Zvimwe zvinyorwa munhevedzano:
- Nhoroondo yerelay
- Nhoroondo yemakomputa emagetsi
- Nhoroondo ye transistor
- Internet nhoroondo
Nhanganyaya
Mukutanga kwema1970, AT&T, iyo huru yekuUS yekufambisa nhare, yakauya nechipo chinonakidza. Panguva iyoyo, aive director weComputing division yeAdvanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), sangano rechidiki mukati meDhipatimendi reDziviriro raiita tsvakiridzo yenguva refu, isiri-pasi. Mumakore mashanu kusvika panguva ino, Roberts akanga atarisira kusikwa kweARPANET, yekutanga yemakombiyuta makuru akabatanidza makombiyuta ari munzvimbo 25 dzakasiyana munyika yose.
Iyo network yakabudirira, asi kuvepo kwayo kwenguva refu uye zvese zvakabatanidzwa bureaucracy hazvina kuwira pasi pesimba reARPA. Roberts aitsvaga nzira yekuregedzera basa kune mumwe munhu. Uye saka akabata vatungamiriri veAT&T kuti avape "makiyi" ehurongwa uhu. Mushure mekunyatsofunga nezve kupihwa, AT&T pakupedzisira yakasiya. Mainjiniya ekambani nemamaneja aitenda kuti tekinoroji yakakosha yeARPANET yakanga isingashande uye isina kugadzikana, uye yakanga isina nzvimbo muhurongwa hwakagadzirirwa kupa yakavimbika uye yepasi rose sevhisi.
ARPANET yakangoita sembeu iyo Indaneti yakanyatsojeka; prototype yehukuru hweruzivo system inofukidza nyika yese, iyo yekareidoscopic kugona kwayo isingagone kuverenga. Ko AT&T yaigona sei kusaona kugona kwakadaro uye kunamatira zvakadaro munguva yakapfuura? Bob Taylor, uyo akahaya Roberts kuti atarisire chirongwa cheARPANET muna 1966, akazotaura pachena: “Kushanda neAT&T kungangofanana nekushanda neCro-Magnons.” Nekudaro, tisati tatarisana nekusaziva kwakadai kwevasingazivikanwe vemakambani makuru neruvengo, ngatitore nhanho kumashure. Musoro wenyaya yedu uchave nhoroondo yeInternet, saka chekutanga ipfungwa yakanaka kuwana imwe pfungwa yatiri kutaura nezvayo.
Pakati pese tekinoroji masisitimu akagadzirwa muhafu yekupedzisira yezana ramakore rechiXNUMX, Indaneti ine nharo yakave nemigumisiro yakakura pane nzanga, tsika nehupfumi hwenyika yanhasi. Mukwikwidzi wayo wepedyo mune izvi anogona kunge ari jet kufamba. Vachishandisa Indaneti, vanhu vanogona kugovana mapikicha, mavhidhiyo uye pfungwa ipapo ipapo, zvose zvinodiwa uye zvisingadiwi, neshamwari nemhuri pasi rose. Vechidiki vanogara zviuru zvemakiromita kubva kune mumwe nemumwe zvino vanogara vachidanana uye kunyange kuroora mukati menyika chaiyo. Iyo isingaperi yekutengesa mall inowanikwa chero nguva yemasikati kana husiku zvakananga kubva kumamiriyoni edzimba dzakanaka.
Kune chikamu chikuru, zvese izvi zvinozivikanwa uye ndizvo chaizvo zvazviri. Asi sezvinogona kupupurirwa nomunyori wacho, Indaneti yakabvumikisawo kuva zvichida kudzongonyedza kukuru, kupambadza nguva, uye manyuko okushatiswa kwendangariro munhau yavanhu, kunopfuura terevhizheni—uye ikoko kwakanga kusiri muitiro uri nyore. Akabvumira marudzi ese emapenzi, vanonyanyisa uye vanoda dzidziso dzekurangana kuti vaparadzire zvisina maturo pasi rose nekumhanya kwechiedza - mamwe emashoko aya anogona kunzi haana mhosva, uye mamwe haagone. Yakabvumira masangano mazhinji, ese ari ega uye eruzhinji, kuti aunganidze zvishoma nezvishoma, uye mune dzimwe nguva nekukurumidza uye zvinonyadzisa kurasikirwa, makomo makuru edata. Pakazara, iye ave amplifier yehuchenjeri hwevanhu uye upenzi, uye huwandu hwekupedzisira hunotyisa.
Asi chii chiri chinhu chatiri kukurukura, chimiro chayo chemuviri, zvese izvi michina yakabvumira shanduko idzi dzemagariro netsika kuitika? Chii chinonzi Internet? Dai taizokwanisa kusefa chinhu ichi nekuchiisa mumudziyo wegirazi, taizozviona zvichidzika muzvikamu zvitatu. Network yepasi rose yekutaurirana ichaiswa pazasi. Iyi layer inotangira Internet kusvika zana ramakore, uye yakatanga kugadzirwa nemhangura kana waya dzesimbi, asi yakatsiviwa netambo dzecoaxial, microwave repeaters, optical fiber, uye cellular radio communications.
