{"id":55070,"date":"2020-01-11T00:00:00","date_gmt":"2020-01-10T21:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/blog\/blog_prohoster\/istoriya-tranzistora-chast-2-iz-gornila-vojny"},"modified":"2020-02-18T14:03:09","modified_gmt":"2020-02-18T11:03:09","slug":"istoriya-tranzistora-chast-2-iz-gornila-vojny","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-tranzistora-chast-2-iz-gornila-vojny","title":{"rendered":"Historia e tranzistorit, pjesa 2: nga furrat e luft\u00ebs","gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"text"}]},"content":{"rendered":"<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit, pjesa 2: nga furrat e luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/cff070a7b083f5b3945308e20ef9789d.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<br \/>\n<b class=\"spoiler_title\">Artikuj t\u00eb tjer\u00eb t\u00eb ciklit:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Historia e releve\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404373\/\">Metoda e \"shkarkimit t\u00eb shpejt\u00eb t\u00eb informacionit\", ose Lindja e releve<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404475\/\">Telegrafi i gjat\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/370545\/\">Galvanizmi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404657\/\">Sip\u00ebrmarr\u00ebsit<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404723\/\">Ja, m\u00eb n\u00eb fund, dhe releja<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404889\/\">Telegrafi i fol\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405025\/\">Thjesht p\u00ebr t'u lidhur<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/company\/mailru\/blog\/370471\/\">Nj\u00eb brez i harruar i kompjuter\u00ebve me rele<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">Epoka elektronike<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e kompjuter\u00ebve elektronik\u00eb\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408611\/\">Prologu<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/374043\/\">Kolosi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408597\/\">ENIAC <\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Revolucioni elektronik<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e tranzistorit\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">Duke u shmangur n\u00eb err\u00ebsir\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">Nga furra e luft\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\"><\/a><\/noindex><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/449760\/\">Riinovimi i shum\u00ebfisht\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e Internetit\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450168\/\">RRjet i mb\u00ebshtetjes<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450522\/\">Shk\u00ebputja, pjesa 1<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/451606\/\">Shk\u00ebputja, pjesa 2<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/452030\/\">Duke hapur interaktivitetin<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/453154\/\">Zgjerimi i interaktivitetit<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">ARPANET - lindja<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">ARPANET - paketi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/461177\/\">ARPANET - n\u00ebnrrjeti<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/472582\/\">Kompjuter si nj\u00eb pajisje komunikimi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/483366\/\">Historia e Internetit: nd\u00ebrveprimi i rrjeteve<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\nFurreja e luft\u00ebs p\u00ebrgatiti terrenin p\u00ebr shfaqjen e tranzistorit. Nga 1939 deri n\u00eb 1945, njohurit\u00eb teknike n\u00eb fush\u00ebn e polusht\u00ebs jan\u00eb zgjeruar jasht\u00ebzakonisht. Dhe arsyeja p\u00ebr k\u00ebt\u00eb ishte nj\u00eb e thjesht\u00eb: radari. Teknologjia m\u00eb e r\u00ebnd\u00ebsishme e luft\u00ebs, midis shembujve t\u00eb aplikimeve t\u00eb saj: zbulimi i sulmeve ajrore, k\u00ebrkimi i n\u00ebndet\u00ebseve, drejtimi i sulmeve ajrore nat\u00ebn ndaj objekteve, dhe drejtime t\u00eb mjeteve t\u00eb mbrojtjes ajrore dhe arm\u00ebve detare. Inxhinier\u00ebt madje m\u00ebsuan t\u00eb futin radare t\u00eb vogla n\u00eb predha artilerie, n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb q\u00eb ato t\u00eb shp\u00ebrthenin kur kalonin pran\u00eb objektivave - <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B7%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C\">shp\u00ebrthyesit radiografik\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex>. Megjithat\u00eb, burimi i k\u00ebsaj teknologjie ushtarake t\u00eb fuqishme ishte nj\u00eb fush\u00eb m\u00eb paq\u00ebsore: studimi i shtresave t\u00eb sip\u00ebrme t\u00eb atmosfer\u00ebs p\u00ebr q\u00ebllime shkencore.<br \/>\n<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" name=\"habracut\"><\/a><\/noindex><\/p>\n<h2>Radari<\/h2>\n<p>\nN\u00eb vitin 1901, kompania \u00abTelegrafi pa tel Marconi\u00bb d\u00ebrgoi me sukses nj\u00eb mesazh pa tel p\u00ebrmes Atlantikut, nga Kornualla n\u00eb Newfoundland. Ky fakt e trazoi shkenc\u00ebn moderne. N\u00ebse transmetimet radiografike l\u00ebvizin n\u00eb vij\u00eb t\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00eb (si\u00e7 duhet t\u00eb ndodhte), nj\u00eb transmetim i till\u00eb nuk duhet t\u00eb ishte i mundur. Nuk ka linj\u00eb t\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00eb pamjeje midis Anglis\u00eb dhe Kanadas\u00eb q\u00eb t\u00eb mos kaloj\u00eb p\u00ebrmes tok\u00ebs, prandaj mesazhi i Marconit duhej t\u00eb kishte fluturuar n\u00eb hap\u00ebsir\u00eb. Inxhinieri amerikan Arthur Kennelly dhe fizikanti britanik Oliver Heaviside, n\u00eb t\u00eb nj\u00ebjt\u00ebn koh\u00eb dhe pavar\u00ebsisht nga nj\u00ebri-tjetri, supozuan q\u00eb shpjegimi i k\u00ebtij fenomeni kishte t\u00eb b\u00ebnte me nj\u00eb shtres\u00eb gazi t\u00eb ionizuar, e cila ndodhet n\u00eb shtresat e sip\u00ebrme t\u00eb atmosfer\u00ebs dhe \u00ebsht\u00eb n\u00eb gjendje t\u00eb reflektoj\u00eb val\u00ebt radio m\u00eb.T\u00eb kthehej p\u00ebrs\u00ebri n\u00eb tok\u00eb (Marconi mendonte se val\u00ebt radio ndoqnin lakimin e sip\u00ebrfaqes s\u00eb tok\u00ebs, por fizikant\u00ebt nuk e mb\u00ebshtet\u00ebn at\u00eb).