Zvimwe zvinyorwa munhevedzano:
- Nhoroondo yerelay
- Nhoroondo yemakomputa emagetsi
- Nhoroondo ye transistor
- Internet nhoroondo
Iko crucible yehondo yakagadzira danho rekuuya kwe transistor. Kubva 1939 kusvika 1945, ruzivo rwehunyanzvi mumunda wesemiconductors rwakawedzera zvakanyanya. Uye pakanga paine chikonzero chimwe chakareruka cheizvi: radar. Iyo yakanyanya kukosha tekinoroji yehondo, mienzaniso inosanganisira: kuona kurwiswa kwemhepo, kutsvaga ngarava dzepasi pemvura, kutungamira husiku kurwiswa kwemhepo kune zvinangwa, kunanga maitiro ekudzivirira mhepo uye pfuti dzemugungwa. Mainjiniya vakatodzidza kurovera shongo diki radar kuita mabhomba ezvombo zvekuti anoputika paanenge achibhururuka pedyo nevavariro - . Zvisinei, bviro yeiyi teknolojia itsva ine simba yehondo yakanga iri mundima ine rugare zvikuru: kudzidza pamusoro pemhepo yakapoteredza pasi nokuda kwezvinangwa zvesayenzi.
Radar
Muna 1901, Kambani yeMarconi Wireless Telegraph yakabudirira kutumira meseji isina waya mhiri kweAtlantic, kubva kuCornwall kuenda kuNewfoundland. Izvi zvakaita kuti sayenzi yemazuva ano ivhiringike. Kana nhepfenyuro dzeredhiyo dzichifamba mumutsara wakatwasuka (sezvazvinofanira), kutapurirana kwakadaro kunofanirwa kunge kusingaite. Hapana mutsara wakananga wekuona pakati peEngland neCanada usingadariki Pasi, saka shoko raMarconi raifanira kubhururuka mudenga. Injiniya wekuAmerica Arthur Kennealy neBritish nyanzvi yefizikisi Oliver Heaviside panguva imwe chete uye vakazvimiririra vakaronga kuti tsananguro yechiitiko ichi inofanira kunge yakabatana neyakagadzika gasi ine ionized iri mumhepo yepamusoro, inokwanisa kuratidza masaisai eredhiyo kuNyika (Marconi pachake aitenda kuti masaisai eredhiyo). tevera kudzika kwepasi pePasi, zvisinei, mafizikisi haana kutsigira).
Pakazosvika makore ekuma1920, masayendisiti akanga agadzira michina mitsva yakaita kuti zvikwanise kutanga kuratidza kuvapo kweiyo ionosphere uye vozoongorora maitiro ayo. Vakashandisa vacuum chubhu kugadzira mapfupi-wave radio pulses, anotungamira antennas kuti atumire kumusoro mumhepo uye kurekodha maungira, uye kuratidza mhedzisiro. Iyo yakareba iyo echo kudzoka kunonoka, iyo iri kure kure iyo ionosphere inofanira kunge iri. Iyi tekinoroji yainzi atmospheric kurira, uye yakapa hwaro hwehunyanzvi hwekugadzira radar (izwi rekuti "radar", kubva kuRAdio Detection And Ranging, haina kuoneka kusvika kuma1940 muUS Navy).
Yakanga ingori nyaya yenguva kuti vanhu vane ruzivo rwakakwana, zviwanikwa uye kukurudzira vaona mukana wekushandiswa kwepasi kwemidziyo yakadaro (saka nhoroondo yeradar inopesana nenhoroondo yeteresikopu, iyo yakatanga kuitirwa kushandiswa kwepasi) . Uye mukana wekunzwisisa kwakadai wakawedzera sezvo redhiyo yakapararira zvakanyanya pasirese, uye vanhu vazhinji vakaona kupindira kwaiuya kubva kungarava dziri pedyo, ndege nezvimwe zvinhu zvikuru. Ruzivo rwemamiriro ekunze ekuridza matekinoroji akapararira panguva yechipiri (1932-1933), apo masayendisiti akaunganidza mepu yeionosphere kubva kune zvakasiyana-siyana zveArctic zviteshi. Nguva pfupi yapfuura, zvikwata zveBritain, USA, Germany, Italy, USSR nedzimwe nyika dzakagadzira hurongwa hwavo hweradar.
