{"id":55048,"date":"2020-01-11T00:00:00","date_gmt":"2020-01-10T21:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/blog\/blog_prohoster\/istoriya-interneta-arpanet-paket"},"modified":"2020-02-18T14:03:07","modified_gmt":"2020-02-18T11:03:07","slug":"istoriya-interneta-arpanet-paket","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-interneta-arpanet-paket","title":{"rendered":"Historia e internetit: ARPANET \u2014 paket\u00eb","gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"text"}]},"content":{"rendered":"<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e internetit: ARPANET \u2014 paket\u00eb\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/9bc4fc8c536e15d3e2d4d90e4454cc66.png\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Skema e rrjetit kompjuterik ARPA p\u00ebr qershor 1967. Rrethi bosh \u2013 kompjuter me ndarje aksesore, rrethi me vij\u00eb \u2013 terminal p\u00ebr nj\u00eb p\u00ebrdorues.<\/i><\/p>\n<p><b class=\"spoiler_title\">Artikuj t\u00eb tjer\u00eb t\u00eb ciklit:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Historia e releve\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404373\/\">Metoda e \"shkarkimit t\u00eb shpejt\u00eb t\u00eb informacionit\", ose Lindja e releve<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404475\/\">Telegrafi i gjat\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/370545\/\">Galvanizmi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404657\/\">Sip\u00ebrmarr\u00ebsit<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404723\/\">Ja, m\u00eb n\u00eb fund, dhe releja<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404889\/\">Telegrafi i fol\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405025\/\">Thjesht p\u00ebr t'u lidhur<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/company\/mailru\/blog\/370471\/\">Nj\u00eb brez i harruar i kompjuter\u00ebve me rele<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">Epoka elektronike<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e kompjuter\u00ebve elektronik\u00eb\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408611\/\">Prologu<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/374043\/\">Kolosi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408597\/\">ENIAC <\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Revolucioni elektronik<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e tranzistorit\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">Duke u shmangur n\u00eb err\u00ebsir\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">Nga furra e luft\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\"><\/a><\/noindex><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/449760\/\">Riinovimi i shum\u00ebfisht\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e Internetit\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450168\/\">RRjet i mb\u00ebshtetjes<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450522\/\">Shk\u00ebputja, pjesa 1<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/451606\/\">Shk\u00ebputja, pjesa 2<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/452030\/\">Duke hapur interaktivitetin<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/453154\/\">Zgjerimi i interaktivitetit<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">ARPANET - lindja<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">ARPANET - paketi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/461177\/\">ARPANET - n\u00ebnrrjeti<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/472582\/\">Kompjuter si nj\u00eb pajisje komunikimi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/483366\/\">Historia e Internetit: nd\u00ebrveprimi i rrjeteve<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\nN\u00eb fund t\u00eb vitit 1966. <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%80,_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82_(%D1%83%D1%87%D1%91%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9)\">Robert Taylor<\/a><\/noindex> Me ARPA ka financuat projektin p\u00ebr lidhjen e shum\u00eb kompjuter\u00ebve n\u00eb nj\u00eb sistem t\u00eb