<\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb vitet 1920, shkenc\u00ebtar\u00ebt zhvilluan pajisje t\u00eb reja q\u00eb fillimisht provuan ekzistenc\u00ebn e ionosfer\u00ebs dhe m\u00eb pas studiuan struktur\u00ebn e saj. Ata p\u00ebrdor\u00ebn llampa elektronike p\u00ebr t\u00eb gjeneruar impulse radio me gjat\u00ebsi t\u00eb shkurt\u00ebr, antena t\u00eb drejtuara p\u00ebr t'i d\u00ebrguar ato lart n\u00eb atmosfer\u00eb dhe p\u00ebr t\u00eb regjistruar jehon\u00eb, dhe <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B\">pajisje elektronike me rreze<\/a><\/noindex> p\u00ebr t\u00eb demonstruar rezultatet. Sa m\u00eb e madhe t\u00eb jet\u00eb vonesa e kthimit t\u00eb jehon\u00ebs, aq m\u00eb larg duhet t\u00eb jet\u00eb ionosfera. Kjo teknologji u quajt sondazhi atmosferik, dhe ajo ofroi infrastruktur\u00ebn teknike baz\u00eb p\u00ebr krijimin e radarit (termi vet\u00eb \"radar\", q\u00eb do t\u00eb thot\u00eb RAdio Detection And Ranging, shfaqej vet\u00ebm n\u00eb vitet 1940 n\u00eb flot\u00ebn ushtarake t\u00eb SHBA).<\/p>\n<p>Ishte vet\u00ebm \u00e7\u00ebshtje kohe q\u00eb njer\u00ebzit me njohurit\u00eb, burimet dhe motivimin e duhur t\u00eb kuptonin potencialin e aplikimit tok\u00ebsor t\u00eb k\u00ebtij pajisjeje (n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb, historia e radar\u00ebve \u00ebsht\u00eb e kund\u00ebrt me at\u00eb t\u00eb teleskop\u00ebve, t\u00eb cilat fillimisht ishin t\u00eb destinuara p\u00ebr p\u00ebrdorim n\u00eb tok\u00eb). Dhe mund\u00ebsia e k\u00ebsaj ndri\u00e7imi u rrit nd\u00ebrsa radio shp\u00ebrndahej gjithnj\u00eb e m\u00eb shum\u00eb n\u00eb planet, dhe gjithnj\u00eb e m\u00eb shum\u00eb njer\u00ebz v\u00ebrejn\u00eb interferencat q\u00eb vijn\u00eb nga anijet, avion\u00ebt dhe objekte t\u00eb tjera t\u00eb m\u00ebdha n\u00eb af\u00ebrsi. <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4\">Viti Nd\u00ebrkomb\u00ebtar i Polar\u00ebve<\/a><\/noindex> (1932-1933), kur shkenc\u00ebtar\u00ebt nga stacionet e ndryshme arktike hartuan nj\u00eb hart\u00eb t\u00eb ionosfer\u00ebs. Shpejt pas k\u00ebsaj, ekipet n\u00eb Britani, SHBA, Gjermani, Itali, BE, dhe vende t\u00eb tjera zhvilluan sistemet e tyre m\u00eb t\u00eb thjeshta radarike.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit, pjesa 2: nga furrat e luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/a85e0d4cec7bba6ab1fea42422b906b0.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD-%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82,_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82\">Robert Watson-Watt<\/a><\/noindex> me radar\u00ebt e tij t\u00eb vitit 1935.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Pastaj ndodhi lufta, dhe r\u00ebnd\u00ebsia e radar\u00ebve p\u00ebr vendet - dhe burimet p\u00ebr zhvillimin e tyre - u rrit ndjesh\u00ebm. N\u00eb SHBA, k\u00ebto burime u organizuan rreth nj\u00eb organizate t\u00eb re, e krijuar n\u00eb 1940 n\u00eb MIT, e njohur si <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory\">Rad Lab<\/a><\/noindex> (e cila u quajt k\u00ebshtu n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb t\u00eb ve\u00e7ant\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb mashtruar spiun\u00ebt e huaj dhe p\u00ebr t\u00eb krijuar p\u00ebrshtypjen se n\u00eb laboratorin po studiohej radioaktiviteti - at\u00ebher\u00eb ende pak njer\u00ebz besonin n\u00eb bombat atomike). Projekti Rad Lab, i cili nuk u b\u00eb aq i famsh\u00ebm sa Projekti Manhattan, megjithat\u00eb mbajti gjithashtu fizikant\u00eb t\u00eb famsh\u00ebm dhe t\u00eb talentuar nga e gjith\u00eb SHBA. Pes\u00eb nga punonj\u00ebsit e par\u00eb t\u00eb laboratorit (p\u00ebrfshir\u00eb <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81,_%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8%D1%81\">Luis Alvarez<\/a><\/noindex> dhe <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8,_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BA\">Isidor Isaac Rabi<\/a><\/noindex>) m\u00eb von\u00eb mor\u00ebn \u00c7mimin Nobel. N\u00eb fund t\u00eb luft\u00ebs, rreth 500 doktor\u00eb t\u00eb shkencave, shkenc\u00ebtar\u00eb dhe inxhinier\u00eb punonin n\u00eb laborator, dhe gjithsej punonin 4000 njer\u00ebz. Nj\u00eb gjysm\u00eb milioni dollar\u00eb - q\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb krahasuar me buxhetin e plot\u00eb p\u00ebr krijimin e ENIAC - u shpenzuan vet\u00ebm p\u00ebr botimin e seris\u00eb Radiation Laboratory Series, nj\u00ebzet e shtat\u00eb v\u00ebllime, ku u p\u00ebrshkrua t\u00ebr\u00eb njohuria e fituar n\u00eb laborator gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs (nd\u00ebrkoh\u00eb, shpenzimet e qeveris\u00eb s\u00eb SHBA p\u00ebr teknologjin\u00eb radarike nuk u kufizuan n\u00eb buxhetin e Rad Lab; gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs qeveria bleu radar\u00eb me nj\u00eb vler\u00eb tre miliard\u00eb dollar\u00eb).<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit, pjesa 2: nga furrat e luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/71dd40bc59a59a891eba0a244d94fdbc.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Korpusi 20 i MIT, ku ndodhej Rad Lab.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Nj\u00eb nga fushat kryesore t\u00eb hulumtimit t\u00eb Rad Lab ishte radar i frekuencave t\u00eb larta. Radar\u00ebt e hersh\u00ebm p\u00ebrdornin vale me gjat\u00ebsi metri. Por rrezet me frekuenca m\u00eb t\u00eb larta, gjat\u00ebsi vale t\u00eb cilave mateshin n\u00eb centimetra \u2013 mikroval\u00eb \u2013 lejonin p\u00ebrdorimin e antenave m\u00eb kompakte dhe kishin m\u00eb pak shp\u00ebrndarje n\u00eb distanca t\u00eb gjata, \u00e7ka premtonte p\u00ebrfitime t\u00eb m\u00ebdha n\u00eb arritshm\u00ebri dhe sakt\u00ebsi. Radar\u00ebt me mikroval\u00eb mund t\u00eb nxirreshin n\u00eb hund\u00ebn e avionit dhe t\u00eb zbulonin objekte me madh\u00ebsin\u00eb e periskopit t\u00eb nj\u00eb n\u00ebnmari.