe zvaireva kuvatengesera magetsi nemutengo wakaderera. Mumazuva ekutanga ekugoverwa kwemagetsi, ainyanya kushandiswa kuvhenekera dzimba, uye kazhinji, manheru. Naizvozvo, Insal yakatanga kusimudzira kushandiswa kwemagetsi mukugadzirwa kwemaindasitiri, ichiwedzera kushandiswa kwayo kwemazuva ese. Izvi zvakasiya mikaha mumangwanani nemanheru, saka akagonesa iyo Chicago transit system kuti ichinje migwagwa yayo kuita simba remagetsi. Nenzira iyi, Insal yakawedzera kukosha kwemari yake yaakaisa mari, kunyangwe dzimwe nguva aitengesa magetsi nemutengo wakaderera.
Insall muna 1926, apo mufananidzo wake wakaratidzwa pabutiro remagazini yeTime
Misimboti imwechete inoshanda pakudyara mari mumakombuta rinenge zana gare gare - uye chaive chishuwo chekuyeresa mitoro, zvichitungamira mukupihwa kwezvidzikiso panguva yekusanyanya nguva, izvo zvakatungamira kune maviri matsva epamhepo masevhisi emakombuta, akatangwa panguva imwe chete muzhizha. ye1979: CompuServe uye The Source.
Ramba
Muna 1969, iyo ichangobva kuumbwa yeGolden United Life Insurance Company muColumbus, Ohio yakabatanidza imwe kambani, Compu-Serv Network. Muvambi weGolden United aida kuumba kambani yepamusoro-soro, yepamusoro-soro ine kuchengetedza rekodhi nekombuta, saka akahaya mudzidzi wechidiki akapedza kudzidza sainzi yekombuta, John Goltz, kuti atungamirire chirongwa. Nekudaro, maneja wekutengesa kubva kuDEC akataura naGoltz kuti atenge PDP-10, muchina unodhura une kugona kwekombuta kwakapfuura zvakanyanya zvinodiwa neGolden United. Pfungwa yekuseri kweCompu-Serv yaive yekushandura chikanganiso ichi kuita mukana nekutengesa yakawandisa komputa simba kune vatengi vaigona kufona muPDP-10 kubva kure kure. Mukupera kwema1960, iyi modhi yekugovana nguva uye kutengesa kwemasevhisi ekombuta yaive ichiwedzera, uye Golden United yaida chidimbu chepai. Mumakore ekuma1970, kambani yakakamura kuita chayo, yakatumidza zita rekuti CompuServe, uye yakagadzira yayo pakiti-yakachinja network kuti ipe yakaderera-inodhura, nyika yese kuwana nzvimbo dzemakombuta muColumbus.
Hakusi chete kuti musika wenyika wakapa kambani kuwana kune vangangove vatengi, zvakare yakawedzera kudiwa kwenguva yekombuta, ichiiparadzira munzvimbo ina dzenguva. Zvisinei, pakanga pachine mukaha mukuru pakati pekupera kwezuva rebasa muCalifornia uye kutanga kwezuva rebasa paEast Coast, tisingarevi kupera kwevhiki. Mukuru weCompuServe Jeff Wilkins akaona mukana wekugadzirisa dambudziko iri nekukura kwezvikepe zvemakomputa epamba, sezvo vazhinji vevaridzi vavo vaipedza manheru nekupera kwevhiki pane zvavanoita zvemagetsi. Ko kana iwe ukavapa mukana wekutumira email, mabhodhi emeseji, uye mitambo pamakomputa eCompuServe pamwero wakaderedzwa panguva yemanheru nekupera kwevhiki ($5/awa, maringe nemadhora gumi nemaviri/awa panguva dzebhizinesi)? [mumari iripo iyi i$12 ne$24 zvichiteerana].
Wilkins akatanga sevhisi yekuyedza, achiidaidza kuti MicroNET (yakanyanya kureba kubva kumhando huru yeCompuServe), uye mushure mekutanga zvishoma, zvishoma nezvishoma yakakura ikava chirongwa chakabudirira zvinoshamisa. Nekuda kweCompuServe's yenyika data network, vashandisi vazhinji vaigona kungofonera nhamba yenzvimbo kuti vapinde muMicroNET uye nekudaro vadzivise mabhiri ekufona kure, kunyangwe makomputa chaiwo avaibata aive muOhio. Kuedza pakwakanzi kwakabudirira, Wilkins akasiya mhando yeMicroNET ndokuiendesa kuCompuServe brand. Kambani iyi yakabva yatanga kupa masevhisi akagadzirirwa chaizvo vashandisi vemicrocomputer, semitambo uye mamwe software anogona kutengwa online.