vet\u00ebm, t\u00eb frym\u00ebzuar nga ideja \"<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">rrjetit nd\u00ebrgalaktik<\/a><\/noindex>&#187; <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%84_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%82\">Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/p>\n<p>P\u00ebrgjegj\u00ebsin\u00eb p\u00ebr realizimin e projektit Taylor ia kaloi n\u00eb duar t\u00eb afta <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82%D1%81,_%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81\">Larry Roberts<\/a><\/noindex>. Gjat\u00eb vitit pasues, Roberts mori disa vendime kritike, t\u00eb cilat m\u00eb von\u00eb do t\u00eb reflektohen n\u00eb arkitektur\u00ebn teknike dhe kultur\u00ebn e ARPANET dhe pasardh\u00ebsve t\u00eb saj, n\u00eb disa raste \u2013 madje edhe p\u00ebr disa dekada. Vendimi i par\u00eb m\u00eb i r\u00ebnd\u00ebsish\u00ebm, megjith\u00ebse jo n\u00eb kronologji, ishte p\u00ebrcaktimi i mekanizmit t\u00eb rutimit t\u00eb mesazheve nga nj\u00eb kompjuter te tjetri.<br \/>\n<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" name=\"habracut\"><\/a><\/noindex><\/p>\n<h2>Problemi<\/h2>\n<p>\nN\u00ebse kompjuteri A d\u00ebshiron t\u00eb d\u00ebrgoj\u00eb nj\u00eb mesazh te kompjuteri B, si mund t'i gjej\u00eb k\u00ebtij mesazhi rrug\u00ebn nga nj\u00ebri tek tjetri? N\u00eb teori, mund t\u00eb lejojm\u00eb \u00e7do nyje t\u00eb rrjetit t\u00eb komunikoj\u00eb me t\u00eb gjitha nyjet e tjera, duke lidhur fizikisht \u00e7do nyje me \u00e7do nyje tjet\u00ebr me tela. P\u00ebr t'u lidhur me B, kompjuteri A thjesht do t\u00eb d\u00ebrgoj\u00eb mesazhin p\u00ebrmes kabllit dal\u00ebs q\u00eb e lidh me B. Nj\u00eb rrjet i till\u00eb quhet i plot\u00eb. Megjithat\u00eb, p\u00ebr \u00e7do madh\u00ebsi t\u00eb konsiderueshme t\u00eb rrjetit, ky qasje b\u00ebhet shpejt e paprakti, pasi numri i lidhjeve rritet si katror i numrit t\u00eb nyjeve (n\u00ebse e sakt\u00ebsojm\u00eb, si (n2 \u2014 n) \/ 2).<\/p>\n<p>Prandaj, nevojitet nj\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb p\u00ebr nd\u00ebrtimin e nj\u00eb rruge mesazhi, e cila, kur mesazhi arrin n\u00eb nj\u00eb nyje nd\u00ebrmjet\u00ebse, ta d\u00ebrgonte at\u00eb m\u00eb tej drejt q\u00ebllimit. N\u00eb fillim t\u00eb viteve 1960, ishin t\u00eb njohura dy qasje bazike p\u00ebr zgjidhjen e k\u00ebsaj sfide. E para \u2013 metoda e kalimit t\u00eb mesazheve p\u00ebrmes \"ruajtjes dhe transmetimit\". Kjo qasje u p\u00ebrdor nga sistemi i telegrameve. Kur mesazhi arrinte n\u00eb nj\u00eb nyje nd\u00ebrmjet\u00ebse, ai ruhej p\u00ebrkoh\u00ebsisht atje (zakonisht n\u00eb form\u00eb t\u00eb nj\u00eb sine punimi) derisa t\u00eb krijohej mund\u00ebsia p\u00ebr ta d\u00ebrguar at\u00eb m\u00eb tej te q\u00ebllimi, ose n\u00eb nj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr qend\u00ebr nd\u00ebrmjet\u00ebse m\u00eb af\u00ebr q\u00ebllimit.<\/p>\n<p>Pastaj erdhi telefoni, dhe ne u desh nj\u00eb qasje e re. Nj\u00eb vones\u00eb disa minuta pas \u00e7do shprehe t\u00eb b\u00ebr\u00eb p\u00ebrmes telefonit, e cila duhej t\u00eb deshifrohej dhe t\u00eb d\u00ebrgohej n\u00eb destinacion, do t\u00eb jepte ndjenj\u00ebn e bised\u00ebs me nj\u00eb person q\u00eb ndodhej n\u00eb Mars. N\u00eb vend t\u00eb k\u00ebsaj, telefoni p\u00ebrdorte kalimin e kanaleve. Dh\u00ebn\u00ebsit nisin \u00e7do thirrje me d\u00ebrgimin e nj\u00eb mesazhi t\u00eb ve\u00e7ant\u00eb q\u00eb tregon se kujt d\u00ebshiron t\u00eb telefonoj\u00eb. Fillimisht, kjo b\u00ebhej duke biseduar me operat\u00ebn, m\u00eb pas duke futur numrin, i p\u00ebrpunuar nga pajisjet automatike n\u00eb qend\u00ebr. Operatori ose pajisja vendosnin nj\u00eb lidhje elektrike t\u00eb dedikuar midis dh\u00ebn\u00ebsit dhe marr\u00ebsit t\u00eb thirrjes. N\u00eb rastet e thirrjeve nd\u00ebrqytet\u00ebse, mund t\u00eb k\u00ebrkoheshin disa iteracione p\u00ebr t\u00eb lidhur thirrjen p\u00ebrmes disa qendrave. Pas vendosjes s\u00eb lidhjes, biseda mund t\u00eb fillonte, dhe lidhja ruhej derisa nj\u00ebra pal\u00eb nd\u00ebrpriste at\u00eb duke e v\u00ebn\u00eb receptorin.