<\/p>\n<p>Ekipi i fizikant\u00ebve britanik\u00eb nga Universiteti i Birminghamit arriti ta zgjidh\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb detyr\u00eb s\u00eb pari. N\u00eb vitin 1940 ata zhvilluan \u201c<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD\">rezonator magnetron<\/a><\/noindex>\u201d, i cili funksiononte si nj\u00eb \u201csirene\u201d elektromagnetike, duke kthyer impulset e \u00e7rregullta t\u00eb elektricitetit n\u00eb nj\u00eb rrezat t\u00eb fuqish\u00ebm dhe t\u00eb sakt\u00eb t\u00eb mikrovale. Ky transmetues mikroval\u00eb ishte nj\u00eb mij\u00eb her\u00eb m\u00eb i fuqish\u00ebm n\u00eb krahasim me konkurrentin m\u00eb t\u00eb af\u00ebrt; ai hapi rrug\u00ebn p\u00ebr krijimin e transmetuesve praktik\u00eb t\u00eb radar\u00ebve me frekuenc\u00eb t\u00eb lart\u00eb. Megjithat\u00eb, ai kishte nevoj\u00eb p\u00ebr nj\u00eb partner, nj\u00eb pranues i aft\u00eb t\u00eb regjistronte frekuenca t\u00eb larta. Dhe n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb pik\u00eb ne kthehemi n\u00eb historin\u00eb e gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesve.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit, pjesa 2: nga furrat e luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/13f66e3564bea4c6795a774ef2412e99.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Magnetron n\u00eb seksion<\/i><\/p>\n<h2>Rikthimi i bishtit t\u00eb maceve<\/h2>\n<p>\nDoli se lambat elektronike nuk ishin aspak t\u00eb p\u00ebrshtatshme p\u00ebr t\u00eb pranuar sinjalet mikroval\u00eb t\u00eb radar\u00ebve. Hendeku midis katod\u00ebs t\u00eb nxeht\u00eb dhe anod\u00ebs t\u00eb ftoht\u00eb krijon nj\u00eb kapacitet, duke b\u00ebr\u00eb q\u00eb rryma t\u00eb refuzoj\u00eb t\u00eb funksionoj\u00eb n\u00eb frekuenca t\u00eb larta. Teknologjia m\u00eb e mir\u00eb p\u00ebr radar\u00ebt me frekuenc\u00eb t\u00eb lart\u00eb q\u00eb ishte e disponueshme ishte stili i vjet\u00ebruar \u201c<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">bishti i maceve<\/a><\/noindex>\u201d \u2013 nj\u00eb cop\u00eb e vog\u00ebl tel, e shtypur mbi kristalin e gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit. Kjo u zbulua n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb t\u00eb pavarur nga disa njer\u00ebz, megjithat\u00eb ajo q\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb m\u00eb e af\u00ebrt me historin\u00eb ton\u00eb ndodhi n\u00eb New Jersey.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb vitin 1938, laborator\u00ebt e Bell n\u00ebnshkruan nj\u00eb kontrat\u00eb me flot\u00ebn ushtarake p\u00ebr zhvillimin e nj\u00eb radari p\u00ebr menaxhimin e zjarrit n\u00eb gam\u00ebn 40 cm \u2013 kjo ishte shum\u00eb m\u00eb e shkurt\u00ebr dhe, rrjedhimisht, m\u00eb e lart\u00eb n\u00eb frekuenc\u00eb se radar\u00ebt ekzistues n\u00eb epok\u00ebn para magetron\u00ebve rezonant\u00eb. Pjesa m\u00eb e madhe e k\u00ebrkimeve iu dha nj\u00eb nj\u00ebsie laborator\u00ebsh n\u00eb Holmdel n\u00eb jug t\u00eb Staten Island. K\u00ebrkuesve nuk u duhej shum\u00eb koh\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb kuptuar se \u00e7far\u00eb u nevojitej p\u00ebr nj\u00eb marr\u00ebs me frekuenc\u00eb t\u00eb lart\u00eb, dhe shpejt inxhinieri George Southworth ishte duke k\u00ebrkuar n\u00eb dyqanet e pajisjeve elektronike n\u00eb Manhattan p\u00ebr detektor\u00ebt e vjet\u00ebr \"mushk\u00eb\u201d. Si\u00e7 pritej, ai punonte shum\u00eb m\u00eb mir\u00eb se detektori me lamp\u00eb, por e b\u00ebnte k\u00ebt\u00eb n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb t\u00eb paq\u00ebndrueshme. Prandaj, Southworth gjeti nj\u00eb elektrokimist me emrin Russell All dhe i k\u00ebrkoi atij t\u00eb p\u00ebrpiqej t\u00eb p\u00ebrmir\u00ebsonte nj\u00ebtrajtshm\u00ebrin\u00eb e p\u00ebrgjigjes s\u00eb detektorit kristal me nj\u00eb pik\u00eb kontakti.<\/p>\n<p>All ishte nj\u00eb person mjaft unik, i cili e konsideronte zhvillimin e teknologjis\u00eb si fatin e tij, dhe tregonte p\u00ebr ndri\u00e7ime periodike me vizione t\u00eb s\u00eb ardhmes. P\u00ebr shembull, ai deklaronte se q\u00eb n\u00eb vitin 1939 dinte p\u00ebr shpikjen e ardhshme t\u00eb amplifikatorit t\u00eb silikonit, por q\u00eb fati ishte shkruar ta shpikte at\u00eb nj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr njeri. Pas studimit t\u00eb dhjetra mund\u00ebsive, ai u ndal te silikoni si materiali m\u00eb i mir\u00eb p\u00ebr marr\u00ebsit e Southworth. Problemi ishte n\u00eb mund\u00ebsin\u00eb e kontrollit t\u00eb p\u00ebrmbajtjes s\u00eb materialit, p\u00ebr t\u00eb menaxhuar vetit\u00eb e tij elektrike. N\u00eb at\u00eb koh\u00eb, ingot\u00ebt industrial\u00eb t\u00eb silikonit ishin t\u00eb p\u00ebrhapur gjer\u00ebsisht, p\u00ebrdorej n\u00eb fabrikat e \u00e7elikut, por n\u00eb nj\u00eb prodhim t\u00eb till\u00eb nuk shqet\u00ebsohej askush, le t\u00eb themi, mbi p\u00ebrmbajtjen 1% t\u00eb fosforit n\u00eb silikon. Duke siguruar ndihm\u00ebn e disaMetalurg\u00ebve, All caktoi si q\u00ebllim t\u00eb krijonte ingot\u00eb shum\u00eb m\u00eb t\u00eb past\u00ebr se sa ishte arrir\u00eb m\u00eb par\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>Gjat\u00eb pun\u00ebs, ata zbuluan se disa prej kristaleve t\u00eb tyre drejtonin rrym\u00ebn n\u00eb nj\u00eb drejtim, nd\u00ebrsa t\u00eb tjer\u00ebt n\u00eb drejtimin tjet\u00ebr. Ata i quajt\u00ebn \u201ctip n\u201d dhe \u201ctip p\u201d. Analiza e m\u00ebtejshme tregoi se p\u00ebr k\u00ebto tipe ishin p\u00ebrgjegj\u00ebse lloje t\u00eb ndryshme t\u00eb papast\u00ebrtive. Silikoni ndodhet n\u00eb kolon\u00ebn e kat\u00ebrt t\u00eb tabel\u00ebs periodike t\u00eb Mendeleev, q\u00eb do t\u00eb thot\u00eb se ka kat\u00ebr elektrone n\u00eb kushtin e jasht\u00ebm. N\u00eb nj\u00eb bllok prej silikoni t\u00eb past\u00ebr, secili nga k\u00ebto elektrone do t\u00eb bashkohej me fqinj\u00ebt. Papast\u00ebrtit\u00eb nga kolona e tret\u00eb, le t\u00eb themi bor, i cili ka nj\u00eb elektron m\u00eb pak, krijonin nj\u00eb \u201chap\u00ebsir\u00eb\u201d, hap\u00ebsir\u00eb shtes\u00eb p\u00ebr l\u00ebvizjen e rrym\u00ebs n\u00eb kristal. N\u00eb fund rezultonte nj\u00eb polus\u00ebpol semikonduktori tip p (me shum\u00eb ngarkesa pozitive). Elementet nga kolona e pest\u00eb, si fosfori, ofronin elektrone t\u00eb lira shtes\u00eb p\u00ebr transportimin e rrym\u00ebs, dhe krijohej nj\u00eb polus\u00ebpol semikonduktori tip n.