{"id":55070,"date":"2020-01-11T00:00:00","date_gmt":"2020-01-10T21:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/blog\/blog_prohoster\/istoriya-tranzistora-chast-2-iz-gornila-vojny"},"modified":"2020-02-18T14:03:09","modified_gmt":"2020-02-18T11:03:09","slug":"istoriya-tranzistora-chast-2-iz-gornila-vojny","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-tranzistora-chast-2-iz-gornila-vojny","title":{"rendered":"Historia e transistorit, pjesa 2: nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs","gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"text"}]},"content":{"rendered":"<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit, pjesa 2: nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/cff070a7b083f5b3945308e20ef9789d.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<br \/>\n<b class=\"spoiler_title\">Artikuj t\u00eb tjer\u00eb t\u00eb ciklit:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Historia e rel\u00e8?\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404373\/\">Metoda e 'shpejt\u00eb t\u00eb transmetimit t\u00eb informacionit', apo Lindja e rel\u00e8?<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404475\/\">P\u00ebrshkruesi i larg\u00ebsis\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/370545\/\">Galvanizmi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404657\/\">Sip\u00ebrmarr\u00ebsit<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404723\/\">Dhe ja, p\u00ebrfundimisht, rel\u00e8<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404889\/\">Telegrafi fol\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405025\/\">Thjesht bashkoni<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/company\/mailru\/blog\/370471\/\">Gjenerata e harruar e kompjuter\u00ebve rel\u00e8<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">Epoka elektronike<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e kompjuter\u00ebve elektronik\u00eb\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408611\/\">Prologu<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/374043\/\">Kolosi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408597\/\">ENIAC <\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Revolucioni elektronik<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e transistorit\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">Duke u p\u00ebrpjekur me duar n\u00eb err\u00ebsir\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">Nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\"><\/a><\/noindex><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/449760\/\">Shum\u00eb her\u00eb e ri-shpikur<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e internetit\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450168\/\">Rrjeti mb\u00ebshtet\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450522\/\">Shkat\u00ebrrimi, pjesa 1<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/451606\/\">Shkat\u00ebrrimi, pjesa 2<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/452030\/\">Duke hapur interaktivitetin<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/453154\/\">Duke zgjeruar interaktivitetin<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">ARPANET \u2014 lindja<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">ARPANET \u2014 pacet<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/461177\/\">ARPANET \u2014 n\u00ebnrrjeti<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/472582\/\">Kompjuteri si nj\u00eb pajisje komunikimi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/483366\/\">Historia e internetit: nd\u00ebrveprimi i rrjeteve<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\nFushta e luft\u00ebs p\u00ebrgatiti terrenin p\u00ebr shfaqjen e transistorit. Nga viti 1939 deri n\u00eb 1945, njohurit\u00eb teknike n\u00eb fush\u00ebn e gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesve u zhvilluan jasht\u00ebzakonisht shum\u00eb. Dhe kishte nj\u00eb arsye t\u00eb thjesht\u00eb p\u00ebr k\u00ebt\u00eb: radari. Teknologjia m\u00eb e r\u00ebnd\u00ebsishme e luft\u00ebs, me disa shembuj aplikimesh: zbulimi i sulmeve ajrore, k\u00ebrkimi i n\u00ebndet\u00ebses, drejtim i sulmeve ajrore nat\u00ebn n\u00eb objektiva, dhe udh\u00ebzimi i mjeteve t\u00eb mbrojtjes ajrore dhe armatimeve detare. Inxhinier\u00ebt madje m\u00ebsuan si t\u00eb vendosin radar\u00eb t\u00eb vegj\u00ebl n\u00eb predha artilerie, n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb q\u00eb ato t\u00eb shp\u00ebrthenin kur kalonin af\u00ebr objektivit \u2013 <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B7%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C\">gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit radio<\/a><\/noindex>. Megjithat\u00eb, burimi i k\u00ebsaj teknologjie t\u00eb fuqishme ushtarake ishte nj\u00eb fush\u00eb m\u00eb paq\u00ebsore: studimi i shtresave t\u00eb sip\u00ebrme t\u00eb atmosfer\u00ebs p\u00ebr q\u00ebllime shkencore.