<\/p>\n<p>Komunikimi digjital, i cili u vendos t\u00eb p\u00ebrdorej n\u00eb ARPANET p\u00ebr t\u00eb lidhur kompjuter\u00ebt q\u00eb punonin sipas skem\u00ebs <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8\">ndarjes s\u00eb koh\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex>, p\u00ebrdorte karakteristika si telegrafi ashtu edhe telefoni. Nga nj\u00ebra an\u00eb, mesazhet me t\u00eb dh\u00ebna d\u00ebrgoheshin n\u00eb paketa t\u00eb ve\u00e7anta, si n\u00eb telegraf, dhe jo si biseda t\u00eb vazhdueshme n\u00eb telefon. megjithat\u00eb, k\u00ebto mesazhe mund t\u00eb ishin t\u00eb ndryshme n\u00eb madh\u00ebsi p\u00ebr q\u00ebllime t\u00eb ndryshme, nga komandat e konsol\u00ebs t\u00eb gjat\u00eb disa simbole, deri te skedar\u00eb t\u00eb m\u00ebdhenj me t\u00eb dh\u00ebna q\u00eb d\u00ebrgoheshin nga nj\u00eb kompjuter n\u00eb tjetrin. N\u00ebse skedar\u00ebt vonoheshin n\u00eb rrug\u00eb, askush nuk ankohej p\u00ebr k\u00ebt\u00eb. Por interaktiviteti i larg\u00ebt do t\u00eb k\u00ebrkonte nj\u00eb reagim t\u00eb shpejt\u00eb, sikur t\u00eb ishte nj\u00eb thirrje telefonike.<\/p>\n<p>Nj\u00eb dallim i r\u00ebnd\u00ebsish\u00ebm midis rrjeteve kompjuterike dhe telefonit me telegrap ishte ndjeshm\u00ebria ndaj gabimeve n\u00eb t\u00eb dh\u00ebnat e p\u00ebrpunuara nga makinat. Ndryshimi ose humbja e nj\u00eb simboli gjat\u00eb transmetimit t\u00eb nj\u00eb telegrami, ose humbja e nj\u00eb pjes\u00eb t\u00eb fjal\u00ebs n\u00eb nj\u00eb bised\u00eb telefonike, v\u00ebshtir\u00eb se mund t\u00eb shkaktonte shqet\u00ebsime serioze n\u00eb komunikimin mes dy personave. Por n\u00ebse zhurma n\u00eb linj\u00eb kalonte nj\u00eb bit t\u00eb vet\u00ebm nga 0 n\u00eb 1 n\u00eb komand\u00ebn q\u00eb d\u00ebrgohej n\u00eb nj\u00eb kompjuter t\u00eb larg\u00ebt, kjo mund t\u00eb ndryshonte plot\u00ebsisht kuptimin e komand\u00ebs. Prandaj, \u00e7do mesazh duhej t\u00eb kontrollohej p\u00ebr gabime dhe t\u00eb d\u00ebrgohej p\u00ebrs\u00ebri n\u00eb rast se ndonj\u00eb gabim zbuloheshin. K\u00ebto p\u00ebrs\u00ebritje do t\u00eb ishin shum\u00eb t\u00eb kushtueshme p\u00ebr mesazhet e m\u00ebdha, dhe probabiliteti i problemeve n\u00eb to ishte m\u00eb i lart\u00eb, pasi ato d\u00ebrgoheshin p\u00ebr nj\u00eb koh\u00eb m\u00eb t\u00eb gjat\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>Zgjidhja e k\u00ebtij problemi erdhi fal\u00eb dy ngjarjeve t\u00eb pavarura q\u00eb ndodh\u00ebn n\u00eb vitin 1960, megjithat\u00eb ai q\u00eb u shfaq m\u00eb von\u00eb u v\u00ebrejt s\u00eb pari nga Larry Roberts dhe ARPA.<\/p>\n<h2>Takimi<\/h2>\n<p>\nN\u00eb vjesht\u00ebn e vitit 1967, Roberts mb\u00ebrriti n\u00eb Gatlinburg, Tennessee, nga majat e mbuluara me pyje t\u00eb Great Smoky Mountains, p\u00ebr t\u00eb sjell\u00eb nj\u00eb dokument q\u00eb tregonte p\u00ebr planet e ARPA-s p\u00ebr zbatimin e rrjetit. Ai kishte punuar pothuajse nj\u00eb vit n\u00eb zyr\u00ebn e teknologjive t\u00eb p\u00ebrpunimit t\u00eb informacionit (Information Processing Technology Office, IPTO), por shum\u00eb detaje t\u00eb projektit t\u00eb rrjetit ishin ende shum\u00eb t\u00eb paqarta, duke p\u00ebrfshir\u00eb edhe zgjidhjen e problemit t\u00eb rutimit. P\u00ebrve\u00e7 p\u00ebrmendjeve t\u00eb paqarta p\u00ebr blloqet dhe p\u00ebrmasat e tyre, referenca e vetme p\u00ebr t\u00eb n\u00eb punimin e Roberts ishte nj\u00eb koment i shkurt\u00ebr dhe i paqart\u00eb n\u00eb fund: \u201cDuket e nevojshme t\u00eb mbajm\u00eb nj\u00eb linj\u00eb komunikimi q\u00eb p\u00ebrdoret periodicisht p\u00ebr t\u00eb marr\u00eb p\u00ebrgjigje brenda nj\u00eb kohe nga nj\u00eb e dhjeta deri n\u00eb nj\u00eb sekond\u00eb, e nevojshme p\u00ebr pun\u00ebn interaktive. Kjo \u00ebsht\u00eb shum\u00eb e kushtueshme p\u00ebr burimet e rrjetit, dhe n\u00ebse nuk do t\u00eb kemi mund\u00ebsin\u00eb t\u00eb telefonojm\u00eb m\u00eb shpejt, nd\u00ebrlidhja e mesazheve dhe koncentrimi do t\u00eb b\u00ebhen shum\u00eb t\u00eb r\u00ebnd\u00ebsishme p\u00ebr pjes\u00ebmarr\u00ebsit e rrjetit.\u201d \u00cbsht\u00eb e qart\u00eb se n\u00eb at\u00eb moment Roberts akoma nuk kishte vendosur n\u00ebse do t\u00eb braktiste qasjen q\u00eb ai e kishte p\u00ebrdorur s\u00eb bashku me Tom Marill n\u00eb vitin 1965, si\u00e7 ishte lidhja e kompjuter\u00ebve p\u00ebrmes nj\u00eb rrjeti telefonik t\u00eb komutuar p\u00ebrmes autoshtypjes.