Nekudaro, mapuratifomu ekutaurirana akave masevhisi anonyanya kufarirwa nemuganho wakafara. Nekukurukurirana kwenguva refu uye kutumira zvemukati, pakanga paine maforamu ane misoro kubva kumabhuku kuenda kumushonga, kubva kuhuni kusvika kumimhanzi yepop. CompuServe yaiwanzosiya maforamu kune vashandisi ivo pachavo, uye mwero uye manejimendi zvaiitwa nevamwe vavo, vakatora chinzvimbo che "sysops." Imwe huru meseji chikuva yaive CB Simulator, iyo Sandy Trevor, mumwe weCompuServe's directors, akaisa pamwechete mukupera kwesvondo kumwe. Yakatumidzwa zita remutambo waizivikanwa panguva iyoyo weredhiyo yeamateur (citizen band, CB), uye yakabvumira vashandisi kugara mu-chaiyo-nguva mameseji chats pazviteshi zvakatsaurirwa - modhi yakafanana nemapurogiramu ehurukuro anowanikwa pane akawanda ekugovana nguva masisitimu. Vazhinji vashandisi vakapedza maawa muCB Simulator vachikurukura, kuita shamwari uye kunyange kutsvaga vadikani.
Kunobva Tsime
Kupisa pazvitsitsinho zveMicroNET yaive imwe sevhisi yepamhepo yemicrocomputers, yakatangwa mazuva masere chete mushure mayo, muna Chikunguru 1979. Muchokwadi, yaive yakanangana nevateereri vakafanana nebasa reGeoff Wilkins, zvisinei nekuti yakagadzira zvakasiyana zvachose. imwe chirongwa. William von Meister, mwanakomana wevakabva kuGermany baba vake vakabatsira kuronga ndege dzendege pakati peGermany neUnited States, akanga ari muzvinabhizimisi. Akatanga bhizimisi idzva nokukurumidza paakangorasikirwa nefariro mune yekare kana kuti nokukurumidza apo vatengesi vakaodzwa mwoyo vakarega kumutsigira. Zvingave zvakaoma kufungidzira munhu akasiyana naWilkins. Pakazosvika pakati pemakore ekuma1970, kubudirira kwayo kukuru kwaiva Telepost, hurongwa hwemagetsi hwekutumira mameseji hwaitumira mashoko nemagetsi munyika yose kuenda kubhodhi riri pedyo uye rakafamba mamaira ekupedzisira setsamba yezuva rinotevera; iyo TDX system, iyo yakashandisa makomputa kukwenenzvera mafambiro enhare, kuderedza mutengo wekufona kure kure kumabhizinesi makuru.
Mushure mekunge arasikirwa nekufarira TDX, von Meister akatanga kufarira mukupera kwema1970 nezve chirongwa chitsva, Infocast, chaaida kuunza kuMcClean, Virginia. Yakanga iri kuwedzera kweiyo Telepost pfungwa, chete pachinzvimbo chekushandisa iyo post office kuendesa meseji mamaira yekupedzisira, yaizoshandisa FM sideband frequency (iyi tekinoroji inotumira zita rechiteshi, zita remuimbi uye zita renziyo kumaredhiyo emazuva ano) endesa data redhijitari kumakomputa terminals. Kunyanya, akaronga kupa izvi kumabhizinesi akagovaniswa zvakanyanya munzvimbo dzaive nenzvimbo dzakawanda dzaida ruzivo rwenguva dzose kubva kuhofisi yepakati - mabhangi, makambani einishuwarenzi, zvitoro zvegirosari.
Bill von Meister
Izvo von Meister ainyatsoda kugadzira, zvisinei, yaive network yenyika yekuendesa data kudzimba kuburikidza nematerminal emamiriyoni, kwete zviuru, zvevanhu. Nekudaro, chinhu chimwe kugonesa bhizinesi kushandisa madhora zana pane yakakosha FM radio inogamuchira uye terminal, uye chimwe kukumbira vatengi vakazvimirira kuti vaite zvimwe chete. Saka von Meister akaenda achitsvaga dzimwe nzira dzekuunza nhau, ruzivo rwemamiriro ekunze nezvimwe zvinhu mudzimba; uye akawana nzira iyi mumazana ezviuru zvemakombiyuta madukuduku akanga achiwanda mumahofisi nedzimba dzeAmerica, achionekwa mudzimba dzine tambo dzerunhare. Akabatana naJack Taub, muzvinabhizinesi akapfuma uye akabatana akafarira zano iri zvekuti aida kuisa mari mariri. Taub na von Meister vakatanga kudana sevhisi yavo nyowani CompuCom, nenzira yakajairwa makambani emakombuta ezuva akacheka uye mazwi etambo, asi ndokuzobuda nezita risinganzwisisike uye repfungwa - The Source.