aine radar yake ya1935
Ipapo hondo yakaitika, uye kukosha kwema<em>radar kunyika—nezviwanikwa zvokuavandudza—kwakawedzera zvikuru. MuUnited States, zviwanikwa izvi zvakaungana zvakatenderedza sangano idzva rakavambwa muna 1940 kuMIT, inozivikanwa se (yakapihwa zita rakanangana nekutsausa vasori vekune dzimwe nyika uye kugadzira fungidziro yekuti radioactivity yanga ichidzidzwa murabhoritari - panguva iyoyo vanhu vashoma vaitenda mumabhomba eatomu). Iyo Rad Lab purojekiti, iyo isina kuve nemukurumbira seManhattan Project, zvakadaro yakatsvaga akaenzana uye ane tarenda mafizikisi kubva kuUnited States yese kupinda mumapoka ayo. Vashanu vevashandi vekutanga murabhoritari (kusanganisira и ) akazogamuchira Nobel Prize. Pakazopera hondo, vanenge mazana mashanu vanachiremba vesainzi, masayendisiti uye mainjiniya vakashanda murabhoritari, uye vanhu zviuru zvina vakashanda. Hafu yemiriyoni yemadhora-inoenzaniswa nebhajeti yese yeENIAC-yakashandiswa paRadiation Laboratory Series chete, makumi maviri nemanomwe-vhoriyamu rekodhi yeruzivo rwese rwakawanikwa kubva murabhoritari munguva yehondo (kunyangwe mari yehurumende yeUS pahunyanzvi hweradar yakanga isina kuganhurirwa. kubhajeti reRad Lab; munguva yehondo hurumende yakatenga mabhiriyoni matatu emadhora emadhora).
MIT Kuvaka makumi maviri, uko Rad Lab yaive
Imwe yenzvimbo huru dzeRad Lab dzekutsvaga yaive yakakwirira-frequency radar. Ma radar ekutanga aishandisa wavelengths kuyerwa mumamita. Asi matanda epamusoro-akawanda ane wavelengths akayerwa mumasendimita — microwaves — anotenderwa mamwe compact antennas uye aive akapararira zvishoma panzendo refu, achivimbisa mabhenefiti makuru muhuwandu uye nemazvo. Maradar emicrowave aigona kukwana mumhino yendege uye kuona zvinhu zvakakura seperiscope yepasi pegungwa.
Wekutanga kugadzirisa dambudziko iri raive boka reBritish physicists kubva kuYunivhesiti yeBirmingham. Muna 1940 vakagadzira "", iyo yakashanda se "muridzo" wemagetsi, ichishandura kutenderera kwemagetsi kuita danda rine simba uye rakarongedzerwa nema microwaves. Iyi microwave transmitter yaive nesimba zvakapetwa kachuru kupfuura mukwikwidzi wayo wepedyo; yakagadzira nzira yezvinoita high-frequency radar transmitters. Zvisinei, aida shamwari, inogamuchira inokwanisa kuona ma frequency epamusoro. Uye panguva ino tinodzokera kunhoroondo ye semiconductors.
Magnetron cross-section
Kuuya kwechipiri kwendebvu yekatsi
Zvakazoitika kuti vacuum machubhu aive asina kutombokodzera kugamuchira microwave radar masaini. Iyo gap pakati peiyo inopisa cathode uye anode inotonhora inogadzira capacitance, zvichiita kuti dunhu rirambe kushanda pamhepo huru. Iyo yakanakisa tekinoroji inowanikwa kune yakakwira-frequency radar yaive yechinyakare ""- chidimbu chidiki chewaya chakatsikirirwa pane semiconductor crystal. Vanhu vakati wandei vakawana izvi vakazvimiririra, asi chinhu chiri padyo nenyaya yedu ndozvakaitika muNew Jersey.
Muna 1938, Bell Labs yakaita chibvumirano neNavy kuti igadzire radar yekudzivirira moto mumakiromita makumi mana-yakanyanya kupfupika, uye naizvozvo yakakwirira muhuwandu, kupfuura maradhi aivepo munguva yepre-resonant magnetron era. Basa guru rekutsvakurudza rakaenda kune chikamu chemarabhoritari muHolmdel, kumaodzanyemba kweStaten Island. Hazvina kutora nguva yakareba kuti vaongorori vaone kuti vangadei kune yakakwira-frequency inogamuchira, uye munguva pfupi mainjiniya George Southworth akange achitsvaga zvitoro zveredhiyo muManhattan kune ekare katsi-whisker detectors. Sezvingatarisirwa, yakashanda zviri nani kupfuura detector yemwenje, asi yakanga isina kugadzikana. Saka Southworth yakatsvaga electrochemist ainzi Russell Ohl ndokumukumbira kuti aedze kuvandudza kufanana kwemhinduro yeimwe-point crystal detector.