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb simpoziumin e nj\u00ebjt\u00eb ishte edhe nj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr person, me nj\u00eb ide p\u00ebr nj\u00eb zgjidhje m\u00eb t\u00eb mir\u00eb t\u00eb problemit t\u00eb routing-it n\u00eb rrjetet e t\u00eb dh\u00ebnave. Roger Scantlebury kaloi Atlantikun, duke ardhur nga Laboratori Komb\u00ebtar i Fizik\u00ebs i Britanis\u00eb (NPL) me nj\u00eb prezantim. Scantlebury e \u00e7oi Robertsin n\u00eb an\u00eb pas prezantimit t\u00eb tij dhe i tregoi iden\u00eb e tij. <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B2\">komutimi i paketave<\/a><\/noindex>. Kjo teknologji u zhvillua nga udh\u00ebheq\u00ebsi i tij n\u00eb NPL, Donald Davies. N\u00eb SHBA, arritjet dhe historia e Davies jan\u00eb pak t\u00eb njohura, megjithat\u00eb n\u00eb vjesht\u00ebn e vitit 1967, grupi i Davies n\u00eb NPL ishte, t\u00eb pakt\u00ebn, nj\u00eb vit p\u00ebrpara ARPA-s me idet\u00eb e tij.<\/p>\n<p>Davies, si shum\u00eb pionier\u00eb t\u00eb hersh\u00ebm t\u00eb kompjuter\u00ebve elektronik\u00eb, kishte nj\u00eb arsimim si fizikant. Ai u diplomua nga Kolegji Imperial n\u00eb Lond\u00ebr n\u00eb vitin 1943 n\u00eb mosh\u00ebn 19 vje\u00e7are, dhe u pranua menj\u00ebher\u00eb n\u00eb nj\u00eb program sekret p\u00ebr zhvillimin e arm\u00ebve b\u00ebrthamore me emrin kodor <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tube_Alloys\">Tube Alloys<\/a><\/noindex>. Aty ai udh\u00ebhoqi nj\u00eb grup njer\u00ebzish-llogarit\u00ebs, q\u00eb p\u00ebrdorin kalkulator\u00eb mekanik\u00eb dhe elektrike p\u00ebr t\u00eb nxjerr\u00eb me shpejt\u00ebsi zgjidhje numerike p\u00ebr problemet e lidhura me sintez\u00ebn b\u00ebrthamore (udh\u00ebheq\u00ebsi i tij ishte <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A4%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%81,_%D0%AD%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%AE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%83%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%81\">Emil Julius Klaus Fuchs<\/a><\/noindex>, nj\u00eb fizikant gjerman i shp\u00ebrngulur, i cili deri n\u00eb at\u00eb koh\u00eb kishte filluar t\u00eb transferonte sekrete t\u00eb arm\u00ebve b\u00ebrthamore n\u00eb Bashkimin Sovjetik). Pas luft\u00ebs, nga matematikani John Womersley ai d\u00ebgjoi p\u00ebr nj\u00eb projekt q\u00eb ai po udh\u00ebheqte n\u00eb NPL \u2013 ishte krijimi i nj\u00eb kompjuteri elektronik q\u00eb do t\u00eb b\u00ebnte t\u00eb nj\u00ebjtat llogaritje me shum\u00eb m\u00eb shum\u00eb shpejt\u00ebsi. <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Komputeri i zhvilluar nga Alan Turing<\/a><\/noindex> u quajt ACE, \"makina automatike e llogaritjes\".<\/p>\n<p>Deivisi e kapur k\u00ebt\u00eb ide dhe u pun\u00ebsua n\u00eb NPL sa m\u00eb shpejt q\u00eb mundi. Duke kontribuar n\u00eb projektin e detajuar dhe krijimin e komputerit ACE, ai mbeti thell\u00ebsisht i angazhuar n\u00eb fush\u00ebn e makinave llogarit\u00ebse si lider i k\u00ebrkimeve n\u00eb NPL. N\u00eb vitin 1965, ndodhi q\u00eb ai ishte n\u00eb SHBA n\u00eb nj\u00eb takim profesional t\u00eb lidhur me pun\u00ebn e tij, dhe e shfryt\u00ebzoi k\u00ebt\u00eb mund\u00ebsi p\u00ebr t\u00eb vizituar disa vende t\u00eb m\u00ebdha t\u00eb bazave t\u00eb kompjuter\u00ebve me ndarje kohe, p\u00ebr t\u00eb par\u00eb se \u00e7far\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb gjith\u00eb kjo. N\u00eb mjedisin britanik t\u00eb kompjuter\u00ebve, ndarja e koh\u00ebs n\u00eb kuptimin amerikan t\u00eb ndarjes interaktive t\u00eb p\u00ebrdorimit t\u00eb kompjuterit nga disa p\u00ebrdorues nuk ishte e njohur. N\u00eb vend t\u00eb k\u00ebsaj, ata e kuptonin ndarjen e koh\u00ebs si shp\u00ebrndarjen e ngarkes\u00ebs s\u00eb kompjuterit midis disa programeve t\u00eb p\u00ebrpunimit t\u00eb paketave t\u00eb t\u00eb dh\u00ebnave (p\u00ebr shembull, nj\u00eb program mund t\u00eb funksiononte derisa nj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr t\u00eb ishte e angazhuar n\u00eb leximin nga nj\u00eb kaset\u00eb). M\u00eb von\u00eb, ky variant do t\u00eb quhej shum\u00ebprogramim.