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit, pjesa 2: nga furrat e luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/065eeabf6c247a41cfb05093bf8d3a64.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Struktura kristalore e silikoni<\/i><\/p>\n<p>T\u00eb gjitha k\u00ebto hulumtime ishin shum\u00eb interesante, megjithat\u00eb deri n\u00eb vitin 1940, Southworth dhe Ola nuk arrit\u00ebn t\u00eb krijonin nj\u00eb prototip funksional t\u00eb radarit me frekuenc\u00eb t\u00eb lart\u00eb. Qeveria britanike k\u00ebrkonte rezultate praktike t\u00eb menj\u00ebhershme p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb k\u00ebrc\u00ebnimit q\u00eb po iu afruante nga Luftwaffe, e cila kishte krijuar tashm\u00eb detektues mikrovijal\u00eb t\u00eb gatsh\u00ebm p\u00ebr prodhim, t\u00eb cil\u00ebt funksiononin n\u00eb \u00e7ift me transmetuesit magnetron.<\/p>\n<p>Megjithat\u00eb, s\u00eb shpejti ekuilibri i arritjeve teknike do t\u00eb kalonte n\u00eb an\u00ebn per\u00ebndimore t\u00eb Atlantikut. Churchill vendosi t\u00eb zbuloj\u00eb t\u00eb gjitha sekrethet teknike t\u00eb Britanis\u00eb amerikaneve edhe para se t\u00eb hynte v\u00ebrtet n\u00eb luft\u00eb (sepse, si\u00e7 mendonte ai, kjo do t\u00eb ndodhte prap\u00eb). Ai e mendonte se kishte vler\u00eb t\u00eb rrezikonte rrjedhjen e informacionit, pasi t\u00eb gjitha mund\u00ebsit\u00eb industriale t\u00eb SHBA-s\u00eb do t\u00eb ishin drejtuar p\u00ebr zgjidhjen e problemeve si arma b\u00ebrthamore dhe radar\u00ebt. Misioni shkencor dhe teknik britanik (m\u00eb i njohur si <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tizard_Mission\">misioni Tizard<\/a><\/noindex>) mb\u00ebrriti n\u00eb Washington n\u00eb shtator t\u00eb vitit 1940 dhe solli n\u00eb bagazhe nj\u00eb dhurat\u00eb n\u00eb form\u00ebn e mrekullive teknologjike.<\/p>\n<p>Zbulimi i fuqis\u00eb s\u00eb pabesueshme t\u00eb magnetronit rezonues dhe efektiviteti i detektor\u00ebve kristalor britanik\u00eb n\u00eb marrjen e sinjalit t\u00eb tij aktivizoi hulumtimet amerikane n\u00eb fush\u00ebn e materialeve gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues\u00eb si baz\u00eb p\u00ebr radar\u00ebt me frekuenc\u00eb t\u00eb lart\u00eb. Duhej t\u00eb b\u00ebhej shum\u00eb pun\u00eb, ve\u00e7an\u00ebrisht n\u00eb fush\u00ebn e shkencave t\u00eb materialeve. P\u00ebr t\u00eb p\u00ebrmbushur k\u00ebrkesat, ishte e nevojshme q\u00eb kristal\u00ebt gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues t\u00eb prodhoheshin me miliona, shum\u00eb m\u00eb tep\u00ebr se \u00e7'kishte qen\u00eb e mundur m\u00eb par\u00eb. Duhej t\u00eb p\u00ebrmir\u00ebsohej drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsimi, t\u00eb reduktohej ndjeshm\u00ebria ndaj goditjeve dhe probabiliteti i digjes, si dhe t\u00eb minimizohej diferenca midis partive t\u00eb ndryshme t\u00eb kristaleve.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit, pjesa 2: nga furrat e luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/e91a9d61d7a3b34a7cb7efc59ad2cacf.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsi silikoni me kontakt pik\u00eb<\/i><\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb Rad Lab u hap\u00ebn departamente t\u00eb reja k\u00ebrkimore p\u00ebr t\u00eb studiuar vetit\u00eb e kristaleve gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues dhe se si mund t\u00eb modifikoheshin ato p\u00ebr t\u00eb maksimizuar vetit\u00eb e vlera n\u00eb rol si marr\u00ebs. Materialet m\u00eb premtuese ishin silic dhe german, prandaj n\u00eb Rad Lab kishin vendosur t\u00eb siguroheshin dhe filluan programe paralele p\u00ebr studimin e t\u00eb dyjave: silic n\u00eb Universitetin e Pensilvanis\u00eb dhe german n\u00eb Purdue. Gigant\u00ebt industrial\u00eb si Bell, Westinghouse, Du Pont dhe Sylvania filluan programet e tyre p\u00ebr hulumtimin e gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesve dhe nis\u00ebn zhvillimin e kapaciteteve t\u00eb reja prodhuese p\u00ebr detektor\u00ebt kristalor\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>Me p\u00ebrpjekjet e p\u00ebrbashk\u00ebta, past\u00ebrtia e kristaleve t\u00eb silicons dhe germanit arriti t\u00eb ngrihej nga 99% n\u00eb fillim deri n\u00eb 99,999% \u2014 dometh\u00ebn\u00eb, deri n\u00eb nj\u00eb grimc\u00eb ndot\u00ebs p\u00ebr 100,000 atome. Gjat\u00eb k\u00ebtij procesi, stafi i shkenc\u00ebtar\u00ebve dhe inxhinier\u00ebve u njoh ngusht\u00eb me vetit\u00eb abstrakte t\u00eb germanit dhe silicons dhe teknologjit\u00eb praktike p\u00ebr kontrollimin e tyre: shkrirja, rritja e kristaleve, shtimi i ndot\u00ebsve t\u00eb nevojsh\u00ebm (si bora, e cila rritte drejtshkrimin).<\/p>\n<p>Dhe pastaj lufta p\u00ebrfundoi. K\u00ebrkesa p\u00ebr radar\u00eb u zhduk, por njohurit\u00eb dhe aft\u00ebsit\u00eb e fituara gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs nuk u humb\u00ebn, nd\u00ebrsa \u00ebndrra p\u00ebr nj\u00eb amplifikator t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb nuk u harua. Tani gara ishte p\u00ebr krijimin e nj\u00eb amplifikatori t\u00eb till\u00eb. Dhe, t\u00eb pakt\u00ebn, tre ekipe ishin n\u00eb pozita t\u00eb favorshme p\u00ebr t\u00eb fituar k\u00ebt\u00eb \u00e7mim.<\/p>\n<h2>Uest-Lafajet\u00eb<\/h2>\n<p>\nE para e par\u00eb ishte nj\u00eb grup nga Universiteti Purdue n\u00ebn drejtimin e fizikantit me origjin\u00eb austriake Karl Lark-Horowitz. Ai, me talentin dhe ndikimin e tij, e nxori n\u00eb nj\u00ebfar\u00eb m\u00ebnyre departamentin e fizik\u00ebs nga harresa dhe ndikoi n\u00eb vendimin e Rad Lab p\u00ebr t'i deleguar laboratorit t\u00eb tij studiohet mbi germaniumin.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit, pjesa 2: nga furrat e luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/537267231b55feaedce69e7191597d4b.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Karl Lark-Horowitz n\u00eb vitin 1947, n\u00eb qend\u00ebr, me nj\u00eb pip\u00eb.