Dambudziko guru ravakatarisana naro raive rekushaikwa kwezvivakwa zvehunyanzvi zvinokwanisa kuita pfungwa iyi. Kuti vaiwane, vakapinda muchibvumirano nemakambani maviri ane zviwanikwa zvakasanganiswa zvakaenzana neaya eCompuServe. Vaive nemakomputa ekugovana nguva uye network yedata yenyika. Zvese zviri zviviri zviwanikwa izvi zvaisashanda manheru nekupera kwevhiki. Simba rekombuta rakapihwa neDialcom, iyo yaive yakatungamirwa nerwizi rwePotomac muSilver Spring, Maryland. Iyo, seCompuServe, yakatanga muna 1970 semupi wenguva-yekugovana masevhisi emakomputa, kunyangwe pakupera kwemakore gumi yaive ichipa akasiyana mamwe masevhisi. Nenzira, yaive yekutenda kune iyo Dialcom terminal iyo yandakatanga kuziva makomputa , sachigaro weramangwana webhodhi revatungamiriri uye mukuru mukuru weGoogle. Izvo zvivakwa zvekutaurirana zvakapihwa neTelenet, pakiti-yakachinja network yakabuda kubva kukambani pakutanga kwemakore gumi. , BBN. Nekubhadhara mukana wakadzikisirwa weDialcom neTelenet masevhisi panguva yekusakwira-maawa, Taub navon Meister vakakwanisa kupa mukana kuThe Source kwemadhora mazana maviri nemakumi manomwe neshanu paawa husiku nekupera kwevhiki nekubhadhara kwemadhora zana (iyo $2,75 paawa uye $100 yekubhadhara pasi. mumadhora anhasi).
Kunze kwehurongwa hwekubhadhara, musiyano mukuru pakati peThe Source neCompuServe zvaive zvinotarisirwa kuti vashandisi vashandise system yavo. Iwo ekutanga masevhisi kubva kuCompuServe aisanganisira email, maforamu, CB, uye kugovera software. Zvaifungidzirwa kuti vashandisi vaizozvigadzira vakazvimiririra nharaunda dzavo uye vovaka yavo yepamusoro-soro pamusoro peiyo iri pasi Hardware uye zvirongwa - sezvinoita vashandisi vemakambani ekugovana-nguva masisitimu. Taub na von Meister vanga vasina ruzivo nemasystem akadaro. Urongwa hwavo hwebhizinesi hwaive hwakavakirwa pakupa ruzivo rwakanyanya kune vatengi vepamusoro-soro: iyo New York Times dhatabhesi, nhau kubva kuUnited Press International, ruzivo rwemasheya kubva kuDow Jones, mari yendege, kuongororwa kwemaresitorendi emuno, mitengo yewaini. Zvichida chinonyanya kukosha ndechekuti The Source vashandisi vakakwaziswa ne-on-screen menyu yezvisarudzo zviripo, nepo vashandisi veCompuServe vakakwaziswa nemutsara wekuraira.
Mukufambirana nekusiyana pakati paWilkins navon Meister, kutangwa kweThe Source kwaive chiitiko chakakura sekuvhurwa kwakanyarara kweMicroNET. Isaac Asimov akakokwa kuchiitiko chekutanga kuitira kuti iye pachake azivise kuti kuuya kwesayenzi yenhema kwakava sei chokwadi chesayenzi. Uye, sezvakaita von Meister, kutonga kwake kuThe Source hakuna kugara kwenguva refu. Iyo kambani yakabva yatarisana nematambudziko emari nekuda kwekunyanya kuwandisa kwemari pamusoro pemari. Taub nemukoma wake vaive nehombe yakakwana mubhizinesi kudzinga von Meister pariri, uye muna Gumiguru 1979, mwedzi mishoma chete mushure memutambo wekutanga, vakaita izvozvo chaizvo.