<\/p>\n<p>Sh\u00ebtitjet e Deivisit e \u00e7uan at\u00eb n\u00eb Project MAC n\u00eb MIT, JOSS Project nga RAND Corporation n\u00eb Kaliforni, dhe n\u00eb sistemin e ndarjes s\u00eb koh\u00ebs n\u00eb Dartmouth n\u00eb New Hampshire. Nd\u00ebrsa po kthehej n\u00eb sht\u00ebpi, nj\u00eb nga koleg\u00ebt e tij propozoi t\u00eb mbante nj\u00eb seminar mbi ndarjen e resurseve, p\u00ebr t'i treguar komunitetit britanik mbi teknologjit\u00eb e reja q\u00eb kishin m\u00ebsuar n\u00eb SHBA. Deivisi ra dakord dhe priti shum\u00eb nga figurat kryesore t\u00eb fush\u00ebs s\u00eb kompjuter\u00ebve amerikane, duke p\u00ebrfshir\u00eb <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B1%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE,_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%BE_%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5\">Fernando Jos\u00e9 Corbato<\/a><\/noindex> (krijuesi i 'sistemit t\u00eb ndarjes s\u00eb koh\u00ebs s\u00eb pajtuesh\u00ebm' n\u00eb MIT) dhe vet\u00eb Larry Roberts.<\/p>\n<p>Gjat\u00eb seminarit (ose mund\u00ebsisht menj\u00ebher\u00eb pas) iden\u00eb p\u00ebr ndarjen e koh\u00ebs e mahniti Davis, duke e aplikuar at\u00eb jo vet\u00ebm n\u00eb kompjuter\u00eb, por edhe n\u00eb linjat e komunikimit mes kompjuter\u00ebve. Kompjutera t\u00eb ndarjes s\u00eb koh\u00ebs i japin \u00e7do p\u00ebrdoruesi nj\u00eb segment t\u00eb vog\u00ebl t\u00eb koh\u00ebs s\u00eb procesorit, dhe pastaj kalojn\u00eb te tjetri, duke krijuar p\u00ebr secilin p\u00ebrdorues iluzionin e nj\u00eb kompjuteri interaktiv n\u00eb pron\u00ebsi. Po ashtu, duke e ndar\u00eb \u00e7do mesazh n\u00eb cop\u00ebza t\u00eb standardizuara, q\u00eb Davis i quajti \"paketa\", nj\u00eb kanali komunikimi mund t\u00eb ndahet midis shum\u00eb kompjuter\u00ebve ose p\u00ebrdoruesve t\u00eb nj\u00eb kompjuteri. M\u00eb shum\u00eb se kaq, kjo do t\u00eb zgjidhte t\u00eb gjitha aspektet e transferimit t\u00eb t\u00eb dh\u00ebnave, p\u00ebr t\u00eb cilat nd\u00ebrruesit telefonik\u00eb dhe telegrafik\u00eb ishin keq t\u00eb p\u00ebrshtitur. Nj\u00eb p\u00ebrdorues q\u00eb punon me nj\u00eb terminal interaktiv, duke d\u00ebrguar komanda t\u00eb shkurtra dhe duke marr\u00eb p\u00ebrgjigje t\u00eb shkurtra, nuk do t\u00eb bllokohet nga transferimi i nj\u00eb skedari t\u00eb madh, pasi ky transferim do t\u00eb ndahet n\u00eb shum\u00eb paketa. \u00c7do d\u00ebmtim n\u00eb k\u00ebto mesazhe t\u00eb m\u00ebdha do t\u00eb prekte paket\u00ebn e vetme, e cila mund t\u00eb d\u00ebrgohet leht\u00ebsisht p\u00ebrs\u00ebri p\u00ebr t\u00eb p\u00ebrfunduar mesazhin.<\/p>\n<p>Davis p\u00ebrshkroi idet\u00eb e tij n\u00eb nj\u00eb punim t\u00eb pabotuar nga viti 1966, \"Propozimi p\u00ebr nj\u00eb rrjet digjital komunikimi\". N\u00eb at\u00eb moment, rrjetet telefonike m\u00eb t\u00eb avancuara ishin n\u00eb prag t\u00eb kompjuterizimit t\u00eb nd\u00ebrruesve, dhe Davis propozi nj\u00eb integrim t\u00eb nd\u00ebrrimit t\u00eb paketimeve n\u00eb rrjetin telefonik t\u00eb brezit t\u00eb ri, duke krijuar nj\u00eb rrjet t\u00eb unifikuar t\u00eb komunikimit me brez t\u00eb gjer\u00eb, i cili mund t\u00eb sh\u00ebrbente p\u00ebr k\u00ebrkesa t\u00eb ndryshme, nga thirrjet telefonike t\u00eb thjeshta deri te qasja n\u00eb distanc\u00eb p\u00ebr kompjuter\u00ebt. Deri n\u00eb at\u00eb koh\u00eb, Davis ishte promovuar n\u00eb menaxher t\u00eb NPL, dhe ai formoi nj\u00eb grup p\u00ebr komunikimin digjital n\u00ebn drejtimin e Scantlebury p\u00ebr t\u00eb realizuar projektin e tij dhe p\u00ebr t\u00eb krijuar nj\u00eb version demonstrues funksional.