Chikamu chinotevera chine makomputa ari kutaurirana kuburikidza neiyi system vachishandisa mitauro yakajairika, kana maprotocol. Pakati pezvakanyanya kukosha pane izvi iInternet Protocol (IP), Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), uye Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). Iyi ndiyo musimboti weInternet pachayo, uye kutaura kwayo kwekongiri kunouya setiweki yemakomputa akakosha anonzi marouters, ane basa rekutsvaga nzira yekuti meseji ifambe kubva kunobva komputa kuenda kune kwainoenda komputa.
Chekupedzisira, padanho repamusoro pane akasiyana maapplication anoshandiswa nevanhu uye muchina pakushanda nekutamba paInternet, mazhinji acho anoshandisa mitauro ine hunyanzvi: mabhurawuza, maapplication ekutaurirana, mitambo yemavhidhiyo, maapplication ekutengesa, nezvimwe. Kuti ushandise iyo Internet, chishandiso chinongoda kuvhara meseji mufomati iyo ma router anogona kunzwisisa. Iyo meseji inogona kunge iri kufamba mu chess, chikamu chidiki chemufirimu, kana chikumbiro chekuendesa mari kubva kune imwe bhangi account kuenda kune imwe - ma router haana hanya uye anoibata zvakafanana.
Nyaya yedu ichaunza tambo nhatu idzi pamwechete kuti dzitaure nyaya yeInternet. Kutanga, network yepasi rose yekutaurirana. Pakupedzisira, kubwinya kwese kwezvirongwa zvakasiyana-siyana zvinobvumira vashandisi vekombuta kunakidzwa kana kuita chimwe chinhu chinobatsira pane network. Pamwe chete iwo akabatana nehunyanzvi uye maprotocol anobvumira makomputa akasiyana kuti ataurirane. Vagadziri veiyi tekinoroji uye mapuroteni aive akavakirwa pane zvakabudirira zvekare (network) uye vaive nepfungwa isina kujeka yeramangwana ravaitsvagira (zvirongwa zveramangwana).
Pamusoro pevagadziri ava, mumwe weanogara ari mavara munyaya yedu achava nyika. Izvi zvichanyanya kuitika padanho renharembozha, idzo dzainge dzichishandiswa nehurumende kana kuti dzainge dzichitariswa nehurumende. Izvo zvinotidzosera kuAT&T. Sezvinei zvavaivenga kuzvibvuma, kuguma kwaTaylor, Roberts nevamwe vavo veARPA vaive vakasungwa zvisina tariro kune vafambisi venhare, iyo huru yeramangwana reInternet. Kushanda kwemanetwork avo kwaienderana zvachose nemasevhisi akadai. Tinotsanangura sei ruvengo rwavo, kutenda kwavo kuti ARPANET inomiririra nyika itsva iyo yaipesana nevakuru vezve retrograde vanofambisa nhare?
Kutaura idi, mapoka maviri aya akaparadzaniswa kwete nechinguvana, asi nemisiyano youzivi. Madhairekita nemainjiniya eAT&T vakazviona sevachengeti vemuchina wakakura uye wakaoma waipa masevhisi akavimbika uye epasi rose ekutaurirana kubva kune mumwe munhu kuenda kune mumwe. Bell System yaive nebasa remidziyo yese. Vagadziri veARPANET vaiona sisitimu iyi senzira yekupokana yedata, uye vakatenda kuti vashandisi vayo havafanire kukanganisa magadzirirwo uye kushandiswa kweiyo data kumativi ese ewaya.
Saka isu tinofanirwa kutanga nekutaura kuti, kuburikidza nesimba rehurumende yeUS, kusawirirana uku pamusoro pechimiro cheAmerican telecommunications kwakagadziriswa sei.
Imwe sisitimu, sevhisi yepasi rose?
IInternet yakazvarwa munharaunda chaiyo yeAmerican telecommunication - muUnited States vateresi venhare neteregirafu vakabatwa zvakasiyana kwazvo kubva kune dzimwe nyika - uye pane chikonzero chose chekutenda kuti nharaunda iyi yakaita basa rekusimudzira mukusimudzira nekuumbwa. zvemweya weInternet ramangwana. Saka ngatimbonyatsoongorora kuti zvese izvi zvakaitika sei. Kuti tiite izvi, tichadzokera kukuzvarwa kweAmerican telegraph.
American anomaly
Mune 1843 gore uye vabatsiri vake vakaita kuti Congress ishandise $30 kugadzira mutsara weteregirafu pakati peWashington D.C. uye Baltimore. Vaitenda kuti iyi ndiyo yaizove yekutanga kubatanidza munetiweki yemitsara yeteregirafu inogadzirwa nemari yehurumende yaizopararira mukondinendi yese. Mutsamba yakanyorerwa Imba yeVamiriri, Morse akakurudzira kuti hurumende itenge kodzero dzese pamatendi ake eteregirafu uye vobva vabvumira makambani akazvimirira kuti avake zvikamu zvetiweki, vachichengeta mitsetse yakaparadzana yekutaurirana zviri pamutemo. Muchiitiko ichi, Morse akanyora kuti, "hapana nguva refu nyika yose isati yazara netsinga idzi, iyo, nekumhanya kwepfungwa, ichaparadzira ruzivo rwezvose zviri kuitika pasi pano, kushandura nyika yose. munzvimbo imwe huru.”