<br \/>\n<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" name=\"habracut\"><\/a><\/noindex><\/p>\n<h2>Radari<\/h2>\n<p>\nN\u00eb vitin 1901, kompania \"Telegrifi Pa Energji Marconi\" transmetoi me sukses nj\u00eb mesazh pa tel p\u00ebrmes Oqeanit Atlantik, nga Kornualla n\u00eb Newfoundland. Ky fakt solli konfuzion n\u00eb shkenc\u00ebn moderne. N\u00ebse transmetimet radio l\u00ebvizin n\u00eb nj\u00eb vij\u00eb t\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00eb (si\u00e7 pritet), nj\u00eb transmetim i till\u00eb duhet t\u00eb ishte i pamundur. Nd\u00ebrmjet Anglis\u00eb dhe Kanadas\u00eb nuk ka nj\u00eb linj\u00eb t\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00eb shikimi q\u00eb t\u00eb mos kaloj\u00eb mbi tok\u00eb, prandaj mesazhi i Marconi duhet t\u00eb ket\u00eb fluturuar n\u00eb hap\u00ebsir\u00eb. Inxhinieri amerikan Arthur Kennelly dhe fizikanti britanik Oliver Heaviside n\u00eb t\u00eb nj\u00ebjt\u00ebn koh\u00eb dhe n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb t\u00eb pavarur sugjeruan se shpjegimi i k\u00ebtij fenomeni duhet t\u00eb lidhet me nj\u00eb shtres\u00eb gazi t\u00eb ionizuar q\u00eb ndodhet n\u00eb shtresat e sip\u00ebrme t\u00eb atmosfer\u00ebs, e cila \u00ebsht\u00eb n\u00eb gjendje t\u00eb reflektoj\u00eb val\u00ebt radio prapa n\u00eb Tok\u00eb (vet\u00eb Marconi mendonte se val\u00ebt radio ndjekin k\u00ebndin e sip\u00ebrfaqes s\u00eb Tok\u00ebs, megjithat\u00eb fizikant\u00ebt nuk e mb\u00ebshtet\u00ebn at\u00eb).<\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb vitet 1920, shkenc\u00ebtar\u00ebt zhvilluan nj\u00eb aparat t\u00eb ri q\u00eb fillimisht provoi ekzistenc\u00ebn e ionosfer\u00ebs dhe pastaj studioi struktur\u00ebn e saj. Ata p\u00ebrdor\u00ebn lampat elektronike p\u00ebr t\u00eb gjeneruar impulset radio me val\u00eb t\u00eb shkurtra, antenat e drejtuara p\u00ebr t'i d\u00ebrguar ato lart n\u00eb atmosfer\u00eb dhe p\u00ebr t\u00eb regjistruar jehon\u00eb, dhe <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE-%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B\">aparate me rreze elektrone<\/a><\/noindex> p\u00ebr t\u00eb demonstruar rezultatet. Sa m\u00eb e madhe t\u00eb ishte vonesa e rikthimit t\u00eb jehon\u00ebs, aq m\u00eb larg duhej t\u00eb ishte ionosfera. Kjo teknologji u quajt sondimi atmosferik dhe ofroi infrastruktur\u00ebn teknike baz\u00eb p\u00ebr krijimin e radarit (termini \"radar\", nga RAdio Detection And Ranging, shfaqet vet\u00ebm n\u00eb vitet 1940 n\u00eb marin\u00ebn ushtarake t\u00eb SHBA).<\/p>\n<p>Ishte vet\u00ebm nj\u00eb \u00e7\u00ebshtje kohe q\u00eb njer\u00ebzit me njohurit\u00eb, burimet dhe motivimin e duhur kuptuan potencialin e p\u00ebrdorimit tok\u00ebsor t\u00eb k\u00ebtij ekipamenti (k\u00ebshtu, historia e radarit \u00ebsht\u00eb e kund\u00ebrt me at\u00eb t\u00eb teleskopit, i cili fillimisht ishte planifikuar p\u00ebr p\u00ebrdorim tok\u00ebsor). Dhe probabiliteti i nj\u00eb ndri\u00e7imi t\u00eb till\u00eb rritej nd\u00ebrsa radion po e p\u00ebrhapej gjithnj\u00eb e m\u00eb shum\u00eb n\u00eb planet, dhe gjithnj\u00eb e m\u00eb shum\u00eb njer\u00ebz v\u00ebrejt\u00ebn nd\u00ebrhyrjet q\u00eb vinin nga anijet, avion\u00ebt dhe objekte t\u00eb tjera t\u00eb m\u00ebdha q\u00eb ndodheshin af\u00ebr. Njohurit\u00eb nga teknologjit\u00eb e sondimit t\u00eb shtresave t\u00eb sip\u00ebrme t\u00eb atmosfer\u00ebs u p\u00ebrhap\u00ebn gjat\u00eb vitit t\u00eb dyt\u00eb <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4\">Nd\u00ebrkomb\u00ebtar t\u00eb Pushtetit Polar<\/a><\/noindex> (1932-1933), kur shkenc\u00ebtar\u00ebt nga stacionet e ndryshme arktike hartuan nj\u00eb hart\u00eb t\u00eb ionosfer\u00ebs. Pak pas k\u00ebsaj, ekipet n\u00eb Britani, SHBA, Gjermani, Itali, BRSS dhe vende t\u00eb tjera zhvilluan sistemet e tyre m\u00eb t\u00eb thjeshta t\u00eb radarit.