<\/p>\n<p>Gjat\u00eb vitit q\u00eb i parapriu konferenc\u00ebs n\u00eb Gatlinburg, ekipi i Skantlburit punoi p\u00ebr detajet e krijimit t\u00eb nj\u00eb rrjeti me komutimin e paketave. D\u00ebshtimi i nj\u00eb nyjeje mund t\u00eb p\u00ebrballohej me ndihm\u00ebn e rutes adaptuese, e cila mund t\u00eb punonte me disa rrug\u00eb deri n\u00eb destinacion, nd\u00ebrsa d\u00ebshtimi i nj\u00eb pakete t\u00eb ve\u00e7ant\u00eb mund t\u00eb zgjidhej me d\u00ebrgimin e saj t\u00eb rip\u00ebrs\u00ebritur. Simulimi dhe analiza treguan se madh\u00ebsia optimale e paket\u00ebs do t\u00eb ishte 1000 byte \u2013 n\u00ebse e b\u00ebjm\u00eb at\u00eb shum\u00eb m\u00eb t\u00eb vog\u00ebl, at\u00ebher\u00eb shpenzimet e kapacitetit t\u00eb linjave p\u00ebr t\u00eb dh\u00ebnat n\u00eb titull do t\u00eb ishin shum\u00eb t\u00eb m\u00ebdha, shum\u00eb m\u00eb tep\u00ebr \u2013 dhe koha e p\u00ebrgjigjes p\u00ebr p\u00ebrdoruesit interaktiv\u00eb do t\u00eb rritej shum\u00eb shpesh p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb mesazheve t\u00eb m\u00ebdha.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e internetit: ARPANET \u2014 paket\u00eb\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/9e5ff363887f30af503522d67645ef70.png\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Puna e Skantlburit p\u00ebrfshinte detaje t\u00eb tilla si formati i paket\u00ebs\u2026<\/i><\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e internetit: ARPANET \u2014 paket\u00eb\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/27aaf70301d4564d088ab5106d8dc158.png\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>\u2026dhe analiza e ndikimit t\u00eb madh\u00ebsive t\u00eb paketave n\u00eb vonesat n\u00eb rrjet.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Nd\u00ebrkoh\u00eb, k\u00ebrkimet e Davis dhe Skantlburit \u00e7uan n\u00eb zbulimin e punimeve t\u00eb detajuara k\u00ebrkimore, t\u00eb kryera nga nj\u00eb amerikan tjet\u00ebr, i cili erdhi n\u00eb nj\u00eb ide t\u00eb ngjashme disa vite para tyre. Por, n\u00eb t\u00eb nj\u00ebjt\u00ebn koh\u00eb, <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD,_%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB\">Pol Beran<\/a><\/noindex>, inxhinier elektrik nga RAND Corporation, nuk e kishte parasysh nevojat e p\u00ebrdoruesve t\u00eb kompjuter\u00ebve me ndarjen e koh\u00ebs. RAND ishte nj\u00eb qend\u00ebr analitike q\u00eb punonte me fonde nga Ministria e Mbrojtjes e SHBA-s\u00eb n\u00eb Santa Monica, Kaliforni, e krijuar pas Luft\u00ebs s\u00eb Dyt\u00eb Bot\u00ebrore p\u00ebr planifikimin afatgjat\u00eb dhe analiz\u00ebn e problemeve strategjike p\u00ebr nevoja ushtarake. Q\u00ebllimi i Beranit ishte t\u00eb largonte luft\u00ebn b\u00ebrthamore, duke krijuar nj\u00eb rrjet t\u00eb komunikimit ushtarak shum\u00eb t\u00eb besuesh\u00ebm, i cili mund t\u00eb p\u00ebrballonte madje edhe nj\u00eb sulm b\u00ebrthamor n\u00eb shkall\u00eb t\u00eb gjer\u00eb. Nj\u00eb rrjet i till\u00eb do ta b\u00ebnte nj\u00eb goditje parandalimtare nga ana e Bashkimit Sovjetik m\u00eb pak t\u00ebrheq\u00ebse, pasi do t\u00eb ishte shum\u00eb e v\u00ebshtir\u00eb t\u00eb shkat\u00ebrrohej mund\u00ebsia e SHBA-s\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb goditur n\u00eb p\u00ebrgjigje disa pika t\u00eb ndjeshme. P\u00ebr k\u00ebt\u00eb, Beran propozoi nj\u00eb sistem q\u00eb ndante mesazhet n\u00eb at\u00eb q\u00eb ai e quajti blloqe mesazhesh, t\u00eb cilat mund t\u00eb d\u00ebrgoheshin n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb t\u00eb pavarur p\u00ebrmes nj\u00eb rrjeti nyjesh komunikimi me nj\u00eb num\u00ebr t\u00eb tepruar lidhjesh, dhe pastaj t\u00eb bashkoheshin n\u00eb pik\u00ebn e fundit.<\/p>\n<p>ARPA kishte akses n\u00eb raportet voluminoze t\u00eb Beran p\u00ebr RAND, megjithat\u00eb, pasi ato nuk ishin t\u00eb lidhura me kompjuter\u00ebt interaktiv\u00eb, r\u00ebnd\u00ebsia e tyre p\u00ebr ARPANET nuk ishte e dukshme. Roberts dhe Taylor, duket se as nuk i v\u00ebrejt\u00ebn ato. N\u00eb vend t\u00eb k\u00ebsaj, si rezultat i nj\u00eb takimi rast\u00ebsor, Scantlebury ia ofroi gjith\u00e7ka Robertsit n\u00eb nj\u00eb pjat\u00eb: nj\u00eb mekaniz\u00ebm t\u00eb menduar mir\u00eb p\u00ebr komutimin, aplikueshm\u00ebrin\u00eb p\u00ebr krijimin e rrjeteve kompjuterike interaktive, materiale referimi nga RAND, dhe madje emrin \"paket\u00eb\". Puna e NPL gjithashtu e bindte Roberts se p\u00ebr t\u00eb organizuar nj\u00eb kapacitet t\u00eb mir\u00eb kalimi do t\u00eb k\u00ebrkoheshin shpejt\u00ebsi m\u00eb t\u00eb larta, prandaj ai p\u00ebrdit\u00ebsoi planet e tij deri n\u00eb linja komunikimi prej 50 Kbit\/s. P\u00ebr t\u00eb krijuar ARPANET, pjesa themelore e problemit t\u00eb drejtimit ishte zgjidhur.