Ol aive munhu akasarudzika, aiona budiriro yetekinoroji kuve magumo ake, uye aitaura nezve nguva nenguva kuona nezviratidzo zveramangwana. Somuenzaniso, akataura kuti kare muna 1939 aiziva nezveramangwana rekugadzirwa kwesilicon amplifier, asi mugumo iwoyo wakarongerwa kuti mumwe munhu augadzire. Mushure mekudzidza akawanda esarudzo, akagara pasilicon sechinhu chakanakisa kune vanogamuchira Southworth. Dambudziko raive rekugona kudzora zviri mukati meiyo zvinhu kudzora maitiro ayo emagetsi. Panguva iyoyo, maindasitiri e-silicon ingots aive akapararira; aishandiswa mumagetsi esimbi, asi mukugadzirwa kwakadaro hakuna ainetseka, toti, zviri mukati 1% phosphorus musilicon. Achitsvaka rubatsiro rwevaviri vemetallurgists, Ol akatanga kutsvaka mabheji akawanda akachena kupfuura akanga ambobvira.
Sezvavaishanda, vakaona kuti mamwe makristasi avo akagadzirisa ikozvino mune imwe nzira, asi vamwe vakagadzirisa ikozvino mune imwe. Vakadzidaidza kuti "n-type" uye "p-type". Kumwe kuongorora kwakaratidza kuti mhando dzakasiyana dzetsvina dzaive dzakakonzeresa mhando idzi. Silicon iri muchikamu chechina chetafura ye periodic, zvichireva kuti ine maerekitironi mana mugoko rayo rekunze. Mune isina chinhu yesilicon yakachena, imwe neimwe yeaya maerekitironi yaizosangana nemuvakidzani. Kusachena kubva pachikamu chechitatu, toti boron, ine imwe shoma erekitironi, yakagadzira "gomba," imwe nzvimbo yekufamba kwezvino mukristaro. Mhedzisiro yacho yaive p-type semiconductor (ine yakawandisa yemachaji akanaka). Zvinhu kubva pachikamu chechishanu, senge phosphorus, zvakapa mamwe maerekitironi emahara kutakura ikozvino, uye n-mhando semiconductor yakawanikwa.
Crystal chimiro chesilicon
Tsvagiridzo yese iyi yainakidza kwazvo, asi pakazosvika 1940 Southworth neOhl vaive vasisave padyo nekugadzira dhizaini inoshanda yeradhi yepamusoro-frequency. Panguva imwecheteyo, hurumende yeBritain yakada mhedzisiro yekukurumidza nekuda kwekutyisidzira kwaiuya kubva kuLuftwaffe, iyo yakanga yatogadzira yakagadzirira-kugadzira-kugadzira ma microwave detectors achishanda tandem nemagnetron transmitters.
Nekudaro, kuenzana kwekufambira mberi kwetekinoroji kuchakurumidza kunanga kudivi rekumadokero kweAtlantic. Churchill akasarudza kuzivisa zvese zvakavanzika zvehunyanzvi zveBritain kune veAmerica vasati vapinda muhondo (sezvo aifunga kuti izvi zvaizoitika zvakadaro). Akatenda kuti zvaive zvakakodzera njodzi yekubuda kweruzivo, kubva ipapo masimba ese emaindasitiri eUnited States aizokandwa mukugadzirisa matambudziko akadai sezvombo zveatomu uye radar. British Science and Technology Mission (inozivikanwa zviri nani se ) akasvika muWashington munaGunyana 1940 ndokuunza mukwende wake chipo chiri muchimiro chezvishamiso zvetekinoroji.