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit, pjesa 2: nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/a85e0d4cec7bba6ab1fea42422b906b0.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BD-%D0%A3%D0%BE%D1%82%D1%82,_%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%82\">Robert Watson-Watt<\/a><\/noindex> me radarine tij t\u00eb vitit 1935<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Pastaj ndodhi lufta, dhe r\u00ebnd\u00ebsia e radar\u00ebve p\u00ebr vendet - dhe burimet p\u00ebr zhvillimin e tyre - u rrit n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb dramatike. N\u00eb SHBA, k\u00ebto burime u mblodh\u00ebn rreth nj\u00eb organizate t\u00eb re, t\u00eb themeluar n\u00eb vitin 1940 n\u00eb MIT, e njohur si <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/MIT_Radiation_Laboratory\">Rad Lab<\/a><\/noindex> (e quajti k\u00ebshtu n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb q\u00eb t\u00eb mashtrohej spiun\u00ebve t\u00eb huaj dhe t\u00eb krijohej p\u00ebrshtypja se laboratori po hulumtonte radioaktivitetin - at\u00ebher\u00eb, pak besonin n\u00eb bombat atomike). Projekti Rad Lab, i cili nuk u b\u00eb aq i njohur sa projekti Manhattan, megjithat\u00eb, arriti t\u00eb bashkonte po aq shkenc\u00ebtar\u00eb t\u00eb jasht\u00ebzakonsh\u00ebm dhe t\u00eb talentuar nga t\u00eb gjith\u00eb SHBA-t\u00eb. Pes\u00eb nga punonj\u00ebsit e par\u00eb t\u00eb laboratorit (p\u00ebrfshir\u00eb <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81,_%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B8%D1%81\">Luis Alvarez<\/a><\/noindex> dhe <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B8,_%D0%98%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%90%D0%B9%D0%B7%D0%B5%D0%BA\">Isidor Isaac Rabi<\/a><\/noindex>) m\u00eb von\u00eb mor\u00ebn \u00c7mime Nobeli. Deri n\u00eb fund t\u00eb luft\u00ebs, n\u00eb laborator punonin rreth 500 doktor\u00eb shkencash, shkenc\u00ebtar\u00eb dhe inxhinier\u00eb, nd\u00ebrsa gjithsej punonin 4000 persona.500,000 dollar\u00eb \u2013 q\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb e barabart\u00eb me buxhetin e plot\u00eb t\u00eb krijimit t\u00eb ENIAC \u2013 u shpenzuan vet\u00ebm p\u00ebr botimin e Radiation Laboratory Series, nj\u00ebzet e shtat\u00eb v\u00ebllime, n\u00eb t\u00eb cilat u p\u00ebrshkrua e gjith\u00eb njohuria e fituar n\u00eb laborator gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs (nd\u00ebrkoh\u00eb q\u00eb shpenzimet e qeveris\u00eb amerikane p\u00ebr teknologjit\u00eb e radarit nuk u kufizuan vet\u00ebm n\u00eb buxhetin e Rad Lab; gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs qeveria bleu radar\u00eb n\u00eb vler\u00eb prej tre miliard\u00eb dollar\u00ebsh).<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit, pjesa 2: nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/71dd40bc59a59a891eba0a244d94fdbc.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Korpusi 20 i MIT, ku ndodhej Rad Lab<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Nj\u00eb nga fushat kryesore t\u00eb k\u00ebrkimeve nga Rad Lab ishte radari me frekuenc\u00eb t\u00eb lart\u00eb. Radar\u00ebt e hersh\u00ebm p\u00ebrdornin vale me gjat\u00ebsi q\u00eb mateshin n\u00eb metra. Por rrezet me frekuenc\u00eb m\u00eb t\u00eb lart\u00eb, gjat\u00ebsi vale t\u00eb cilave mateshin n\u00eb centimetra \u2013 mikroval\u00ebt \u2013 lejonin p\u00ebrdorimin e antenave m\u00eb kompakte dhe shkaktonin m\u00eb pak shp\u00ebrndarje n\u00eb distanca t\u00eb m\u00ebdha, duke premtuar p\u00ebrfitime t\u00eb m\u00ebdha n\u00eb arritshm\u00ebrin\u00eb dhe sakt\u00ebsin\u00eb e funksionimit. Radar\u00ebt mikroval\u00eb mund t\u00eb vendoseshin n\u00eb hund\u00ebn e avionit dhe t\u00eb zbulonin objekte me madh\u00ebsi t\u00eb nj\u00eb periskopi n\u00ebndet\u00ebse.