Kwaari zvaiita sekuti hurongwa hwekutaurirana hwakakosha hwakadaro hwaibatsira veruzhinji, uye nekudaro hwakawira pasi pezvinetswa zvehurumende. Kupa nhaurirano pakati penyika dzinoverengeka kuburikidza nemasevhisi eposvo raive rimwe remabasa akati wandei ehurumende yemubatanidzwa akanyatso cherechedzwa muBumbiro reUS. Zvisinei, vavariro dzake dzakanga dzisina kutsaurwa chose chose nokubatira nzanga. Kudzora kwehurumende kwakapa Morse nevatsigiri vake mukana wekubudirira kupedza bhizinesi ravo - kugamuchira imwechete, asi yakakosha mubhadharo kubva kumari yeruzhinji. Muna 1845, Cave Johnson, Mutungamiriri Mukuru weU.S. ari pasi paPurezidhendi wechi11 weU.S., James Polk, akazivisa kutsigira kwake gadziriro yeteregirafu yavose yakakarakadzwa naMorse: “Kushandiswa kwechishandiso chine simba chakadaro, chakanaka kana kuti chakaipa, nokuda kwokuchengeteka kwavanhu. haigoni kusiiwa mumaoko ega.” vanhu,” akanyora kudaro. Zvisinei, ndipo pakaperera zvose. Dzimwe nhengo dzePolk's Democratic administration dzaisada chokuita neteregirafu yevanhu, sezvakaita Democratic Congress. Bato harina kufarira zvirongwa , kumanikidza hurumende kushandisa mari pa“kuvandudzwa kwemukati” - vakafunga nezvezvirongwa izvi kukurudzira kusarurana, kusazvibata uye huori.
Nekuda kwekuzengurira kwehurumende kuita chimwe chinhu, mumwe wenhengo dzechikwata cheMorse, Amos Kendal, akatanga kugadzira chirongwa chenharembozha nerutsigiro rwevatsigiri vakazvimirira. Zvisinei, patent yaMorse yakanga isina kukwana kuchengetedza monopoly pane telegraph communications. Mukufamba kwemakore gumi, vakawanda vevakwikwidzi vakabuda, vangave vachitenga marezinesi emamwe matekinoroji eteregirafu (kunyanya Royal House inodhinda telegraph) kana kungopinda mubhizinesi remutemo pazvikonzero zvisingaite. Mhosva dzakamhan'arwa mumapoka, hupfumi hwemapepa hwakakwira dzikanyangarika, uye makambani akakundikana akadonha kana kutengeswa kune vaikwikwidza mushure mekukwidza mitengo yemasheya. Kubva mumhirizhonga yese iyi, mutambi mukuru akabuda mukupera kwema1860s: Western Union.
Shoko rekutya rekuti "monopoly" rakatanga kupararira. Iyo telegraph yakanga yatove yakakosha kune akati wandei ehupenyu hweAmerica: mari, njanji, uye mapepanhau. Hakusati kwambova nesangano ripi neripi rakazvimirira rakakura kusvika pakukura zvakadaro. Chikumbiro chekutonga kwehurumende kweteregirafu chakagamuchira hupenyu hutsva. Mumakore gumi akatevera Hondo Yenyika, congressional postal committees akauya nezvirongwa zvakasiyana-siyana zvekuunza telegraph muPost Service's orbit. Sarudzo nhatu dzakakosha dzakabuda: 1) iyo postal service inotsigira mumwe mukwikwidzi weWestern Union, ichipa mukana wakasarudzika wekutumira mahofisi nemigwagwa mikuru, semubhadharo wekutemesa mitero. 2) Iyo Post Service iri kuvhura teregirafu yayo kukwikwidza neWU nevamwe vanoshanda vakazvimirira. 3) Hurumende ichaita kuti hofisi yese yeteregirafu iite nyika, ichiiisa pasi pesimba reposvo.
Zvirongwa zveposvo telegraph zvakawana vatsigiri vakasimba muCongress, kusanganisira Alexander Ramsay, sachigaro weSenate Post Committee. Nekudaro, simba remushandirapamwe uyu rakapihwa nevekunze vanomiririra, kunyanya Gardiner Hubbard, aive neruzivo mubasa rehurumende semurongi wemvura yemuguta uye gasi rekuvhenekesa muCambridge (akazove mupi mukuru wekutanga kuna Alexander Bell uye muvambi weguta. National Geographic Society). Hubbard nevatsigiri vake vakapokana kuti hurongwa hweveruzhinji hwaizopa kuparadzira kwakafanana kunobatsira kweruzivo sezvakaitwa netsamba yetsamba ichichengeta mitengo yakaderera. Vati nzira iyi ingangobatsira veruzhinji kudarika hurongwa hweWU, uhwo hwakanangana nevemabhizimisi. Iyo WU, sezvazviri, yakaramba kuti mutengo wemateregiramu wakatarwa nemutengo wavo, uye kuti hurongwa hweveruzhinji hwakadzikisira mutero hwaizopinda mumatambudziko uye hwaisazobatsira chero munhu.