Kuwanikwa kwesimba risingadaviriki remagineti resonant uye kushanda kweBritish crystal detectors mukugamuchira chiratidzo chayo kwakavandudza tsvakiridzo yeAmerica mumasemiconductors sehwaro hwepamusoro-frequency radar. Pakanga pane basa rakawanda raifanira kuitwa, kunyanya mune zvesainzi. Kuzadzisa zvaidiwa, makristasi esemiconductor “aifanira kugadzirwa mumamiriyoni, kupfuura zvaibvira kare. Zvaive zvakakodzera kuvandudza kugadzirisa, kuderedza kuvhunduka uye kupisa-mukati, uye kuderedza mutsauko pakati pemabhechi akasiyana emakristasi. "
Silicon Point Contact Rectifier
Iyo Rad Lab yakavhura madhipatimendi matsva ekutsvagisa kuti adzidze zvivakwa zve semiconductor makristasi uye kuti angagadziriswe sei kuti awedzere akakosha anogamuchira zvivakwa. Zvishandiso zvakanyanya kuvimbisa zvaive silicon uye germanium, saka iyo Rad Lab yakasarudza kuitamba yakachengeteka uye yakatanga zvirongwa zvakafanana kuti zvidzidze zvese zviri zviviri: silicon kuYunivhesiti yePennsylvania uye germanium kuPurdue. Maindasitiri makuru akadai seBell, Westinghouse, Du Pont, uye Sylvania vakatanga yavo semiconductor zvirongwa zvekutsvagisa uye vakatanga kugadzira zvivakwa zvitsva zvekugadzira zvekristaro detectors.
Kuburikidza nekuedza pamwe chete, kuchena kwesilicon uye germanium makristasi akasimudzwa kubva pa99% pakutanga kusvika 99,999% - kureva, kune imwechete tsvina pamaatomu 100. Muchiitiko ichi, boka revasayendisiti uye mainjiniya vakanyatsoziva nezve abstract properties ye germanium nesilicon uye vakashandisa matekinoroji ekuvadzora: kunyunguduka, kukura makristasi, kuwedzera kusvibiswa kunodiwa (senge boron, iyo yakawedzera conductivity).
Zvino hondo yakapera. Kudiwa kwe radar kwakanyangarika, asi ruzivo uye hunyanzvi hwakawanikwa munguva yehondo hwakaramba huripo, uye kurota kweiyo solid-state amplifier haina kukanganwa. Zvino nhangemutange yaive yekugadzira amplifier yakadaro. Uye zvikwata zvinenge zvitatu zvakakwanisa kuhwina mubairo uyu.
West Lafayette
Rokutanga raive boka raibva kuPurdue University rinotungamirwa nenyanzvi yefizikisi yakaberekerwa kuAustria inonzi Carl Lark-Horowitz. Iye ari ega akaunza dhipatimendi reyunivhesiti refizikisi kubva mukusazivikanwa kuburikidza netarenda rake uye pesvedzero uye akafurira danho reRad Lab rekupa rabhoritari yake germanium research.
Carl Lark-Horowitz muna 1947, pakati, akabata pombi
Pakazosvika makore ekuma1940, silicon yaionekwa seyakanakisa zvinhu zve radar rectifiers, asi zvinhu zviri pazasi payo paperiodic tafura zvakare yairatidzika kunge yakakodzera kuenderera mberi nekudzidza. Germanium yaive nemukana unoshanda nekuda kwekunyungudika kwayo kwakadzikira, izvo zvakaita kuti zvive nyore kushanda nazvo: anenge 940 madhigirii, zvichienzaniswa ne1400 madhigirii esilicon (yakafanana nesimbi). Nekuda kwekunyungudika kwepamusoro, zvaive zvakanyanya kuoma kugadzira blank isingabvire musilicon yakanyungudutswa, ichiisvibisa.
Nokudaro, Lark-Horowitz nevamwe vake vakapedza hondo yose vachidzidza kemikari, magetsi uye muviri wegermanium. Chipingamupinyi chinonyanya kukosha chaiva "reverse voltage": germanium rectifiers, pamhepo yakaderera zvikuru, yakamira kugadzirisa ikozvino uye yakabvumira kuti iyerere ichienda kune rimwe divi. Iko reverse ikozvino pulse yakapisa zvikamu zvakasara zve radar. Mumwe wevadzidzi vaLark-Horowitz vakapedza kudzidza, Seymour Benzer, akadzidza dambudziko iri kwerinopfuura gore, uye pakupedzisira akagadzira tin-based additive iyo yakamisa reverse pulses pamagetsi anosvika mazana emavolts. Nguva pfupi yapfuura, Western Electric, Bell Labs 'yekugadzira chikamu, yakatanga kuburitsa Benzer rectifiers kuti ishandiswe muchiuto.