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb fillim t\u00eb viteve 1940, silikoni konsiderohej materiali m\u00eb i mir\u00eb p\u00ebr drejtp\u00ebrdredh\u00ebsit radar\u00eb, megjithat\u00eb materiali q\u00eb ndodhej pik\u00ebrisht n\u00ebn t\u00eb n\u00eb tabel\u00ebn periodike dukej gjithashtu i denj\u00eb p\u00ebr studime m\u00eb t\u00eb m\u00ebtejshme. Germaniumi kishte nj\u00eb avantazh praktik fal\u00eb pik\u00ebs m\u00eb t\u00eb ul\u00ebt t\u00eb shkrirjes: rreth 940 grad\u00eb, n\u00eb krahasim me 1400 grad\u00eb p\u00ebr silikonin (praktikisht si \u00e7eliku). P\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb temperatur\u00ebs s\u00eb lart\u00eb t\u00eb shkrirjes, ishte jasht\u00ebzakonisht e v\u00ebshtir\u00eb t\u00eb b\u00ebje nj\u00eb grimc\u00eb q\u00eb t\u00eb mos rrjedh\u00eb n\u00eb silikonin e shkrir\u00eb, duke e ndotur at\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>Prandaj, Lark-Horowitz dhe koleg\u00ebt e tij e kaluan gjith\u00eb luft\u00ebn n\u00eb studimin e vetive kimike, elektrike dhe fizike t\u00eb germaniumit. Pengesa m\u00eb e madhe ishte \"ndeshja e prapme\": drejtp\u00ebrdredh\u00ebsit e germaniumit, n\u00eb tension shum\u00eb t\u00eb ul\u00ebt, ndalonin s\u00eb drejtuari rrym\u00ebn dhe lejonin q\u00eb ajo t\u00eb rrjedh\u00eb n\u00eb drejtimin e kund\u00ebrt. Impulsi i rrym\u00ebs prap\u00ebseprap\u00eb i digjte komponent\u00ebt e tjer\u00eb t\u00eb radarit. Nj\u00eb nga student\u00ebt e doktorat\u00ebs s\u00eb Lark-Horowitz, Seymour Benzer, studioi k\u00ebt\u00eb problem p\u00ebr m\u00eb shum\u00eb se nj\u00eb vit dhe p\u00ebrfundimisht zhvilloi nj\u00eb shtes\u00eb t\u00eb bazuar n\u00eb plumb q\u00eb ndalonte impulsin prapavij\u00eb n\u00eb tensionet deri n\u00eb nj\u00ebqind volt. Shpejt pas k\u00ebsaj, Western Electric, dega e prodhimit e laboratorit Bell, filloi t\u00eb l\u00ebshoj\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdredh\u00ebsit q\u00eb funksiononin sipas skem\u00ebs s\u00eb Benzer p\u00ebr nevoja ushtarake.<\/p>\n<p>Studimi i germani n\u00eb Purdue vazhdoi edhe pas luft\u00ebs. N\u00eb qershor 1947, Benzer, duke qen\u00eb profesor tashm\u00eb, raportoi p\u00ebr nj\u00eb anomali t\u00eb pazakont\u00eb: n\u00eb disa eksperimente n\u00eb kristalet e germani, shfaqeshin oscillacione me frekuenc\u00eb t\u00eb lart\u00eb. Kollgji i tij, Ralph Bray, vazhdoi studimin e \"rezistenc\u00ebs volumetrike\" sipas nj\u00eb projekti t\u00eb filluar gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs. Rezistenca volumetrike p\u00ebrshkroi se si elektriku rrjedh n\u00eb kristalin e germani n\u00eb pik\u00ebn e kontaktit t\u00eb drejtuesit. Bray zbuloi se impulsat e tensionit t\u00eb lart\u00eb e zvog\u00eblonin ndjesh\u00ebm rezistenc\u00ebn e germani n-tipe ndaj k\u00ebtyre rrjedhave. Pa e ditur at\u00eb, ai u b\u00eb d\u00ebshmitar i atyre q\u00eb quheshin \"n\u00eb mb\u00ebshtetje\" t\u00eb bart\u00ebsve t\u00eb ngarkes\u00ebs. N\u00eb gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit n-tipe, ngarkesa negative e tepruar sh\u00ebrbehet si bart\u00ebse kryesore e ngarkes\u00ebs, por \"vrimat\" pozitive gjithashtu mund t\u00eb transferojn\u00eb rrym\u00eb, dhe n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb rast, impulsat e tensionit t\u00eb lart\u00eb krijonin vrima n\u00eb struktur\u00ebn e germani, duke b\u00ebr\u00eb q\u00eb t\u00eb shfaqeshin bart\u00ebsit e ngarkes\u00ebs n\u00eb mb\u00ebshtetje.<\/p>\n<p>Bray dhe Benzer ishin shum\u00eb af\u00ebr zbulimit t\u00eb amplifikatorit t\u00eb germani, pa e kuptuar k\u00ebt\u00eb. Benzer kapti Walter Brattain, nj\u00eb shkenc\u00ebtar nga laborator\u00ebt Bell, n\u00eb nj\u00eb konferenc\u00eb n\u00eb janar 1948, p\u00ebr t\u00eb diskutuar rreth rezistenc\u00ebs volumetrike. Ai i sugjeroi Brattain t\u00eb vendos\u00eb nj\u00eb kontakt tjet\u00ebr pikor pran\u00eb t\u00eb parit, i cili mund t\u00eb nd\u00ebrtonte rrym\u00eb, dhe ndoshta mund t\u00eb kuptonin se \u00e7far\u00eb ndodhte posht\u00eb sip\u00ebrfaqes. Brattain pranoi qet\u00ebsisht k\u00ebt\u00eb propozim dhe u largua. Si\u00e7 do t\u00eb shohim, ai e dinte shum\u00eb mir\u00eb se \u00e7far\u00eb mund t\u00eb zbulonte nj\u00eb eksperiment i till\u00eb.<\/p>\n<h2>One-su-Bois<\/h2>\n<p>\nGrupi nga Purdue kishte si teknologjit\u00eb ashtu edhe bazat teorike p\u00ebr t\u00eb b\u00ebr\u00eb nj\u00eb hap drejt tranzistorit. Por ata mund ta hasnin at\u00eb vet\u00ebm rast\u00ebsisht. Ata ishin t\u00eb interesuar p\u00ebr vetit\u00eb fizike t\u00eb materialit, jo p\u00ebr k\u00ebrkimin e nj\u00eb pajisjeje t\u00eb re. Nj\u00eb situat\u00eb krejt\u00ebsisht ndryshe mbizot\u00ebronte n\u00eb One-su-Bois (Franca), ku dy ish-recherche radar\u00ebsh nga Gjermania, Heinrich Welker dhe Herbert Matara, drejtonin nj\u00eb ekip q\u00eb synonte krijimin e pajisjeve industriale gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues\u00ebse.<\/p>\n<p>Velker filloi si studjues dhe m\u00eb pas si profesor fizik\u00eb n\u00eb Universitetin e Mynihut, i drejtuar nga teoretiku i njohur Arnold Sommerfeld. Q\u00eb nga viti 1940, ai e la rrug\u00ebn e past\u00ebr teorike dhe filloi t\u00eb punonte mbi radar\u00ebt p\u00ebr Luftwaffen. Matar\u00e9 (me origjin\u00eb belge) u rrit n\u00eb Aachen, ku studioi fizik\u00eb. Ai iu bashkua departamentit t\u00eb k\u00ebrkimeve t\u00eb gigantit gjerman t\u00eb radios Telefunken n\u00eb vitin 1939. Gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs, ai e shp\u00ebrnguli pun\u00ebn e tij nga Berlini n\u00eb lindje n\u00eb nj\u00eb abat n\u00eb Silesia p\u00ebr t\u00eb shmangur sulmet ajrore t\u00eb koalicionit anti-Hitlerian, dhe pastaj p\u00ebrs\u00ebri n\u00eb per\u00ebndim p\u00ebr t\u00eb shmangur ushtrin\u00eb e kuqe, duke p\u00ebrfunduar k\u00ebshtu n\u00eb duar t\u00eb ushtris\u00eb amerikane.<\/p>\n<p>Ashtu si rival\u00ebt e tyre nga koalicioni anti-Hitlerian, gjerman\u00ebt n\u00eb fillim t\u00eb viteve 1940 e dinin se detektor\u00ebt kristalor\u00eb ishin pranues ideal\u00eb p\u00ebr radar\u00ebt dhe se siliciumi dhe germani ishin materialet m\u00eb premtuese p\u00ebr krijimin e tyre. Matar\u00e9 dhe Velker gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs p\u00ebrpiqeshin t\u00eb p\u00ebrmir\u00ebsonin p\u00ebrdorimin efikas t\u00eb k\u00ebtyre materialeve n\u00eb drejtuesit. Pas luft\u00ebs, t\u00eb dy u p\u00ebrball\u00ebn me ndjekje periodike t\u00eb lidhura me pun\u00ebn e tyre ushtarake, dhe p\u00ebrfundimisht mor\u00ebn nj\u00eb ftes\u00eb nga nj\u00eb spiun francez n\u00eb Paris n\u00eb vitin 1946.