Chero zvazvingava, iyo teregiramu yepositi haina kumbowana rutsigiro rwakakwana kuti ive nyaya yenhandare yehondo muCongress. Mitemo yose yakarongwa yakafa chinyararire. Kuwanda kwehutongi hwehurumende hakuna kusvika pamwero wakadaro ungakunda kutya kushungurudzwa nehurumende. MaDemocrat akadzorazve kutonga kweCongress muna 1874, mweya wekuvakazve nyika munguva yeHondo yeVanhu vevanhu wakabviswa, uye kuyedza kusimba kwekutanga kugadzira teregiramu yepositi kwakapera. Pfungwa yekuisa teregirafu (uye gare gare runhare) pasi pekutonga kwehurumende yakamuka nguva nenguva mumakore akatevera, asi kunze kwenguva pfupi dze (zita) kutonga kwehurumende kwenhare munguva yehondo muna 1918, hapana chakambokura kubva mazviri.
Uku kuregeredza kwehurumende kweteregirafu nerunhare kwakanga kuri chishamiso pasi rose. MuFrance, telegraph yakaitwa nyika kunyangwe isati yaiswa magetsi. Muna 1837, apo imwe kambani yakazvimiririra yakaedza kuisa optical telegraph (ichishandisa zviratidzo shongwe) pedyo nehurongwa huripo hunodzorwa nehurumende, paramende yeFrance yakadzika mutemo unorambidza kugadzirwa kweteregirafu isina kubvumidzwa nehurumende. MuBritain, telegraphy yakazvimirira yakabvumidzwa kukura kwemakumi emakore akati wandei. Zvisinei, kusagutsikana kwevoruzhinji neduopoly yakazoguma yaita kuti hurumende idzore mamiriro acho ezvinhu muna 1868. MuEurope mose, hurumende dzakaisa telegraphy uye telefoni pasi pokudzora kwetsamba dzehurumende, seizvo Hubbard navatsigiri vake vakanga varonga. [muRussia, bhizinesi rehurumende "Central Telegraph" yakavambwa muna Gumiguru 1, 1852 / approx. transl.].
Kunze kweEurope neNorth America, nyika zhinji dzaive dzakadzorwa nevakuru vekoloni nekudaro vaive vasina kutaura mukuvandudza nekudzora teregirafu. Ikoko hurumende dzakazvimiririra dzaivepo, dzaiwanzogadzira nyika telegraph masisitimu paEuropean modhi. Masisitimu aya aiwanzo shaya mari yekuwedzera pamwero unoonekwa muUnited States nenyika dzeEurope. Semuyenzaniso, iyo Brazilian state telegraph company, inoshanda pasi pebapiro reBazi rezvekurima, Commerce and Labor, yaingova nemakiromita 1869 emitsara yeteregirafu pakasvika 2100, ichiri kuU.SA, munzvimbo yakafanana, kwaigara vanhu vakawanda. na4 pakanga patotambanudzwa makiromita 1866 130.
Chibvumirano chitsva
Nei United States yakatora nzira yakasiyana kudaro? Mumwe anogona kuunza kune iyi hurongwa hwenzvimbo yekugovera zvinzvimbo zvehurumende pakati pevatsigiri vebato rakakunda sarudzo, raivepo kusvika makore ekupedzisira ezana ramakore rechi XNUMX. Hutongi hwehurumende, kusvika kuvakuru veposvo, hwaisanganisira kugadzwa kwezvematongerwo enyika uko vaitsigira vakavimbika vaigona kupiwa mibayiro. Mapato ese ari maviri aisada kugadzira masosi makuru ekutsigira vanopikisa - izvo zvaizoitika kana telegraph yave pasi pehurumende yemubatanidzwa. Nekudaro, tsananguro yakapfava ndeyekusavimbika kwechinyakare kweAmerica kwehurumende yepakati ine simba - nekuda kwechikonzero chimwe chete zvimiro zvehutano hweAmerica, dzidzo uye mamwe masangano ehurumende akasiyana zvakanyanya neaya ari kune dzimwe nyika.
Tichifunga nezvekukosha kuri kuwedzera kwekutaurirana kwemagetsi kwehupenyu hwenyika uye chengetedzo, United States haina kukwanisa kuzviparadzanisa zvachose kubva mukuvandudzwa kwekutaurirana. Mumakumi emakore ekutanga ezana ramakore rechiXNUMX, hurongwa hwakasanganiswa hwakavapo umo masisitimu ekutaurirana akazvimirira akaedza masimba maviri: kune rimwe divi, hurumende yaigara ichitarisisa mutero wemakambani ezvekutaurirana, vachiona kuti havatore chinzvimbo uye havaite. purofiti yakawandisa; kune rumwe rutivi, kune tyisidziro yokukamurwa pasi pemitemo yokusavimbika kana mufambiro usina kunaka. Sezvatichaona, masimba maviri aya anogona kupesana: tariff theory yaitenda kuti monopoly chinhu chechisikigo mune mamwe mamiriro ezvinhu, uye kudzokorora kwesevhisi kwaizova kutambisa kusingakoshi kwezviwanikwa. Vatongi vaiwanzoedza kuderedza kuipa kwehumwe chete nekudzora mitengo. Panguva imwecheteyo, mutemo weantimonopoly wakatsvaga kuparadza monopoly mubud nekuronga nechisimba musika wemakwikwi.