<\/p>\n<p>\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u043c\u0438 \u044d\u0442\u0443 \u0437\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0443 \u0443\u0434\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c \u0440\u0435\u0448\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043a\u043e\u043c\u0430\u043d\u0434\u0435 \u0431\u0440\u0438\u0442\u0430\u043d\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432 \u0438\u0437 \u0411\u0438\u0440\u043c\u0438\u043d\u0433\u0435\u043c\u0441\u043a\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0443\u043d\u0438\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438\u0442\u0435\u0442\u0430. \u0412 1940-\u043c \u043e\u043d\u0438 \u0440\u0430\u0437\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0438 &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD\">magnetron rezonator<\/a><\/noindex>&#171;, \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b \u043a\u0430\u043a \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0433\u043d\u0438\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u00ab\u0441\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u043a\u00bb, \u043f\u0440\u0435\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u044f \u0431\u0435\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0434\u043e\u0447\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438\u043c\u043f\u0443\u043b\u044c\u0441 \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u0430 \u0432 \u043c\u043e\u0449\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0438 \u0442\u043e\u0447\u043d\u043e \u043d\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u043b\u0443\u0447 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d. \u042d\u0442\u043e\u0442 \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0432 \u0442\u044b\u0441\u044f\u0447\u0443 \u0440\u0430\u0437 \u0431\u043e\u043b\u0435\u0435 \u043c\u043e\u0449\u043d\u044b\u043c \u043f\u043e \u0441\u0440\u0430\u0432\u043d\u0435\u043d\u0438\u044e \u0441 \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0436\u0430\u0439\u0448\u0438\u043c \u043a\u043e\u043d\u043a\u0443\u0440\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u043c; \u043e\u043d \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0440\u044b\u043b \u043f\u0443\u0442\u044c \u043a \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044e \u043f\u0440\u0430\u043a\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0442\u0447\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432. \u041e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e \u0435\u043c\u0443 \u0442\u0440\u0435\u0431\u043e\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u0430\u043d\u044c\u043e\u043d, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0451\u043c\u043d\u0438\u043a, \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0440\u0435\u0433\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u044b. \u0418 \u043d\u0430 \u044d\u0442\u043e\u043c \u043c\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0435 \u043c\u044b \u0432\u043e\u0437\u0432\u0440\u0430\u0449\u0430\u0435\u043c\u0441\u044f \u0432 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit, pjesa 2: nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/13f66e3564bea4c6795a774ef2412e99.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Magnetron n\u00eb seksion<\/i><\/p>\n<h2>Rikthimi i k\u00ebndit t\u00eb maceve<\/h2>\n<p>\n\u041e\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0441\u044c, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0435 \u043b\u0430\u043c\u043f\u044b \u0441\u043e\u0432\u0441\u0435\u043c \u043d\u0435 \u0431\u044b\u043b\u0438 \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043b\u0435\u043d\u044b \u0434\u043b\u044f \u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u044f\u0442\u0438\u044f \u043c\u0438\u043a\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043b\u043d\u043e\u0432\u044b\u0445 \u0441\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u043b\u043e\u0432 \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432. \u0420\u0430\u0437\u0440\u044b\u0432 \u043c\u0435\u0436\u0434\u0443 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0447\u0438\u043c \u043a\u0430\u0442\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c \u0438 \u0445\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u043c \u0430\u043d\u043e\u0434\u043e\u043c \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0451\u0442 \u0451\u043c\u043a\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c, \u0438\u0437-\u0437\u0430 \u0447\u0435\u0433\u043e \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0443\u0440 \u043e\u0442\u043a\u0430\u0437\u044b\u0432\u0430\u0435\u0442\u0441\u044f \u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u0438\u0445 \u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u0430\u0445. \u041d\u0430\u0438\u043b\u0443\u0447\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u0445\u043d\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433\u0438\u0435\u0439 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0432\u044b\u0441\u043e\u043a\u043e\u0447\u0430\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0442\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0440\u0430\u0434\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u0438\u0437 \u0434\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0443\u043f\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0431\u044b\u043b \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0440\u043e\u043c\u043e\u0434\u043d\u044b\u0439 &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">k\u00ebndi i maceve<\/a><\/noindex>&#187; \u2013 \u043d\u0435\u0431\u043e\u043b\u044c\u0448\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0442\u0440\u0435\u0437\u043e\u043a \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u0430, \u043f\u0440\u0438\u0436\u0430\u0442\u044b\u0439 \u043a \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u0432\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0443. \u042d\u0442\u043e \u043d\u0435\u0437\u0430\u0432\u0438\u0441\u0438\u043c\u043e \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433 \u043e\u0442 \u0434\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0430 \u043e\u0431\u043d\u0430\u0440\u0443\u0436\u0438\u043b\u0438 \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043a\u043e\u043b\u044c\u043a\u043e \u043b\u044e\u0434\u0435\u0439, \u043e\u0434\u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e \u043a \u043d\u0430\u0448\u0435\u0439 \u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u0438 \u0431\u043b\u0438\u0436\u0435 \u0432\u0441\u0435\u0433\u043e \u0442\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0438\u0441\u0445\u043e\u0434\u0438\u043b\u043e \u0432 \u041d\u044c\u044e-\u0414\u0436\u0435\u0440\u0441\u0438.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb vitin 1938, laborator\u00ebt Bell n\u00ebnshkruan nj\u00eb kontrat\u00eb me marin\u00ebn ushtarake p\u00ebr zhvillimin e radarit p\u00ebr menaxhimin e zjarrit n\u00eb gam\u00ebn 40 cm \u2013 kjo ishte shum\u00eb m\u00eb e shkurt\u00ebr dhe, si rezultat, m\u00eb e p\u00ebrshtatshme n\u00eb frekuenc\u00eb se sa radar\u00ebt ekzistues n\u00eb epok\u00ebn para magnetron\u00ebve rezonant\u00eb. Pjesa kryesore e k\u00ebrkimeve iu dha nj\u00eb nj\u00ebsie laborator\u00ebsh n\u00eb Holmdel, n\u00eb jug t\u00eb Staten Island. K\u00ebrkuesit nuk iu desh shum\u00eb koh\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb kuptuar se \u00e7far\u00eb do t'u nevojitej p\u00ebr nj\u00eb marr\u00ebs me frekuenc\u00eb t\u00eb lart\u00eb, dhe s\u00eb shpejti inxhinieri George Southworth po shfletonte dyqanet e pajisjeve elektronik\u00eb n\u00eb Manhattan n\u00eb k\u00ebrkim t\u00eb detektor\u00ebve t\u00eb vjet\u00ebr \u201emushka e katit\u201c. Si\u00e7 ishte parashikuar, ai funksiononte shum\u00eb m\u00eb mir\u00eb se detektori me tub, por e b\u00ebnte k\u00ebt\u00eb me paq\u00ebndrueshm\u00ebri. Prandaj, Southworth gjeti nj\u00eb elektro-kimik t\u00eb quajtur Russell All, dhe e k\u00ebrkoi at\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb p\u00ebrmir\u00ebsuar homogjenitetin e p\u00ebrgjigjes s\u00eb detektor\u00ebve kristalor\u00eb me nj\u00eb pik\u00eb kontakti.<\/p>\n<p>Ai ishte nj\u00eb njeri mjaft unik, q\u00eb e konsideronte zhvillimin e teknologjis\u00eb si fatin e tij, dhe tregonte p\u00ebr ndri\u00e7imet periodike me vizione t\u00eb s\u00eb ardhmes. P\u00ebr shembull, ai deklaronte se q\u00eb n\u00eb vitin 1939 e dinte p\u00ebr shpikjen e ardhshme t\u00eb p\u00ebrforcuesit me silic, por se fati kishte paracaktuar q\u00eb ta shpik\u00eb nj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr njeri. Pas studimit t\u00eb dhjet\u00ebra variant\u00ebve, ai u ndal te silici si materiali m\u00eb i mir\u00eb p\u00ebr receptor\u00ebt e Southworth. Problemi ishte mund\u00ebsia e kontrollit t\u00eb p\u00ebrb\u00ebrjes s\u00eb materialit, p\u00ebr t\u00eb menaxhuar vetit\u00eb e tij