<\/p>\n<p>Compagnie des Freins &amp; Signaux (\u2018kompania e frenave dhe sinjalit\u2019), nj\u00eb n\u00ebn-nd\u00ebrmarrje franceze e Westinghouse, mori nj\u00eb kontrat\u00eb nga menaxhmenti telefonik francez p\u00ebr t\u00eb krijuar drejtues t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb dhe k\u00ebrkoi ndihm\u00ebn e shkenc\u00ebtar\u00ebve gjerman\u00eb. Nj\u00eb aleanc\u00eb e till\u00eb mes armik\u00ebve t\u00eb fundit mund t\u00eb duket e \u00e7uditshme, mir\u00ebpo kjo marr\u00ebveshje u tregua mjaft e favorshme p\u00ebr t\u00eb dyja pal\u00ebt. Fransuz\u00ebt, t\u00eb mundur n\u00eb vitin 1940, nuk kishin mund\u00ebsi t\u00eb fitonin njohuri n\u00eb fush\u00ebn e gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesve dhe u duheshin me ngulm aft\u00ebsit\u00eb e gjerman\u00ebve. Gjerman\u00ebt nuk mund t\u00eb zhvillonin projekte n\u00eb fushat e larta teknologjike n\u00eb nj\u00eb vend t\u00eb okupuar dhe t\u00eb shkat\u00ebrruar nga lufta, ndaj kap\u00ebn mund\u00ebsin\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb vazhduar pun\u00ebn.<\/p>\n<p>Velker dhe Matar\u00e9 i dhan\u00eb form\u00eb nj\u00eb qendre n\u00eb nj\u00eb sht\u00ebpi me dy kate n\u00eb periferi t\u00eb Parisit, Oney-sous-Bois, dhe me ndihm\u00ebn e nj\u00eb ekipi teknik\u00ebsh, arrit\u00ebn t\u00eb organizojn\u00eb nj\u00eb prodhim t\u00eb suksessh\u00ebm t\u00eb drejtuesve t\u00eb germaniut deri n\u00eb fund t\u00eb vitit 1947. M\u00eb pas, ata u kthyen n\u00eb \u00e7mime m\u00eb serioze: Velker u rikthye te interesat e tij mbi superp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit, nd\u00ebrsa Matar\u00e9 te amplifikator\u00ebt.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit, pjesa 2: nga furrat e luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/0e2b1d04e85c02f64555fc137ba65eae.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Herbert Matar\u00e9 n\u00eb vitin 1950<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs, Matare eksperimentoi me drejtp\u00ebrd\u00ebssit me dy pika kontakti - \"duodiode\" - n\u00eb p\u00ebrpjekje p\u00ebr t\u00eb reduktuar zhurm\u00ebn n\u00eb kontur. Ai rinovoi eksperimentet dhe p\u00ebr her\u00eb t\u00eb par\u00eb zbuloi se pika e dyt\u00eb \"mjekra e maceve\", e vendosur n\u00eb 1\/100 milion t\u00eb nj\u00eb metri nga e para, ndonj\u00ebher\u00eb mund t\u00eb modifikonte rrym\u00ebn q\u00eb kalonte p\u00ebrmes mjekr\u00ebs s\u00eb par\u00eb. Ai krijoi nj\u00eb amplifikator me gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues, ndon\u00ebse mjaft t\u00eb padobish\u00ebm. P\u00ebr t\u00eb arritur nj\u00eb funksionim m\u00eb t\u00eb besuesh\u00ebm, ai iu drejtua Welker-it, i cili kishte grumbulluar nj\u00eb p\u00ebrvoj\u00eb t\u00eb madhe me kristalet e germaniumit gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs. Ekipi i Welker-it rriti mostra m\u00eb t\u00eb m\u00ebdha dhe m\u00eb t\u00eb pastra t\u00eb kristaleve t\u00eb germaniumit, dhe s\u00eb bashku me p\u00ebrmir\u00ebsimin e cil\u00ebsis\u00eb s\u00eb materialit, deri n\u00eb qershor 1948 amplifikator\u00ebt me kontakt pikor t\u00eb Matares u b\u00ebn\u00eb t\u00eb besuesh\u00ebm.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit, pjesa 2: nga furrat e luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/a8144b93316280b86206f061db496895.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Pamja e r\u00ebntgenit e \"transistorit\" t\u00eb bazuar n\u00eb skem\u00ebn e Matares, e cila ka dy pika kontakti me germanium<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Matare madje kishte nj\u00eb model teorik t\u00eb asaj q\u00eb ndodhte: ai besonte se kontakti i dyt\u00eb krijonte vrima n\u00eb germanium, duke nxitur kalimin e rrym\u00ebs p\u00ebrmes kontaktit t\u00eb par\u00eb, duke ofruar bart\u00ebs t\u00eb ngarkesave jo dominant\u00eb. Welker nuk ishte dakord me t\u00eb dhe besonte se ajo q\u00eb ndodhte varet nga nj\u00eb efekt ndonj\u00ebher\u00eb elektrik. Megjithat\u00eb, para se ata t\u00eb mund t\u00eb punonin n\u00eb pajisjen ose teorin\u00eb, ata m\u00ebsuan se nj\u00eb grup amerikan\u00ebsh kishte zhvilluar pik\u00ebrisht t\u00eb nj\u00ebjt\u00ebn koncept - amplifikatori me germanium me dy pika kontakti - gjasht\u00eb muaj m\u00eb her\u00ebt.<\/p>\n<h2>Murray Hill<\/h2>\n<p>\nN\u00eb fund t\u00eb luft\u00ebs, Mervin Kelly reformoi grupin hulumtues t\u00eb laborator\u00ebve Bell, i angazhuar me p\u00ebrgjith\u00ebsimin e gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesve me Bill Shockley n\u00eb krye. Projekti u zgjerua, mori m\u00eb shum\u00eb financim dhe u t\u00ebrhoq nga nd\u00ebrtesa origjinale e laborator\u00ebve n\u00eb Manhattan n\u00eb kampusin n\u00eb zgjerim n\u00eb Murray Hill (New Jersey).<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit, pjesa 2: nga furrat e luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/560531e9e37e48adf34d521238d1f77c.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Kampusi n\u00eb Murray Hill, rreth 1960<\/i><\/p>\n<p>P\u00ebr t\u00eb ri-njohur me gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit e avancuar (pas k\u00ebrkimeve operacionale q\u00eb zhvilloi gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs), n\u00eb pranver\u00ebn e vitit 1945, Shockley vizitoi laboratorin e Russell Ohl n\u00eb Holmdel. Ohl kishte kaluar vitet e luft\u00ebs duke punuar me silikonin dhe nuk kishte humbur koh\u00eb. Ai i tregoi Shockley nj\u00eb amplifikues t\u00eb thjesht\u00eb t\u00eb nd\u00ebrtuar vet\u00eb, t\u00eb quajtur \"dezi-sht\u00ebr\". Ai mori nj\u00eb drejtues silikoni t\u00eb kontaktit t\u00eb pik\u00ebs dhe e kaloi nj\u00eb rrym\u00eb nga nj\u00eb bateri. Duke u bazuar n\u00eb t\u00eb, nxeht\u00ebsia e bateris\u00eb kishte ulur rezistenc\u00ebn p\u00ebrmes pik\u00ebs s\u00eb kontaktit, duke e transformuar drejtuesin n\u00eb nj\u00eb amplifikues i aft\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb transmetuar sinjalet radio n\u00eb nj\u00eb qark t\u00eb mjaftuesh\u00ebm p\u00ebr t\u00eb ushqyer nj\u00eb altoparlant.