Pfungwa yekutonga kwemitero yakatanga nenjanji, uye yakashandiswa padanho remubatanidzwa kuburikidza neInterstate Commerce Commission (ICC), yakagadzirwa neCongress muna 1887. Kurudziro huru yemutemo yaive mabhizinesi madiki nevarimi vakazvimirira. Nguva zhinji vaishaya zvekuita kunze kwekuvimba nenjanji dzavaishandisa kutakura zvirimwa zvavo kuendesa kumusika, uye vanoti makambani enjanji akatora mukana uyu nekuvadzvinya mari yavo yese vachipa makambani makuru mishonga yemaoresa. . Komisheni ine nhengo shanu yakapihwa simba rekutarisisa masevhisi enjanji nemitengo uye kudzivirira kushandiswa zvisina kunaka kwesimba rezvitima, kunyanya nekurambidza njanji kupa mitengo yakakosha kumakambani akasarudzika (inotangira pfungwa yatinodaidza nhasi kuti "net neutrality"). Mutemo weMann-Elkins wa1910 wakawedzera kodzero dzeICC kune telegraph nefoni. Nekudaro, iyo ICC, ichiri kutarisisa nezvekufambisa, haina kumbobvira yanyanya kufarira nzvimbo idzi nyowani dzemutoro, ichingodzifuratira.
Panguva imwe cheteyo, hurumende yemubatanidzwa yakagadzira chishandiso chitsva chose kurwisa kutonga. 1890 yakapa magweta makuru simba rekupikisa mudare chero "musanganiswa" wezvokutengeserana unofungidzirwa kuti "unorambidza kutengeserana" -kureva kudzvinyirira makwikwi kuburikidza nesimba rekutonga. Mutemo wakashandiswa kuputsa makambani makuru akati wandei mumakumi maviri emakore akatevera, kusanganisira danho reDare Repamusorosoro ra1911 rekutyora Standard Oil kuita zvidimbu makumi matatu nemana.
The Standard Oil octopus kubva 1904 katuni, pamberi kupatsanurwa
Panguva iyoyo, telephony, uye mupi wayo mukuru AT&T, akange akwanisa kudzika teregirafu neWU mukukosha uye kugona, zvekuti muna 1909 AT&T yakakwanisa kutenga kufarira kunodzora muWU. Theodore Vail akava mutungamiri wemakambani akabatanidzwa ndokutanga hurongwa hwekuabatanidza kuita chinhu chimwe chete. Vail aitenda zvakasimba kuti runyararo rwekufambiswa kwemashoko rwaizobatsira veruzhinji zvirinani, uye akasimudzira chirevo chitsva chekambani: "One Policy, One System, One-Stop Service." Nekuda kweizvozvo, Vale aive akagadzirira kutariswa neanopoly busters.
Theodore Vail, c. 1918
Kutora kwekutonga kweWoodrow Wilson kwehofisi muna 1913 kwakapa nhengo dzayo Ino inguva yakanaka yekutyisidzira yako anti-monopoly cudgel. Mukuru Webasa rePosvo, Sidney Burleson akafarira runhare rweposvo rwakazara pamwe nerudzi rweEuropean, asi zano iri, senguva dzose, harina kuwana rutsigiro. Pane kudaro, Gweta Guru VaGeorge Wickersham vakafunga kuti kuenderera mberi kweAT&T kutora makambani enhare akazvimirira kunotyora mutemo weSherman. Panzvimbo pekuenda kudare, Vail nemutevedzeri wake, Nathan Kingsbury, vakapinda muchibvumirano nekambani, inozivikanwa munhoroondo se "Kingsbury Agreement," iyo AT&T yakabvuma kuita:
- Rega kutenga makambani akazvimirira.
- Tengesa chikamu chako muWU.
- Bvumira makambani enhare akazvimirira kuti abatanidze kunetiweki yedaro refu.
Asi mushure menguva iyi ine ngozi kune vatongi, makumi emakore erunyararo akauya. Nyeredzi yakadzikama yemitemo yemitero yasimuka, zvichireva kuvepo kwehutongi hwechisikigo mukufambiswa kwemashoko. Pakazosvika ma1920s, ruyamuro rwakanga rwaitwa uye AT&T yakatangazve kutora kwayo makambani madiki enhare akazvimirira. Maitiro aya akaiswa muchiitiko cha1934 chakasimbisa Federal Communications Commission (FCC), ichitsiva ICC semutongi wemitengo yekutaurirana newaya. Panguva iyoyo, Bell System, chero chipi zvacho, yaidzora ingangoita makumi mapfumbamwe kubva muzana yebhizimusi renhare reAmerica: 90 yemakiromita 135 miriyoni yewaya, 140 ye2,1 bhiriyoni runhare pamwedzi, 2,3 miriyoni yebhirioni yemadhora mupurofiti yegore. Nekudaro, chinangwa chikuru cheFCC chaive chisiri chekuvandudza makwikwi, asi "kuita kuti ivepo, nepese pazvinogoneka kune vese vagari vemuUnited States, nekukurumidza, kwakanaka, kutaurirana kwenyika nepasirese newaya nemhepo, zviri nyore uye panguva inonzwisisika. mari." Kana sangano rimwechete richikwanisa kupa sevhisi yakadai, ngazvive zvakadaro.