Kuderera Kwenguva Yekugovera Masisitimu
Kambani yazvino yekupinda mumusika wemakomputa ichishandisa mutoro factor logic ndeyeGeneral Electric Information Services (GEIS), chikamu chehofori yekugadzira magetsi. GEIS yakavambwa pakati pe-1960s, apo GE yakanga ichiri kuedza kukwikwidzana nevamwe mukugadzira komputa, sechikamu chekuyedza kubvisa IBM kubva pachinzvimbo chayo chikuru mukutengesa komputa. GE yakaedza kugutsa vatengi kuti pane kutenga makomputa kubva kuIBM, vaigona kuhaya makomputa kubva kuGE. Kuedza uku kwakave nekukanganisa kushoma pamusika weBM, asi kambani yakaita mari yakakwana kuti irambe ichidyara mariri kusvika kuma1980, panguva iyo GEIS yainge yatove nenetiweki yedata yepasirese uye nzvimbo mbiri huru dzemakomputa muCleveland, Ohio, uye muEurope.
Muna 1984, mumwe munhu paGEIS akacherechedza kuti The Source neCompuServe zvakanga zvichikura sei (iyo yekupedzisira yakanga yatova nevashandisi vanopfuura 100 panguva iyoyo), uye yakauya nenzira yekuita kuti nzvimbo dze data dzishande kunze kwemaawa makuru ebhizimisi. Kuti vagadzire yavo yevashandisi inopa, vakahaya murwi weCompuServe Bill Lowden. Lowden, atsamwiswa nemabatiro evatengesi vemakambani vakatanga kuyedza kupinda mubhizinesi revatengi rinowedzera kukwezva, vakasiya kambani neboka revashandi kuyedza kugadzira yavo yepamhepo sevhisi muAtlanta, vachiidaidza kuti Georgia OnLine. Vakaedza kushandura kusakwanisa kwavo kuwana network yedata yenyika kuita mukana nekupa masevhisi anoenderana nemusika wepanzvimbo, senge kushambadzira kwakakosha uye ruzivo rwezviitiko, asi kambani yakakundikana, saka Louden akafadzwa nekupa kubva kuGEIS.
Louden akadana basa idzva GEnie. genie - genie] - iyi yaive backronym yeGeneral Electric Network yeInformation Exchange [GE's information exchange network]. Yakapa masevhisi ese akagadzirwa panguva iyoyo muThe Source uye CompuServe - chat (CB simulator), mabhodhi emeseji, nhau, mamiriro ekunze uye ruzivo rwemitambo.
GEnie yaive yazvino yekomputa sevhisi kubuda kubva kunguva-yekugovera komputa indasitiri uye mutoro factor logic. Sezvo huwandu hwemakomputa madiki hwakawedzera kuita mamirioni, masevhisi edhijitari emusika mukuru akatanga kuita zvishoma nezvishoma bhizinesi rinoyevedza mukati mavo, uye yakanga isisiri nzira yekukwirisa iripo. Mumazuva ekutanga, Iyo Source uye CompuServe aive makambani madiki aishandira zviuru zvishoma vanyoreri muna 1980. Makore gumi gare gare, mamirioni evanyoreri aibhadhara mari dzepamwedzi muUS - uye CompuServe yaive pamberi pemusika uyu, yatora aimbova mukwikwidzi wayo, The Source. Kuita kumwe chete uku kwakaita kuti nguva yekugovana nguva isanyanya kukwezva kumabhizinesi - sei uchibhadhara zvekutaurirana uye kuwana komputa yemumwe munhu iri kure kana zvave nyore kushongedza hofisi yako nemichina ine simba? Uye kusvika pakuuya kwefiber optic chiteshi, iyo yakadonhedza zvakanyanya mutengo wekutaurirana, pfungwa iyi haina kuchinja kutungamira kwayo kune zvakapesana.
Nekudaro, musika uyu hauna kuganhurirwa kumakambani anopa mukana wekugovana nguva. Panzvimbo pekutanga nema mainframes makuru nekutsvaga nzira dzekuasundidzira kumiganhu yawo, mamwe makambani akatanga nemidziyo yaive yatova mumamiriyoni edzimba dzevanhu uye akatsvaga nzira dzekuibatanidza nekombuta.
Chii chimwe chekuverenga
- Michael A. Banks, Ari munzira kuenda kuWebhu (2008)
- Jimmy Maher, "Mambure Pamberi Kwewebhu," filfre.net (2017)
Source: www.habr.com