Chidzidzo chegermanium paPurdue chakaenderera mberi mushure mehondo. Muna June 1947, Benzer, atova purofesa, akashuma kusanzwisisika kusina kujairika: mune zvimwe zviedzo, kubhururuka kwepamusoro-soro kwakaonekwa mumakristani egermanium. Uye waaishanda naye Ralph Bray akaenderera mberi nekudzidza "volumetric resistance" pane chirongwa chakatangwa munguva yehondo. Kupokana kwevhoriyamu kwakatsanangura mafambiro emagetsi mugermanium crystal panzvimbo yekusangana yeanogadzirisa. Bray akawana kuti high voltage pulses yakaderedza zvakanyanya n-type germanium kuramba kune aya mafungu. Asina kuziva, akapupurira zvakanzi. "vashoma" vanochaja vatakuri. Mune n-mhando semiconductors, iyo yakawandisa yakaipa charge inoshanda seyakawanda inotakura mutakuri, asi yakanaka "maburi" anogona zvakare kutakura azvino, uye mune iyi kesi, iyo yakakwira-voltage pulses yakagadzira maburi muchimiro chegermanium, zvichiita kuti vatakuri vechaji vashoma vaoneke. .
Bray naBenzer vakauya zvinokatyamadza padyo negermanium amplifier vasingazvizive. Benzer akabata Walter Brattain, sainzi weBell Labs, pamusangano muna Ndira 1948 kuti vakurukure volumetric dhiza naye. Akakarakadza kuti Brattain aise imwe poindi yokubatanidza pedyo neyokutanga yaigona kuitisa yazvino, uye ipapo vangagona kunzwisisa zvakanga zviri kuitika pasi pevhu. Brattain akabvumirana nezano iri chinyararire ndokuenda. Sezvatichaona, ainyatsoziva kuti kuedza kwakadaro kwaizoratidza chii.
Oney-sous-Bois
Boka rePurdue raive nezvose tekinoroji uye hwaro hwetioreti yekuita kusvetukira kune transistor. Asi vaigona kungozviwana netsaona. Vaifarira zvinhu zvenyama zvezvinhu, uye kwete mukutsvaga rudzi rutsva rwechigadzirwa. Mamiriro akasiyana kwazvo akapararira muAunes-sous-Bois (France), uko vaviri vaimbove vaongorori veradar kubva kuGermany, Heinrich Welker naHerbert Mathare, vakatungamira boka raive nechinangwa chekugadzira zvigadzirwa zvemaindasitiri semiconductor.
Welker akatanga akadzidza ndokuzodzidzisa fizikisi paYunivhesiti yeMunich, inotungamirirwa nemuongorori ane mukurumbira Arnold Sommerfeld. Kubva 1940, akasiya nzira yedzidziso uye akatanga kushanda pane radar yeLuftwaffe. Mathare (weBelgian mavambo) akakurira muAachen, kwaakadzidza fizikisi. Akabatana nedhipatimendi rekutsvagisa reGerman redhiyo hofori Telefunken muna 1939. Munguva yehondo, akatamisa basa rake kubva kuBerlin kumabvazuva kuenda kuabbey muSilesia kuti adzivise kurwiswa nemhepo dzeAllied, ndokuzodzokera kumadokero kuti adzivise kuenderera mberi kweRed Army, ndokuzowira mumaoko euto reAmerica.
Kufanana nevakwikwidzi vavo muAnti-Hitler Coalition, maGerman akaziva nekutanga 1940s kuti makirisitoni aigamuchira radar, uye kuti silicon negermanium ndizvo zvainyanya kuvimbisa zvinhu zvekusikwa kwavo. Mathare naWelker vakaedza panguva yehondo kuvandudza kushandiswa kwakanaka kwezvinhu izvi mukugadzirisa. Mushure mehondo, vese vakabvunzurudzwa nguva nenguva nezvebasa ravo rechiuto, uye pakupedzisira vakagamuchira kukokwa kubva kune mukuru wehungwaru weFrance kuParis muna 1946.