Pakati pezana ramakore rechi XNUMX, vamiriri venzvimbo nevematunhu ezvekufambiswa kwemashoko muUnited States vakagadzira hurongwa hwakasiyana-siyana hwekupa rubatsiro kuti vakurumidze kuvandudzwa kwesevhisi yenharembozha. Makomisheni ekutonga anoisa mitengo yakavakirwa pane inofungidzirwa kukosha kwetiweki kune mumwe nemumwe mutengi, pane pamutengo wekupa sevhisi kumutengi iyeye. Naizvozvo, vashandisi vebhizinesi vaivimba nefoni kuti vaite bhizinesi vakabhadhara kupfuura vanhu (avo sevhisi yakapa mukana wekushamwaridzana). Vatengi mumisika mikuru yemudhorobha, vane mukana nyore kune vamwe vashandisi vazhinji, vakabhadhara kupfuura avo vari mumaguta madiki, zvisinei nekubudirira kukuru kwekutsinhana kwefoni. Vashandisi venzendo refu vaibhadhara zvakanyanya, kunyangwe tekinoroji yakadzikisira mutengo wekufona kure kure uye purofiti yemuno yakawedzera. Iyi yakaoma sisitimu yekugoverazve capital yakashanda zvakanaka sekunge paine mupi wemonolithic mukati umo zvese izvi zvaigona kushanda.
Michina mitsva
Isu takajaira kufunga monopoly sesimba rinodzoreredza rinogadzira kusashanda uye kuneta. Isu tinotarisira kuti iyo monopoly ichengetedze negodo chinzvimbo chayo uye chimiro chayo pane kushanda seinjini yekushandura tekinoroji, hupfumi uye tsika. Nekudaro, zvakaoma kushandisa maonero aya kuAT&T pakakwirira, sezvo yakaburitsa hunyanzvi mushure mekuvandudza, kutarisira uye nekumhanyisa budiriro itsva yekutaurirana.
Semuyenzaniso, muna 1922, AT&T yakaisa nhepfenyuro yeredhiyo pachivako chayo cheManhattan, kwangopera gore nehafu mushure mekuvhurwa kwechiteshi chikuru chakadai, KDKA yeWestinghouse. Gore rakatevera, yakashandisa network yayo yedaro refu kutepfenyura kero yeMutungamiri Warren Harding kune nhepfenyuro zhinji dzemuno munyika yose. Makore mashoma gare gare, AT&T yakawanawo mukana muindasitiri yemafirimu, mushure mekunge mainjiniya eBell Labs akagadzira muchina waibatanidza vhidhiyo nerekodhi ruzha. Warner Brothers studio yakashandisa iyi "»kuburitswa kwefirimu rekutanga reHollywood rine mimhanzi yakawiriraniswa , iyo yakateverwa nefirimu rekutanga-rakareba-refu uchishandisa synchronized voice-over "".
Vitaphone
Walter Gifford, akave mutungamiri weAT&T muna 1925, akafunga kusiya kambani yemaspinoffs senge kutepfenyura nemifananidzo inofamba, muchikamu kudzivirira kuferefetwa kweantitrust. Kunyange zvazvo Dhipatimendi reUnited States reJustice rakanga risina kutyisidzira kambani kubva pakagadziriswa Kingsbury, zvakanga zvisina kukodzera kukwevera pfungwa dzisina kukodzera kune zviito zvingaonekwa sekuedza kushandisa zvisizvo nzvimbo yaro yehutongi hwenhare kuti iwedzere zvisina kururama kune mamwe misika. Saka, pachinzvimbo chekuronga nhepfenyuro dzayo dzeredhiyo, AT&T yakave iyo yekutanga masaini mupi weRCA nemamwe maredhiyo, achitumira zvirongwa kubva kuNew York studio dzavo nemamwe maguta makuru kune akabatana nhepfenyuro kutenderera nyika.
Zvichakadaro, muna 1927, nhepfenyuro yeredhiyo yakapararira mhiri kweAtlantic, yakatangwa nomubvunzo muduku wakabvunzwa naGifford kumutauriri wake webasa reposvo reBritain: “Mamiriro okunze ari sei muLondon?” Izvi, chokwadika, hazvisi “Izvi ndizvo zvinoitwa naMwari!” [mutsara wekutanga unofambiswa zviri pamutemo muMorse kodhi neteregirafu / approx. transl.], asi zvakaramba zvichiratidza chiitiko chakakosha, kubuda kwekubvira kwenhaurirano pakati pemakondinendi makumi emakore akati wandei pasati paiswa tambo dzenhare dzepasi pegungwa, zvisinei nemutengo wakakura uye husina kunaka.