elektrike. At\u00ebher\u00eb, bolvan\u00ebt industrial\u00eb nga silici ishin gjer\u00ebsisht t\u00eb p\u00ebrhapur, p\u00ebrdoroheshin n\u00eb fabrikat e \u00e7elikut, por n\u00eb nj\u00eb prodhim t\u00eb till\u00eb askujt nuk i b\u00ebnte p\u00ebrshtypje, le t\u00eb themi, p\u00ebrmbajtja e 1% fosforit n\u00eb silic. Duke marr\u00eb ndihm\u00ebn e disa metalurg\u00ebve, Ai vendosi t\u00eb marr\u00eb bolvan\u00eb shum\u00eb m\u00eb t\u00eb past\u00ebr se sa ishin arritur m\u00eb par\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>Gjat\u00eb pun\u00ebs ata zbuluan se disa nga kristalet e tyre drejtonin elektricitetin n\u00eb nj\u00eb drejtim, nd\u00ebrsa t\u00eb tjer\u00ebt n\u00eb drejtimin tjet\u00ebr. Ata i quajt\u00ebn \"p-tip\" dhe \"n-tip\". Analiza m\u00eb e holl\u00ebsishme tregoi se k\u00ebto lloje ishin p\u00ebrgjegj\u00ebse p\u00ebr lloj t\u00eb ndrysh\u00ebm t\u00eb pap\u00ebrsosshm\u00ebrive. Silikoni ndodhet n\u00eb kolon\u00ebn e kat\u00ebrt t\u00eb tabel\u00ebs periodike t\u00eb Mendeleev, q\u00eb do t\u00eb thot\u00eb se ai ka kat\u00ebr elektrone n\u00eb shtres\u00ebn e jashtme. N\u00eb nj\u00eb bllok t\u00eb silikones m\u00eb t\u00eb past\u00ebr, secili prej k\u00ebtyre elektroneve do t\u00eb bashkohej me fqinj\u00ebt. Pap\u00ebrsosshit\u00eb nga kolona e tret\u00eb, le t\u00eb themi bor, e cila ka nj\u00eb elektron m\u00eb pak, krijonin nj\u00eb \"hapje\", nj\u00eb hap\u00ebsir\u00eb shtes\u00eb p\u00ebr l\u00ebvizjen e elektricitetit n\u00eb kristal. N\u00eb fund rezultonte nj\u00eb polup\u00ebr\u00e7ues p-tipi (me nj\u00eb tejkalim t\u00eb ngarkesave pozitive). Element\u00ebt e kolon\u00ebs s\u00eb pest\u00eb, p\u00ebr shembull fosfori, ofronin elektrone t\u00eb lira shtes\u00eb p\u00ebr bartjen e elektricitetit, dhe rezultonte nj\u00eb polup\u00ebr\u00e7ues n-tipi.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit, pjesa 2: nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/065eeabf6c247a41cfb05093bf8d3a64.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Struktura kristalore e silikones<\/i><\/p>\n<p>T\u00eb gjitha k\u00ebto studime ishin shum\u00eb interesante, megjithat\u00eb deri n\u00eb vitin 1940, Southworth dhe Ol nuk arrit\u00ebn t\u00eb krijonin nj\u00eb prototip funksional t\u00eb radarit t\u00eb frekuenc\u00ebs s\u00eb lart\u00eb. Qeveria Britanike n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb koh\u00eb k\u00ebrkonte rezultate praktike t\u00eb menj\u00ebhershme p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb k\u00ebrc\u00ebnimit t\u00eb madh nga Luftwaffe, ku tashm\u00eb ishin krijuar detektor\u00eb me mikrobanga gati p\u00ebr prodhim, q\u00eb funksiononin n\u00eb \u00e7ift me transmetuesit magnetron.<\/p>\n<p>Megjithat\u00eb, s\u00eb shpejti, balanca e arritjeve teknike do t\u00eb kalonte n\u00eb an\u00ebn per\u00ebndimore t\u00eb Atlantikut. Churchill vendosi t\u00eb zbulonte t\u00eb gjitha sekretet teknike t\u00eb Britanis\u00eb amerikan\u00ebve p\u00ebrpara se t\u00eb hynte v\u00ebrtet n\u00eb luft\u00eb (sepse, si\u00e7 e supozonte ai, kjo do t\u00eb ndodhte gjithsesi). Ai mendonte se ia vlen t\u00eb rrezikohej informacioni, pasi at\u00ebher\u00eb t\u00eb gjitha kapacitetet industriale t\u00eb SHBA do t\u00eb ishin t\u00eb p\u00ebrqendruara n\u00eb zgjidhjen e sfidave si arm\u00ebt atomike dhe radar\u00ebt. Misioni shkencor dhe teknik britanik (m\u00eb i njohur si <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Tizard_Mission\">misioni Tizard<\/a><\/noindex>) mb\u00ebrriti n\u00eb Washington n\u00eb Shtator 1940 dhe solli si dhurat\u00eb nj\u00eb bagazh t\u00eb mbushur me mrekulli teknike.<\/p>\n<p>Zbulesha fuqin\u00eb e pabesueshme t\u00eb magnetronit me rezonanc\u00eb dhe efikasitetin e detektor\u00ebve kristalor\u00eb britanik\u00eb n\u00eb marrjen e sinjalit t\u00eb tij, ringjalli k\u00ebrkimet amerikane n\u00eb fush\u00ebn e sistemit polup\u00ebr\u00e7ues si baze p\u00ebr radar\u00ebt me frekuenca t\u00eb larta. Kishim shum\u00eb pun\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb b\u00ebr\u00eb, ve\u00e7an\u00ebrisht n\u00eb fush\u00ebn e shkenc\u00ebs s\u00eb materialeve. P\u00ebr t\u00eb p\u00ebrmbushur k\u00ebrkesat, cristalet polup\u00ebr\u00e7ues \"duhej t\u00eb prodhoheshin n\u00eb miliona, shum\u00eb m\u00eb tep\u00ebr se sa ishte e mundur deri tani. Duhej t\u00eb p\u00ebrmir\u00ebsohej drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsia, t\u00eb zvog\u00eblohej ndjeshm\u00ebria ndaj goditjeve dhe mund\u00ebsia e djegies, dhe t\u00eb minimizohej diferenca nd\u00ebrmjet grupeve t\u00eb ndryshme t\u00eb cristal\u00ebve.