Compagnie des Freins & Signaux ("kambani yemabhureki nezviratidzo"), chikamu cheFrance cheWestinghouse, vakagamuchira kondirakiti kubva kuhurumende yerunhare yeFrance kugadzira vagadzirisi vehurumende uye vakatsvaga masayendisiti echiGerman kuti avabatsire. Mubatanidzwa wakadaro wevavengi venguva pfupi yapfuura ungaratidzika kunge unoshamisa, asi gadziriro iyi yakazova yakanaka kune ese ari maviri. VaFrance, vakakundwa muna 1940, vakanga vasingakwanisi kuwana ruzivo mundima yesemiconductors, uye vaida zvikuru unyanzvi hwemaGermany. MaGerman aisakwanisa kuita budiriro mune chero minda yepamusoro-soro munyika yakagarwa uye yasakadzwa nehondo, saka vakasvetukira pamukana wekuenderera mberi vachishanda.
Welker naMathare vakamisa dzimbahwe muimba ine nhurikidzwa mbiri mumusha weParis weAunes-sous-Bois, uye nerubatsiro rwechikwata chenyanzvi, vakabudirira kutangisa germanium rectifiers pakupera kwa1947. Ipapo vakatendeukira kune zvakakomba zvikuru. mibairo: Welker akadzokera mukufarira kwake ma superconductors, uye Mathare kune amplifiers.
Herbert Mathare muna 1950
Munguva yehondo, Mathare akaedza ne-two-point contact rectifiers-“duodeodes”—mukuedza kuderedza ruzha rwedunhu. Akatangazve ongororo yake uye nenguva isipi akazoona kuti ndebvu yechipiri yekatsi, iri 1/100 miriyoni yemamita kubva kune yekutanga, dzimwe nguva yaigona kuenzanisa yazvino inoyerera kuburikidza nendebvu yekutanga. Akagadzira yakasimba state amplifier, kunyangwe isingaite. Kuti awane kushanda kwakavimbika, akatendeukira kuna Welker, uyo akanga awana ruzivo rwakakura achishanda negermanium crystals munguva yehondo. Chikwata chaWelker chakawedzera kukura, masampuli akachena emakristani egermanium, uye sekuvandudzwa kwemhando yezvinhu, Mathare point contact amplifiers yakave yakavimbika muna Chikumi 1948.
X-ray mufananidzo we "transistron" yakavakirwa padunhu reMathare, iro rine mapoinzi maviri ekusangana negermanium.
Mathare aitove neanoretical modhi yezvaiitika: aitenda kuti kechipiri kuonana kwakagadzira maburi mugermanium, ichimhanyisa nzira yezvino kuburikidza nekutanga kusangana, ichipa vashoma vanochaja vatakuri. Welker haana kubvumirana naye, uye akatenda kuti zviri kuitika zvinoenderana neimwe mhando yemumunda. Nekudaro, vasati vagadzira mudziyo kana dzidziso, vakaziva kuti boka revanhu vekuAmerica rakanga ragadzira pfungwa imwechete - germanium amplifier ine mapoinzi maviri ekubatika - mwedzi mitanhatu yapfuura.
Murray Hill
Pakupera kwehondo, Mervyn Kelly akagadzirisa boka rekutsvaga reBell Labs 'semiconductor rinotungamirwa naBill Shockley. Iyo purojekiti yakakura, ikawana imwe mari, uye ikasimuka kubva pachivako chayo chekare muManhattan ichienda kune imwe kampasi iri kuwedzera muMurray Hill, New Jersey.
Murray Hill Campus, ca. 1960
Kuti azvizive zvakare nemasemiconductors epamusoro (mushure menguva yake mukutsvaga kwekushanda munguva yehondo), Shockley akashanyira rabhoritari yaRussell Ohl's Holmdel muchirimo cha1945. Ohl akapedza makore ehondo achishanda pasilicon uye haana kutambisa nguva. Akaratidza Shockley crude amplifier yezvivakwa zvake, iyo yaakadana kuti "desister." Akatora silicon point contact rectifier ndokutumira ikozvino kubva mubhatiri kuburikidza nayo. Sezviri pachena, kupisa kubva kubhatiri kwakaderedza kupokana nepakati penzvimbo yekusangana, uye yakashandura rectifier kuita amplifier inokwanisa kuendesa masaini eredhiyo anouya kudunhu rine simba rekugonesa mutauri.