<\/p>\n<p>Nj\u00eb e v\u00ebrtet\u00eb, ka dhe nj\u00eb version tjet\u00ebr p\u00ebr shfaqjen e ideve t\u00eb komutimit t\u00eb paketave. Roberts m\u00eb von\u00eb pretendonte se ai kishte tashm\u00eb mendime t\u00eb ngjashme n\u00eb kok\u00eb, fal\u00eb pun\u00ebs s\u00eb kolegut t\u00eb tij, Len Kleinrock, i cili supozohet se e kishte p\u00ebrshkruar k\u00ebt\u00eb koncept q\u00eb n\u00eb vitin 1962, n\u00eb disertacionin e tij t\u00eb doktorat\u00ebs p\u00ebr rrjetet e komunikimit. Megjithat\u00eb, nga kjo pun\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb jasht\u00ebzakonisht e v\u00ebshtir\u00eb t\u00eb nxirret nj\u00eb ide e till\u00eb, dhe p\u00ebr m\u00eb tep\u00ebr, nuk kam mundur t\u00eb gjej ndonj\u00eb konfirmim tjet\u00ebr p\u00ebr k\u00ebt\u00eb version.<\/p>\n<h2>Rrjetet q\u00eb nuk ishin<\/h2>\n<p>\nSi\u00e7 e shohim, dy grupe t\u00eb t\u00ebra e parakaluan ARPA-n n\u00eb \u00e7\u00ebshtjen e zhvillimit t\u00eb komutimit t\u00eb paketave, nj\u00eb teknologjie q\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb aq efektive sa tani sh\u00ebrben si baza e praktikisht t\u00eb gjitha komunikimeve. Pse ARPANET b\u00ebri fillimin e par\u00eb t\u00eb r\u00ebnd\u00ebsish\u00ebm q\u00eb e p\u00ebrdori at\u00eb?<\/p>\n<p>E gjith\u00eb q\u00ebshtja q\u00ebndron n\u00eb holl\u00ebsit\u00eb organizative. ARPA nuk kishte leje zyrtare p\u00ebr t\u00eb krijuar nj\u00eb rrjet komunikimi, megjithat\u00eb kishte nj\u00eb num\u00ebr t\u00eb madh qendrash k\u00ebrkimore ekzistuese me kompjuter\u00ebt e tyre, nj\u00eb kultur\u00eb \"t\u00eb lir\u00eb\", p\u00ebr t\u00eb cil\u00ebn askush nuk mbik\u00ebqyrte, dhe t\u00ebr\u00eb male parash. K\u00ebrkesa fillestare e Taylor-it nga viti 1966 p\u00ebr financimin e ARPANET-it deklaroi shifr\u00ebn prej 1 milion dollar\u00ebsh, dhe Roberts vazhdoi t\u00eb shpenzonte aq \u00e7do vit nga viti 1969 e tutje p\u00ebr krijimin dhe funksionimin e k\u00ebtij rrjeti. N\u00eb t\u00eb nj\u00ebjt\u00ebn koh\u00eb, p\u00ebr ARPA, k\u00ebto para ishin pak\u00ebsuar, prandaj askush nga shefat e tij nuk shqet\u00ebsohej p\u00ebr at\u00eb q\u00eb Roberts b\u00ebnte me to, p\u00ebrve\u00e7 se sa mund t\u00eb lidhej me nevojat e mbrojtjes komb\u00ebtare.<\/p>\n<p>B\u00ebra n\u00eb RAND nuk kishte as mund\u00ebsi, as autoritet p\u00ebr t\u00eb b\u00ebr\u00eb di\u00e7ka. Puna e tij ishte krejt\u00ebsisht k\u00ebrkimore dhe analitike, dhe mund t\u00eb ishte e aplikueshme n\u00eb mbrojtje. N\u00eb vitin 1965, RAND me t\u00eb v\u00ebrtet\u00eb rekomandoi sistemin e tij p\u00ebr forc\u00ebn ajrore, dhe ata ran\u00eb dakord me realizueshm\u00ebrin\u00eb e projektit. Por realizimi i tij binte mbi shpatullat e agjencis\u00eb s\u00eb komunikimeve t\u00eb mbrojtjes, e cila nuk kuptonte shum\u00eb p\u00ebr komunikimin dixhital. B\u00ebra e bind\u00ebn menaxhmentin n\u00eb RAND se propozimi m\u00eb mir\u00eb do t\u00eb ishte ta merrnin at\u00eb, sesa ta lejonin q\u00eb t\u00eb realizohej si t\u00eb ishte dhe t\u00eb d\u00ebmtonte besueshm\u00ebrin\u00eb e komunikimit dixhital t\u00eb shp\u00ebrndar\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>Davis si drejtor i NPL kishte nj\u00eb pushtet m\u00eb t\u00eb madh se B\u00ebra, por nj\u00eb buxhet m\u00eb t\u00eb kufizuar se ARPA, dhe nuk kishte nj\u00eb rrjet social dhe teknik t\u00eb gatsh\u00ebm nga kompjuter\u00ebt e k\u00ebrkimit. Ai arriti t\u00eb krijonte nj\u00eb prototip t\u00eb nj\u00eb rrjeti lokal me kalimin e paketave (aty kishte vet\u00ebm nj\u00eb nyj\u00eb, por shum\u00eb terminale) n\u00eb NPL n\u00eb fund t\u00eb viteve 1960, me nj\u00eb buxhet modest prej \u00a3120,000 p\u00ebr tre vjet. ARPANET shpenzonte rreth gjysm\u00ebs s\u00eb k\u00ebsaj shume \u00e7do vit p\u00ebr funksionimin dhe mir\u00ebmbajtjen n\u00eb secil\u00ebn nga shum\u00eb nyjat e rrjetit, duke p\u00ebrjashtuar investimet fillestare n\u00eb harduer dhe softuer. Organizata q\u00eb ishte n\u00eb gjendje t\u00eb krijonte nj\u00eb rrjet britanik me shkall\u00eb t\u00eb madhe me kalimin e paketave ishte posta britanike, e cila menaxhon rrjetet e telekomunikacioneve n\u00eb vend, p\u00ebrve\u00e7 lidhjeve postale. Davis arriti t\u00eb t\u00ebrheq\u00eb interesin e disa funksionar\u00ebve t\u00eb fuqish\u00ebm me idet\u00eb e tij p\u00ebr nj\u00eb rrjet dixhital t\u00eb unifikuar n\u00eb nivel komb\u00ebtar, por t\u00eb ndryshonte drejtimin e nj\u00eb sistemi kaq t\u00eb madh nuk ishte n\u00eb fuqit\u00eb e tij.