\"<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit, pjesa 2: nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/e91a9d61d7a3b34a7cb7efc59ad2cacf.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Rrethuesi silikoni me kontakt pikor<\/i><\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb Rad Lab u hap\u00ebn departamente t\u00eb reja k\u00ebrkimore p\u00ebr t\u00eb studiuar pronat e kristaleve t\u00eb gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesve dhe se si ato mund t\u00eb modifikohen p\u00ebr t\u00eb maksimizuar vlerat e tyre si marr\u00ebs. Materialet m\u00eb premtuese ishin silikoni dhe germaniumi, k\u00ebshtu q\u00eb n\u00eb Rad Lab vendos\u00ebn t\u00eb siguruan nj\u00eb plan rezerv\u00eb dhe filluan programe paralele p\u00ebr studimin e t\u00eb dyve: silikoni n\u00eb Universitete e Pensilvanis\u00eb, nd\u00ebrsa germaniumi n\u00eb Purdue. Gjigant\u00ebt industrial\u00eb si Bell, Westinghouse, Du Pont dhe Sylvania filluan programet e tyre t\u00eb hulumtimit p\u00ebr gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit dhe filluan t\u00eb zhvillojn\u00eb kapacitete t\u00eb reja prodhimi p\u00ebr detektor\u00ebt kristalor\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>Me p\u00ebrpjekjet e p\u00ebrbashk\u00ebta, past\u00ebrtia e kristaleve t\u00eb silikoni dhe germaniumi arriti t\u00eb ngrihet nga 99% n\u00eb fillim n\u00eb 99,999% \u2014 q\u00eb do t\u00eb thot\u00eb, tek nj\u00eb grimc\u00eb ndot\u00ebs n\u00eb 100,000 atome. Gjat\u00eb k\u00ebtij procesi, stafi i shkenc\u00ebtar\u00ebve dhe inxhinier\u00ebve u njoh ngusht\u00eb me pronat abstrakte t\u00eb germaniumit dhe silikoni, si dhe teknologjit\u00eb praktike p\u00ebr kontrollin e tyre: shkrirja, rritja e kristaleve, shtimi i ndot\u00ebsve p\u00ebrkat\u00ebs (si bora, q\u00eb rritte ndihm\u00ebn).<\/p>\n<p>Dhe pastaj p\u00ebrfundoi lufta. K\u00ebrkesa p\u00ebr radar\u00eb u zhduk, por njohurit\u00eb dhe aft\u00ebsit\u00eb e fituara gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs nuk u zhduk\u00ebn, dhe \u00ebndrra p\u00ebr nj\u00eb amplifikator t\u00eb kalimtar\u00ebve nuk u harroj. Tani gar\u00eb ishte n\u00eb krijimin e nj\u00eb amplifikatori t\u00eb till\u00eb. Dhe, s\u00eb paku, tri skuadra ishin n\u00eb nj\u00eb pozit\u00eb t\u00eb favorshme p\u00ebr t\u00eb marr\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb \u00e7mim.<\/p>\n<h2>West Lafayette<\/h2>\n<p>\nGruaja e par\u00eb ishte nj\u00eb grup nga Universiteti Purdue n\u00ebn udh\u00ebheqjen e fizikantit me origjin\u00eb austrake, Karl Lark-Horowitz. Me ndihm\u00ebn e talentit dhe ndikimit t\u00eb tij, ai e nxori nj\u00ebher\u00eb dhe p\u00ebr gjithmon\u00eb departamentin fizik t\u00eb universitetit nga harresa dhe ndikoi n\u00eb vendimin e Rad Lab p\u00ebr t'i ngarkuar laboratorit t\u00eb tij hulumtimin mbi germanin.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit, pjesa 2: nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/537267231b55feaedce69e7191597d4b.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Karl Lark-Horowitz n\u00eb vitin 1947, n\u00eb qend\u00ebr, me nj\u00eb tub<\/i><\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb fillim t\u00eb viteve 1940, silikoni ishte konsideruar materiali m\u00eb i mir\u00eb p\u00ebr drejtuesit radar\u00eb, megjithat\u00eb materiali q\u00eb ndodhej direkt posht\u00eb tij n\u00eb tabel\u00ebn periodike gjithashtu dukej i merituar nj\u00eb studim m\u00eb t\u00eb thell\u00eb. Germania kishte nj\u00eb avantazh praktik p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb pik\u00ebs m\u00eb t\u00eb ul\u00ebt t\u00eb shkrirjes, rreth 940 grad\u00eb, krahasuar me 1400 grad\u00eb t\u00eb silikonit (pran\u00eb temperatur\u00ebs s\u00eb \u00e7elikut). P\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb temperatur\u00ebs s\u00eb lart\u00eb t\u00eb shkrirjes, ishte jasht\u00ebzakonisht e v\u00ebshtir\u00eb t\u00eb b\u00ebhej nj\u00eb form\u00eb q\u00eb t\u00eb mos shkrihej n\u00eb silikonin e shkrir\u00eb, duke e ndotur at\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>Prandaj, Lark-Horovitz