Zvisinei, zviitiko zvakakosha zvikuru munhoroondo yedu zvaisanganisira kufambiswa kwehuwandu hwe data pamusoro pemadaro marefu. AT&T yaigara ichida kuwedzera traffic pamanetiweki ayo akareba, ayo akashanda semubairo mukuru wemakwikwi pamusoro pemakambani mashoma achiri kurarama akazvimirira, pamwe nekupa purofiti yakakura. Nzira yakareruka yekukwezva vatengi yaive yekugadzira tekinoroji itsva yaidzikisa mutengo wekutapurirana - kazhinji izvi zvaireva kukwanisa kupinza hurukuro dzakawanda muwaya kana tambo dzakafanana. Asi, sezvatatoona, zvikumbiro zvekutaurirana kure-kure zvakapfuura zvechinyakare telegraphic uye meseji dzenhare kubva kune mumwe munhu kuenda kune mumwe. Nhepfenyuro dzeredhiyo dzaida zviteshi zvadzo, uye terevhizheni yakanga yatova pedyo, ine zvikumbiro zvakakura zvikuru zvebandwidth.
Nzira yakanyanya kuvimbisa yekugutsa zvinodiwa zvitsva yaive yekuisa coaxial tambo inoumbwa neconcentric metal silinda [coaxial, co-axial - ine axis yakajairwa / approx. shanduro ]. Zvinhu zvemuitisi akadaro zvakadzidzwa kare muzana remakore rechi1920 nehofori dzefizikisi yekare: Maxwell, Heaviside, Rayleigh, Kelvin naThomson. Yakanga iine mabhenefiti akakura edzidziso semutsetse wekufambisa, sezvo yaigona kufambisa chiratidzo chebandband, uye chimiro chayo chaidzivirira zvachose kubva pakuyambuka-kutaura uye kukanganisa kwezviratidzo zvekunze. Kubva kuvandudzwa kweterevhizheni kwakatanga muna 1936s, hapana tekinoroji iripo yaigona kupa megahertz (kana kupfuura) bandwidth inodiwa pakutepfenyura kwemhando yepamusoro. Saka mainjiniya eBell Labs akatanga kushandura mabhenefiti etambo kuti ive yekushanda kureba uye Broadband tambo yekufambisa, kusanganisira kuvaka ese anodiwa ekutsigira michina kugadzira, kukwidziridza, kugamuchira, uye neimwe nzira kugadzirisa masaini. Muna 160, AT&T yakaita, nemvumo yeFCC, kuyedza tambo yetambo inodarika mamaira zana kureba, kubva kuManhattan kuenda kuPhiladelphia. Mushure mekutanga kuyedza sisitimu nemaseketi makumi maviri nemanomwe ezwi, mainjiniya akabudirira kudzidza kufambisa vhidhiyo pakupera kwa27.
Panguva iyoyo, chimwe chikumbiro chekutaura kure-kure nepamusoro-soro, nhepfenyuro yeredhiyo, yakatanga kuonekwa. Radiotelephony, yakashandiswa muna 1927 transatlantic communications, yakashandisa masaini eredhiyo ekutepfenyura uye yakagadzira nzira mbiri dzezwi pamusoro peshortwave. Kubatanidza maredhiyo maviri eredhiyo uye vanogamuchira vachishandisa iyo yese frequency bhendi parunhare rwekukurukurirana kwaisave nehupfumi kubva pakuona kwepasirese kutaurirana. Kudai zvaibvira kupinza hurukuro dzakawanda mudanda reredhiyo, kwaizova hurukuro yakasiyana. Kunyange zvazvo nhepfenyuro imwe neimwe yaizova inodhura zvikuru, zana nhepfenyuro dzakadaro dzaizokwana kuparadzira zviratidzo muUnited States mose.
Mabhendi maviri efrequency aikwikwidza kodzero yekushandisa muhurongwa hwakadaro: ultra-high frequencies (decimeter waves) UHF uye microwaves (centimita-kureba masaisai). Yepamusoro frequency microwaves yakavimbisa hukuru hwekubuda, asi zvakare yakaratidza hukuru hwetekinoroji kuomarara. Muma1930s, maonero eAT&T ane mutoro akatsamira kune yakachengeteka sarudzo yeUHF.
Nekudaro, tekinoroji yemicrowave yakatora kusvetukira kukuru munguva yeHondo Yenyika II nekuda kwekushandisa kwayo zvakanyanya mu radar. Bell Labs yakaratidza kushanda kweredhiyo yemicrowave neAN/TRC-69, nharembozha inokwanisa kufambisa mitsara yenhare sere kune imwe mutsara-we-kuona antenna. Izvi zvakabvumira mahofisi makuru emauto kuti akurumidze kudzoreredza kutaurirana kwezwi mushure mekutamiswa, pasina kumirira kuti tambo dzigadzirwe (uye pasina njodzi yekusiiwa pasina kutaurirana mushure mekucheka tambo, netsaona kana sechikamu chezviito zvemuvengi).
Yakaiswa microwave radio relay station AN/TRC-6
Pashure pehondo, Harold T. Friis, mukuru mukuru weBell Labs akaberekerwa kuDanish, akatungamirira kugadzirwa kwemicrowave radio relay communications. Mutsetse we350 km wekuedza kubva kuNew York kuenda kuBoston wakavhurwa mukupera kwa1945. Masaisai akasvetuka makiromita makumi mashanu kureba pakati peshongwe dzakavakirwa pasi - achishandisa musimboti wakafanana nefoni yemaziso, kana tambo yemwenje yemwenje. Kukwidza kuenda kuHudson Highlands, kuburikidza nezvikomo zveConnecticut, kusvika kuGomo reAshnebamskit kumadokero kweMassachusetts, uyezve kudzika kuBoston Harbor.