<\/p>\n<p>Efekti ishte i thjesht\u00eb dhe i pasigurt, i pap\u00ebrshtatsh\u00ebm p\u00ebr treg\u00ebtim. Megjithat\u00eb, ai mjaftoi p\u00ebr t\u00eb konfirmuar mendimin e Shockley p\u00ebr mund\u00ebsin\u00eb e krijimit t\u00eb nj\u00eb amplifikuesi gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues, dhe se kjo duhej t\u00eb ishte nj\u00eb prioritet n\u00eb k\u00ebrkimin n\u00eb fush\u00ebn e elektronik\u00ebs q\u00ebndrueshm\u00eb. Po ashtu, kjo takim me ekipin e Ohl e bindin Shockley se silikoni dhe germani duhej studiuar si prioritet. Ata demonstronin veti elektrike t\u00ebrheq\u00ebse, p\u00ebr m\u00eb tep\u00ebr, koleg\u00ebt e Ohl, metalurg\u00ebt Jack Scaff dhe Henry Tereer, kishin arritur p\u00ebrparime t\u00eb jasht\u00ebzakonshme n\u00eb rritjen, pastrimin dhe shtimin e p\u00ebrb\u00ebr\u00ebsve n\u00eb k\u00ebto kristale gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs, duke e tejkaluar \u00e7do teknologji q\u00eb kishte ekzistuar p\u00ebr materialet e tjera gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues. Grupi i Shockley nuk kishte m\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb humbur koh\u00eb me amplifikuesit e para-luft\u00ebs nga oksidi i bakrit.<\/p>\n<p>Me ndihm\u00ebn e Kelly, Shockley filloi t\u00eb mbledh\u00eb nj\u00eb ekip t\u00eb ri. Nd\u00ebr lojtar\u00ebt ky\u00e7 ishte Walter Brattain, i cili ndihmoi Shockley me p\u00ebrpjekjen e tij t\u00eb par\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb krijuar nj\u00eb amplifikues gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues (n\u00eb vitin 1940) dhe John Bardeen, nj\u00eb fizikant i ri dhe punonj\u00ebs i ri n\u00eb laborator\u00ebt Bell. Bardeen, ndoshta, kishte njohurit\u00eb m\u00eb t\u00eb gjera mbi fizik\u00ebn e trupave t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb nga t\u00eb gjith\u00eb an\u00ebtar\u00ebt e ekipit \u2013 disertacioni i tij p\u00ebrshkruante nivelet e energjis\u00eb s\u00eb elektroneve n\u00eb struktur\u00ebn e natriumit metalik. Ai gjithashtu ishte nj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr protez\u00eb e John Hays Brattain, ashtu si Atanasoff dhe Brattain.<\/p>\n<p>Si si Atnasov, disertacionet e Bardinit dhe Shockley k\u00ebrkonin llogaritje shum\u00eb komplekse. Ata duhej t\u00eb p\u00ebrdornin teorin\u00eb kuantike t\u00eb gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesve, t\u00eb p\u00ebrcaktuar nga Alan Wilson, p\u00ebr t\u00eb llogaritur struktur\u00ebn energetike t\u00eb materialeve me ndihm\u00ebn e nj\u00eb kalkulatori Monro. Duke ndihmuar n\u00eb krijimin e transistorit, ata n\u00eb thelb kontribuan n\u00eb \u00e7lirimin e doktorant\u00ebve t\u00eb ardhsh\u00ebm nga nj\u00eb pun\u00eb e till\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>Qasja e par\u00eb e Shockley n\u00eb p\u00ebrforcuesin solid t\u00eb etiketuar si \u201c<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%AD%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F\">efekti i fush\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex>\u201d. Ai varte nj\u00eb pllak\u00eb metalike mbi gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesin tip n (me nj\u00eb tepric\u00eb t\u00eb ngarkesave negative). Aplikimi i nj\u00eb ngarkese pozitive n\u00eb pllak\u00eb nxirrte tepric\u00ebn e elektroneve n\u00eb sip\u00ebrfaqen e kristalit, duke krijuar nj\u00eb lum\u00eb ngarkesash negative, p\u00ebrmes t\u00eb cilit mund t\u00eb kalonte leht\u00ebsisht rryma elektrike. Sinjali i p\u00ebrforcuar (i p\u00ebrfaq\u00ebsuar nga niveli i ngarkes\u00ebs n\u00eb pllak\u00eb) mund t\u00eb modifikonte n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb rrym\u00ebn kryesore (q\u00eb kalon mbi sip\u00ebrfaqen e gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit). Funksionimi i k\u00ebsaj skeme i ishte sugjeruar nga njohurit\u00eb e tij teorike n\u00eb fizik\u00eb. Por, pavar\u00ebsisht nga eksperimente t\u00eb shumta dhe provokime, skema nuk funksionoi kurr\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>deri n\u00eb mars 1946, Bardini kishte krijuar nj\u00eb teori t\u00eb mir\u00eb-punuar, q\u00eb shpjegonte arsyen e k\u00ebsaj: sip\u00ebrfaqja e gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit n\u00eb nivelin kuantik sillet ndryshe nga interiori i tij. Ngarkesat negative, q\u00eb t\u00ebrhiqeshin n\u00eb sip\u00ebrfaqe, kapeshin n\u00eb \"gjendjet sip\u00ebrfaq\u00ebsore\" dhe bllokonin dep\u00ebrtimin e fush\u00ebs elektrike nga pllaka n\u00eb material. An\u00ebtar\u00ebt e tjer\u00eb t\u00eb ekipit e gjet\u00ebn k\u00ebt\u00eb analiz\u00eb bind\u00ebse dhe nis\u00ebn nj\u00eb program t\u00eb ri k\u00ebrkimor n\u00eb tre drejtime:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>T\u00eb provojn\u00eb ekzistenc\u00ebn e gjendjeve sip\u00ebrfaq\u00ebsore.<\/li>\n<li>T\u00eb studiojn\u00eb pronat e tyre.<\/li>\n<li>T\u00eb mendojn\u00eb se si t\u00eb kap\u00ebrcejn\u00eb ato dhe t\u00eb krijojn\u00eb nj\u00eb <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80\">transistor fushor funksional<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Pas nj\u00eb ndarje prej nj\u00eb viti e gjysm\u00eb k\u00ebrkimesh dhe eksperimentesh, m\u00eb 17 n\u00ebntor 1947, Bretejn b\u00ebri nj\u00eb hap p\u00ebrpara. Ai zbuloi se n\u00ebse vendosni nj\u00eb l\u00ebng t\u00eb mbushur me joana, p\u00ebr shembull, uj\u00eb, midis nj\u00eb pllake dhe nj\u00eb polup\u00ebr\u00e7uesi, fusha elektrike nga pllakati do t\u00eb shtyj\u00eb jonet drejt polup\u00ebr\u00e7uesit, ku ato do t\u00eb neutralizojn\u00eb ngarkesat e kapura n\u00eb gjendjet sip\u00ebrfaq\u00ebsore. Tani ai mund t\u00eb kontrollonte sjelljen elektrike t\u00eb nj\u00eb cope siliciumi duke ndryshuar ngarkes\u00ebn n\u00eb pllak\u00eb. Ky sukses i dha Bardinit iden\u00eb p\u00ebr nj\u00eb qasje t\u00eb re n\u00eb krijimin e amplifikatorit: t\u00eb rrethonte pik\u00ebn e kontaktit t\u00eb drejtuesit me uj\u00eb elektrolitik, dhe pastaj t\u00eb p\u00ebrdorte nj\u00eb tel t\u00eb dyt\u00eb n\u00eb uj\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb kontrolluar gjendjet sip\u00ebrfaq\u00ebsore, dhe n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb t\u00eb rregullonte nivelin e drejtueshm\u00ebris\u00eb s\u00eb kontaktit baz\u00eb. K\u00ebshtu Bardini dhe Bretejn arrit\u00ebn n\u00eb vij\u00ebn e finishit.