Mhedzisiro yacho yaive yakashata uye isingavimbike, isina kukodzera kutengeserana. Nekudaro, zvaive zvakakwana kusimbisa maonero aShockley kuti zvaigoneka kugadzira semiconductor amplifier, uye kuti izvi zvinofanirwa kuve zvakakosha pakutsvagisa mumunda weiyo solid-state electronics. Waivewo musangano uyu nechikwata chaOla wakatendesa Shockley kuti silicon negermanium zvinofanirwa kutanga zvadzidzwa. Vakaratidza zvinhu zvinoyevedza zvemagetsi, uye vamwe vaOhl's metallurgists Jack Skaff naHenry Theurer vakanga vawana budiriro inoshamisa mukukura, kuchenesa, uye doping makristasi aya panguva yehondo, kupfuura matekinoroji ese anowanikwa kune mamwe semiconductor zvinhu. Boka raShockley raisazotambisa imwe nguva pane pre-war copper oxide amplifiers.
Nerubatsiro rwaKelly, Shockley akatanga kuunganidza timu itsva. Vatambi vakakosha vaisanganisira Walter Brattain, uyo akabatsira Shockley nekuedza kwake kwekutanga kune yakasimba-state amplifier (muna 1940), naJohn Bardeen, wechidiki wefizikisi uye mushandi mutsva weBell Labs. Bardeen angangodaro aive neruzivo rwakadzama rwefizikisi yakasimba yenyika yechero nhengo yechikwata — dissertation yake yakatsanangura huwandu hwesimba remaerekitironi muchimiro chesodium metal. Aivewo mumwe protégé waJohn Hasbrouck Van Vleck, saAtanasov naBrattain.
Uye saAtanasov, Dissertations aBardeen naShockley aida masvomhu akaoma zvikuru. Vaifanira kushandisa quantum mechanical theory of semiconductors, yakatsanangurwa naAlan Wilson, kuverenga simba rekugadzirisa zvinhu vachishandisa Monroe's desktop calculator. Nekubatsira kugadzira transistor, ivo, chokwadi, vakabatsira mukuchengetedza vadzidzi vanozopedza kudzidza kubva kubasa rakadaro.
Nzira yekutanga yaShockley kune yakasimba-state amplifier yaivimba nezvakazonzi "". Akamisa ndiro yesimbi pamusoro pe n-type semiconductor (nekuwedzera kwemhosva dzisina kunaka). Kuisa chaji yakanaka pandiro yakadhonzera maerekitironi akawandisa pamusoro pekristaro, zvichigadzira rwizi rwechaji isina kunaka iyo magetsi aigona kuyerera zviri nyore. Chiratidzo chakasimudzirwa (chinomiririrwa necharge level pawafer) nenzira iyi inogona kuenzanisa iyo huru dunhu (ichipfuura nepamusoro peiyo semiconductor). Kushanda kwechirongwa ichi kwakakurudzirwa kwaari neruzivo rwake rwedzidziso yefizikisi. Asi, pasinei nekuedza kwakawanda uye kuedza, chirongwa chacho hachina kumboshanda.
Pakazosvika Kurume 1946, Bardeen akange agadzira dzidziso yakagadziridzwa yakatsanangura chikonzero cheizvi: pamusoro peiyo semiconductor pachiyero che quantum inoita zvakasiyana nemukati wayo. Mhosva dzisina kunaka dzinokweverwa kumusoro dzinovharirwa mu "surface states" uye dzinovharira munda wemagetsi kubva pakupinda mundiro muzvinhu. Vamwe vese vechikwata vakawana ongororo iyi ichimanikidza, uye vakatanga chirongwa chitsva chekutsvagisa nenzira nhatu:
- Ratidza kuvapo kwezvimiro zvepasi.
- Dzidza zvimiro zvavo.
- Ona kuti ungavakunda sei uye uite kuti zvishande .
Pashure pegore nehafu yokunzvera nokuedza, pana November 17, 1947, Brattain akaita budiriro. Akaona kuti kana akaisa mvura yakazadzwa neioni, yakaita semvura, pakati pechimedu nesemiconductor, munda wemagetsi kubva pawafer waizosundira maion akananga kune semiconductor, kwaaizobvisa mhosva dzakabatwa munzvimbo dzepamusoro. Iye zvino aigona kudzora maitiro emagetsi echidimbu chesilicon nekushandura chaji pawafer. Kubudirira uku kwakapa Bardeen pfungwa yemaitiro matsva ekugadzira amplifier: kutenderedza nzvimbo yekubatanidza yeinogadzirisa nemvura ye electrolyte, uyezve shandisa waya yechipiri mumvura kudzora mamiriro epamusoro, uye nekudaro kudzora conductivity level yeiyo huru. contact. Saka Bardeen naBrattain vakasvika patambo.