AT&T yanga isiri iyo yega kambani yaifarira microwave kutaurirana uye kuwana ruzivo rwemauto mukutonga masaini emicrowave. Philco, General Electric, Raytheon, uye vatepfenyuri veterevhizheni vakavaka kana kuronga hurongwa hwavo hwekuyedza mumakore ekupedzisira kwehondo. Philco akarova AT&T nekuvaka chinongedzo pakati peWashington nePhiladelphia muchirimo cha1945.
AT&T microwave radio relay station muCreston (Wyoming), chikamu cheiyo yekutanga transcontinental mutsara, 1951.
Kweanopfuura makore makumi matatu, AT&T yakadzivirira matambudziko neantitrust regulators uye mamwe maregi ehurumende. Zvizhinji zvacho zvakadzivirirwa nepfungwa yekuzvitonga kwechisikigo-pfungwa yekuti zvingave zvisingaite zvakanaka kugadzira akawanda anokwikwidza uye asina hukama masisitimu anomhanyisa waya munyika yose. Kukurukurirana neMicrowave ndiko kwakava kwekutanga kudonhera muchombo ichi, zvichibvumira makambani mazhinji kupa kufambiswa kwemashoko kureba pasina mari isingakodzeri.
Microwave transmission yakadzikisa zvakanyanya chipinganidzo chekupinda kune vangangokwikwidza. Sezvo tekinoroji ichingoda cheni yezviteshi zvakaparadzana makiromita makumi mashanu, kugadzira sisitimu inobatsira kwaisada kutenga zviuru zvemakiromita enzvimbo uye kuchengetedza zviuru zvemakiromita etambo. Uyezve, bandwidth yema microwaves yaive yakakura zvakanyanya kupfuura yetambo dzechinyakare dzakapetwa, nekuti imwe neimwe relay station yaigona kufambisa zviuru zvenhaurirano dzerunhare kana kutepfenyura kwakati wandei. Mukana wekukwikwidza weAT&T's iripo wireline kureba-daro system yaive ichiparara.
Nekudaro, iyo FCC yakadzivirira AT&T kubva pamhedzisiro yemakwikwi akadaro kwemakore mazhinji, ichipa sarudzo mbiri muma1940 nema1950s. Pakutanga, komisheni yakaramba kupa marezinesi, kunze kweaya enguva pfupi uye ekuyedza, kune vatsva vekutaurirana vasina kupa masevhisi avo kune vanhu vese (asi, semuenzaniso, vakapa kutaurirana mukati mebhizinesi rimwe chete). Naizvozvo, kupinda mumusika uyu kwakatyisidzira kurasikirwa nerezinesi. Makomisheni ainetsekana nedambudziko rimwechete rakanga ratambudza kutepfenyura makore makumi maviri apfuura uye zvakakonzera kusikwa kweFCC pachayo: cacophony yekuvhiringidza kubva kune akawanda akasiyana ma transmitters achisvibisa shoma redhiyo bandwidth.
Sarudzo yechipiri ine chekuita neinternet. Rangarira kuti Chibvumirano cheKingsbury chaida kuti AT&T ibvumidze makambani enhare emuno kuti abatanidze kunetiweki yayo yedaro refu. Izvi zvinodikanwa zvaishanda kune microwave radio relay kutaurirana here? FCC yakapa mutongo wekuti aingoshanda munzvimbo chete dzaive dzisina hurongwa hwekutaurirana neveruzhinji. Saka chero mukwikwidzi anovaka dunhu kana renzvimbo network akangoerekana agurwa kubva kune imwe nyika apo AT&T yafunga kupinda munharaunda yayo. Imwe nzira chete yekuchengetedza kutaurirana yaive yekugadzira network yenyika yedu pachedu, iyo yaityisa kuita pasi perezinesi rekuyedza.
Pakazosvika makore ekuma1950, pakanga paine mutambi mumwe chete mukuru mumusika wekufambisa nhare kureba: AT&T. Yayo microwave network yakatakura 6000 tambo dzenhare munzira, ichisvika kumakondinendi ese.
AT&T microwave radio network muna 1960
Nekudaro, chekutanga chakakosha chipingamupinyi kune AT&T yakazara uye yakazara kutonga pamusoro penharembozha network yakabva kune yakatosiyana nzira.
Chii chimwe chekuverenga
- Gerald W. Brock, Iyo Telecommunications Indasitiri (1981) Iyo indasitiri yekufonera: iyo dynamics yemusika chimiro / Gerald W. Brock
- John Brooks, Runhare: Mazana Ekutanga Makore (1976)
- MD Fagen, ed., Nhoroondo yeUinjiniya neSainzi muBell System: Transmission Technology (1985)
- Joshua D. Wolff, Western Union uye Kusikwa kweAmerican Corporate Order (2013)
Source: www.habr.com