<\/p>\n<p>Ideja e Bardinit funksionoi, megjithat\u00eb amplifikimi ishte i dob\u00ebt dhe punonte n\u00eb frekuenca shum\u00eb t\u00eb ulta, q\u00eb ishin t\u00eb pap\u00ebrshtatshme p\u00ebr veshin e njeriut \u2013 prandaj ishte e pavler\u00eb si amplifikator telefonik apo radiosh. Bardini propozoi kalimin n\u00eb germanium, q\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb rezistent ndaj tensioneve t\u00eb kund\u00ebrta dhe u prodhua n\u00eb Purdue, duke menduar se n\u00eb sip\u00ebrfaqen e tij do t\u00eb grumbulloheshin m\u00eb pak ngarkesa. Papritmas ata mor\u00ebn nj\u00eb amplifikim t\u00eb fuqish\u00ebm, por n\u00eb drejtimin e kund\u00ebrt nga ai q\u00eb prisnin. Ata zbuluan efektin e bart\u00ebsve t\u00eb pap\u00ebrfunduar \u2013 n\u00eb vend t\u00eb elektron\u00ebve t\u00eb pritur, intensiteti q\u00eb kalonte p\u00ebrmes germaniumit amplifikonte vrimat q\u00eb vinin nga elektroliti. Intensiteti n\u00eb telin n\u00eb elektrolit krijoi nj\u00eb shtres\u00eb p-tipi (nj\u00eb zon\u00eb me ngarkesa pozitive t\u00eb tepruara) n\u00eb sip\u00ebrfaqen e germaniumit n-tipi.<\/p>\n<p>Eksperimentet e m\u00ebpasshme treguan se elektroliti n\u00eb fakt nuk ishte i nevojsh\u00ebm: thjesht duke vendosur dy pika kontakti pran\u00eb nj\u00ebra-tjetr\u00ebs n\u00eb sip\u00ebrfaqen e germaniumit, mund t\u00eb modifikonin intensitetin nga nj\u00ebra n\u00eb tjetr\u00ebn. P\u00ebr t'i vendosur sa m\u00eb pran\u00eb, Bretejn mb\u00ebshtolli nj\u00eb cop\u00eb me folio ari rreth nj\u00eb cope plastike n\u00eb form\u00eb trek\u00ebnd\u00ebshi, dhe pastaj me kujdes e pren\u00eb folion n\u00eb skaj. M\u00eb pas, me ndihm\u00ebn e nj\u00eb springu, ai e shtypte trek\u00ebnd\u00ebshin n\u00eb germanium, duke b\u00ebr\u00eb q\u00eb dy skajet e prerjes t\u00eb preknin sip\u00ebrfaqen e tij n\u00eb nj\u00eb distanc\u00eb prej 0.05 mm. Kjo i dha prototipit t\u00eb transistorit nga laborator\u00ebt Bell pamjen e tij karakteristike:<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit, pjesa 2: nga furrat e luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/ffead032339d3960dfce3a691005f6e1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Prototipi i transistorit t\u00eb Bretejn dhe Bardinit<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Si Matara dhe Velkera, ky ishte, n\u00eb thelb, nj\u00eb \"mustak mace\", thjesht me dy pika kontakti n\u00eb vend t\u00eb nj\u00eb. M\u00eb 16 dhjetor, ai arriti nj\u00eb p\u00ebrforcim t\u00eb konsideruesh\u00ebm t\u00eb energjis\u00eb dhe tensionit, si dhe nj\u00eb frekuenc\u00eb prej 1000 Hz brenda gam\u00ebs s\u00eb d\u00ebgjueshme. Nj\u00eb jav\u00eb m\u00eb pas, pas disa p\u00ebrmir\u00ebsimeve t\u00eb vogla, Bardin dhe Brettain mor\u00ebn nj\u00eb p\u00ebrforcim t\u00eb tensionit 100 her\u00eb dhe t\u00eb energjis\u00eb 40 her\u00eb, dhe demonstruan drejtor\u00ebve t\u00eb Bell-it se pajisja e tyre mund t\u00eb riprodhonte fjal\u00eb t\u00eb d\u00ebgjueshme. John Pierce, nj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr an\u00ebtar i ekipit zhvillues t\u00eb pajisjeve t\u00eb ngurta, krijoi termin \"tranzistor\" si nj\u00eb referenc\u00eb nga emri i drejtuesit t\u00eb Bell-it mbi oksidin e bakrit, varistorin.<\/p>\n<p>Gjat\u00eb gjasht\u00eb muajve t\u00eb ardhsh\u00ebm, laboratori e mbajti krijes\u00ebn e re n\u00eb sekret. Menaxhmenti donte t\u00eb sigurohej q\u00eb do t\u00eb kishin nj\u00eb avantazh n\u00eb realizimin e mund\u00ebsive tregtare t\u00eb tranzistorit para se ta merrte ndokush tjet\u00ebr. Konferenca p\u00ebr shtyp u caktua p\u00ebr 30 qershor 1948, pik\u00ebrisht n\u00eb koh\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb shkat\u00ebrruar t\u00eb gjitha \u00ebndrrat e Velkera dhe Matara p\u00ebr amshim. Nd\u00ebrkoh\u00eb, grupi i k\u00ebrkimeve mbi gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit u shp\u00ebrb\u00eb n\u00eb heshtje. Duke d\u00ebgjuar p\u00ebr arritjet e Bardin dhe Brettain, shefi i tyre, Bill Shockley, filloi t\u00eb punonte p\u00ebr t'u atribuuar gjith\u00eb fam\u00ebn. Edhe pse ai luante vet\u00ebm nj\u00eb rol v\u00ebzhgues, n\u00eb prezantimin publik, Shockley mori po aq, n\u00ebse jo m\u00eb shum\u00eb, publicitet - gj\u00eb q\u00eb duket nga kjo fotografi e publikuar, ku ai \u00ebsht\u00eb n\u00eb qend\u00ebr t\u00eb ngjarjeve, direkt pran\u00eb tavolin\u00ebs s\u00eb laboratoriumit:<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit, pjesa 2: nga furrat e luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/5f65d24d08f716197396b59aa12b4a2d.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Fotografia reklamore e vitit 1948 \u2013 Bardin, Shockley dhe Brettain<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Megjithat\u00eb, Shockley nuk ishte i k\u00ebnaqur me fame t\u00eb barabart\u00eb. Edhe para se ndokush jasht\u00eb laborator\u00ebve t\u00eb Bell-it t\u00eb dinte p\u00ebr tranzistorin, ai filloi p\u00ebrs\u00ebri shpikjen e tij, p\u00ebr ta marr\u00eb p\u00ebr vete. Dhe kjo ishte vet\u00ebm e para nga shum\u00eb shpikje t\u00eb ngjashme.<\/p>\n<h2>\u00c7far\u00eb t\u00eb lexoni tjet\u00ebr<\/h2>\n<p><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Robert Buderi, The Invention That Changed the World (1996)<\/li>\n<li>Michael Riordan, \u201cHow Europe Missed the Transistor,\u201d IEEE Spectrum (1 N\u00ebntor, 2005)<\/li>\n<li>Michael Riordan dhe Lillian Hoddeson, Zjarri i Kristalit (1997)<\/li>\n<li>Armand Van Dormael, \u201cThe \u2018French\u2019 Transistor,\u201d <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cdvandt.org\/VanDormael.pdf\">www.cdvandt.org\/VanDormael.pdf<\/a><\/noindex> (1994)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Burimi: <a content=\"nofollow\" rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">habr.com<\/a><\/p>","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430: \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f 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