Pfungwa yaBardeen yakashanda, asi kukwidziridzwa kwacho kwaive kusina kusimba uye kwaishandiswa pamhepo yakaderera isingasvikike panzeve yemunhu - saka zvaisabatsira senhare kana redhiyo amplifier. Bardeen akakurudzira kuchinjira kune reverse-voltage-resistant germanium inogadzirwa kuPurdue, achitenda kuti machaji mashoma aizounganidza pamusoro payo. Pakarepo vakagamuchira wedzero ine simba, asi mukupesana nekwaitarisirwa. Vakawana hushoma hwekutakura maitiro - panzvimbo yemaerekitironi anotarisirwa, ikozvino inoyerera kuburikidza negermanium yakasimudzirwa nemakomba aibva ku electrolyte. Ikozvino pawaya mu electrolyte yakagadzira p-type layer (nzvimbo yekuwedzera yakanaka chaji) pamusoro pen-mhando germanium.
Ongororo dzakazotevera dzakaratidza kuti hapana electrolyte yaidiwa zvachose: nekungoisa mapoinzi maviri padyo padyo negermanium, zvaigoneka kuenzanisa ikozvino kubva kune imwe yadzo kuenda kune yazvino pane imwe. Kuti aswedere pedyo nepaaigona napo, Brattain akaputira chimedu chefoiri yegoridhe kumativi matatu epurasitiki achibva anyatsocheka foiri yacho kumagumo. Zvadaro, achishandisa chitubu, akatsikirira katatu kurwisana negermanium, semugumisiro wekuti micheto miviri yekucheka yakabata pamusoro payo kure ne 0,05 mm. Izvi zvakapa Bell Labs 'transistor prototype kutaridzika kwayo kwakasiyana:
Brattain naBardeen transistor prototype
Kufanana neMathare uye Welker's mudziyo, yaive, in musimboti, yakasarudzika "katsi whisker", iine mapoinzi maviri ekusangana pane imwe chete. Musi waZvita 16, yakaburitsa kuwedzera kukuru kwesimba uye voltage, uye frequency ye1000 Hz mumhando inonzwika. Kwapera vhiki, mushure mekuvandudzwa kudiki, Bardeen naBrattain vakawedzera voltage neka100 uye simba neka40, uye vakaratidza kuvatungamiriri veBell kuti mudziyo wavo waigona kuburitsa kutaura kunonzwika. John Pierce, imwe nhengo yechikwata chakasimba chekusimudzira nyika, akagadzira izwi rekuti "transistor" mushure mezita reBell's copper oxide rectifier, varistor.
Kwemwedzi mitanhatu yakatevera, rabhoritari yakachengeta chisikwa chitsva chakavanzika. Vatungamiri vaida kuve nechokwadi chekuti vane musoro wekutanga kutengesa transistor pasati pave nemumwe munhu aisa maoko pairi. Musangano wevatori venhau wakarongwa kuti uitwe musi wa30 Chikumi, 1948, munguva chaiyo yekuparadza zviroto zvaWelker naMathare zvekusafa. Zvichakadaro, boka rekutsvagisa semiconductor rakadonha chinyararire. Mushure mekunzwa nezve zvakaitwa naBardeen naBrattain, mukuru wavo, Bill Shockley, akatanga kushanda kuti atore mbiri yacho. Uye kunyangwe aingotamba basa rekutarisa, Shockley akagashira zvakaenzana, kana zvisingaite, kushambadzwa mumharidzo yeruzhinji - sekuonekwa mumufananidzo wake wakaburitswa mukati mechiitiko ichi, padyo nebhenji rerabhu:
1948 publicity photo - Bardeen, Shockley naBrattain
Nekudaro, mukurumbira wakaenzana hauna kukwana kuna Shockley. Uye chero munhu ari kunze kweBell Labs asati aziva nezve transistor, aive akabatikana kuigadzira zvakare yake. Uye iyi yaingova yekutanga yezvizhinji zvekuvandudzwa kwakadaro.
Chii chimwe chekuverenga
- Robert Buderi, The Invention Yakachinja Nyika (1996)
- Michael Riordan, "Maitiro EEurope Yakapotsa Transistor," IEEE Spectrum (Nov. 1, 2005)
- Michael Riordan naLillian Hoddeson, Crystal Fire (1997)
- Armand Van Dormael, "The 'French' Transistor," (1994)
Source: www.habr.com