<\/p>\n<p>Licklider, duke kombinuar fatin dhe planifikimin, gjeti nj\u00eb ser\u00eb t\u00eb shk\u00eblqyer ku mund t\u00eb lul\u00ebzonte rrjeti i tij nd\u00ebrgalaktik. N\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb rast, nuk mund t\u00eb thuhet se gjith\u00e7ka, p\u00ebrve\u00e7 kalimit t\u00eb paketave, varej nga parat\u00eb. Po ashtu, ekzekutimi i ide\u00ebs luante rol. M\u00eb shum\u00eb se kaq, fryma e ARPANET u p\u00ebrcaktua nga disa vendime t\u00eb tjera t\u00eb r\u00ebnd\u00ebsishme n\u00eb faz\u00ebn e projektimit. Prandaj, do t\u00eb diskutojm\u00eb se si p\u00ebrgjegj\u00ebsia u shp\u00ebrnda mes kompjuter\u00ebve, t\u00eb cil\u00ebt d\u00ebrgonin dhe pranonin mesazhe, dhe rrjetit p\u00ebrmes t\u00eb cilit ata d\u00ebrgonin k\u00ebto mesazhe.<\/p>\n<h2>\u00c7far\u00eb t\u00eb lexoni tjet\u00ebr<\/h2>\n<p><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Janet Abbate, Inventing the Internet (1999)<\/li>\n<li>Katie Hafner and Matthew Lyon, Where Wizards Stay Up Late (1996)<\/li>\n<li>Leonard Kleinrock, \u201cAn Early History of the Internet,\u201d IEEE Communications Magazine (August 2010)<\/li>\n<li>Arthur Norberg dhe Julie O\u2019Neill, Transformimi i Teknologjis\u00eb Kompjuterike: Procesimi i Informacionit p\u00ebr Pentagonin, 1962-1986 (1996)<\/li>\n<li>M. Mitchell Waldrop, Makina e \u00ebndrrave: J.C.R. Licklider dhe Revolucioni q\u00eb e B\u00ebri Kompjuterin Personal (2001)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Burimi: <a content=\"nofollow\" rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">habr.com<\/a><\/p>","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u0421\u0445\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0435\u0442\u0438 ARPA \u043d\u0430 \u0438\u044e\u043d\u044c 1967. \u041f\u0443\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043e\u043a \u2013 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440 \u0441 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0434\u0435\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435\u043c \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u0430, \u043a\u0440\u0443\u0436\u043e\u043a \u0441 \u0447\u0435\u0440\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u2013 \u0442\u0435\u0440\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0430\u043b \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0434\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0437\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044f \u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430: \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u041c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434 \u00ab\u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439\u00bb, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0417\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0414\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0446 \u0413\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0410 \u0432\u043e\u0442, \u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0446, \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0413\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0417\u0430\u0431\u044b\u0442\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u042d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u044d\u0440\u0430 \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[688],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-55048","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-administrirovanie"],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t<!-- All in One SEO 5.0.2 - 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