dhe koleg\u00ebt e tij kaluan gjith\u00eb luft\u00ebn duke studiuar vetit\u00eb kimike, elektrike dhe fizike t\u00eb germanit. Pengesa kryesore ishte \"tensioni i kund\u00ebrt\": drejtuesit e germanit ndalonin s\u00eb p\u00ebrtypuri rrym\u00eb me tension shum\u00eb t\u00eb ul\u00ebt dhe lejonin q\u00eb ajo t\u00eb kalonte n\u00eb drejtimin e kund\u00ebrt. Impulsi i rrym\u00ebs s\u00eb kund\u00ebrt digjte komponent\u00ebt e tjer\u00eb t\u00eb radarit. Nj\u00eb nga student\u00ebt pasuniversitar\u00eb t\u00eb Lark-Horovitz, Seymour Benzer, studioi k\u00ebt\u00eb problem p\u00ebr m\u00eb shum\u00eb se nj\u00eb vit dhe m\u00eb n\u00eb fund zhvilloi nj\u00eb shtes\u00eb bazuar n\u00eb t\u00eb arit q\u00eb ndalonte impulset e kund\u00ebrta n\u00eb tensio deri n\u00eb nj\u00ebqind volt. Shum\u00eb shpejt pas k\u00ebsaj, Western Electric, nj\u00eb nj\u00ebsi prodhimi e laboratorit Bell, filloi t\u00eb jepte drejtuesit q\u00eb funksiononin sipas skem\u00ebs s\u00eb Benzerit, p\u00ebr nevoja ushtarake.<\/p>\n<p>Studimi i germaniumit n\u00eb Purdue vazhdoi edhe pas luft\u00ebs. N\u00eb qershor 1947, Benzer, duke qen\u00eb tashm\u00eb profesor, raportoi p\u00ebr nj\u00eb anomali t\u00eb pazakont\u00eb: n\u00eb disa eksperimente, n\u00eb kristalet e germaniumit shfaqeshin vibracione me frekuenc\u00eb t\u00eb lart\u00eb. Nd\u00ebrkoh\u00eb, kolegu i tij Ralph Bray vazhdoi studimin e \"p\u00ebr\u00e7arjes volumetrike\" sipas nj\u00eb projekti t\u00eb nisur gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs. P\u00ebrcarja volumetrike p\u00ebrshkruante se si elektri kalon n\u00eb nj\u00eb kristal germanium n\u00eb pik\u00ebn e kontaktit t\u00eb drejtuesit. Bray zbuloi se impulset e tensionit t\u00eb lart\u00eb reduktonin ndjesh\u00ebm rezistenc\u00ebn e germaniumit n-tip ndaj k\u00ebtyre rrjedhave. Pa e ditur, ai u b\u00eb d\u00ebshmitar i ashtuquajtur\u00ebve \"n\u00eb ngarkes\u00ebs\". N\u00eb gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit n-tip, ngarkesa negative e tepruar sh\u00ebrben si mb carryinguesi kryesor, por \"vrimat\" pozitive mund t\u00eb bartin gjithashtu rrym\u00ebn, dhe n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb rast impulsat me tension t\u00eb lart\u00eb krijonin vrima n\u00eb struktur\u00ebn e germaniumit, duke sjell\u00eb n\u00eb shfaqjen e mb carryinguesve t\u00eb rinj.<\/p>\n<p>Brey dhe Benzer ishin t\u00ebrhequr ngusht\u00eb pran\u00eb amplifikatorit german, pa e kuptuar k\u00ebt\u00eb. Benzer e kapti Walter Brattain, shkenc\u00ebtarin nga laborator\u00ebt Bell, n\u00eb nj\u00eb konferenc\u00eb n\u00eb janar t\u00eb vitit 1948, p\u00ebr t\u00eb biseduar mbi q\u00ebndres\u00ebn volumetrike. Ai i sugjeroi Brattain t\u00eb vendoste nj\u00eb kontakt tjet\u00ebr pikor af\u00ebr t\u00eb parit, i cili mund t\u00eb jet\u00eb n\u00eb gjendje t\u00eb kalonte rrym\u00ebn, dhe k\u00ebshtu, ndoshta, ata do t\u00eb mund t\u00eb kuptonin se \u00e7far\u00eb po ndodhte n\u00ebn sip\u00ebrfaqe. Brattain pranoi heshtazi k\u00ebt\u00eb propozim dhe u largua. Si\u00e7 do ta shohim, ai e dinte tep\u00ebr mir\u00eb se \u00e7far\u00eb mund t\u00eb zbulonte nj\u00eb eksperiment i till\u00eb.<\/p>\n<h2>One-su-Bois<\/h2>\n<p>\nGrupi nga Purdue kishte si teknologji ashtu edhe bazat teorike p\u00ebr t\u00eb b\u00ebr\u00eb nj\u00eb hap drejt transistorit. Por ata mund ta gjenin at\u00eb vet\u00ebm rast\u00ebsisht. Ata ishin t\u00eb interesuar p\u00ebr pronat fizike t\u00eb materialit, dhe jo p\u00ebr t\u00eb k\u00ebrkuar nj\u00eb pajisje t\u00eb re. Situata ishte krejt tjet\u00ebr n\u00eb One-su-Bois (Franc\u00eb), ku dy ish-hulumtues radar\u00ebsh nga Gjermania, Heinrich Welker dhe Herbert Matare, drejtonin nj\u00eb ekip me q\u00ebllim krijimin e pajisjeve industriale poluskonte.<\/p>\n<p>Vellker fillimisht studioi dhe m\u00eb pas m\u00ebsoi fizik\u00eb n\u00eb Universitetin e Mynihut, i drejtuar nga teoritiku i njohur Arnold Sommerfeld. Q\u00eb nga viti 1940, ai e braktisi rrug\u00ebn e past\u00ebr teorike dhe filloi t\u00eb punoj\u00eb n\u00eb radar p\u00ebr Luftwaffe. Matare (me origjin\u00eb belge) u rrit n\u00eb Aachen, ku studioi fizik\u00eb. Ai iu bashkua departamentit k\u00ebrkues t\u00eb gjigandit t\u00eb radios gjerman Telefunken n\u00eb vitin 1939. Gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs, ai e zhvendosi pun\u00ebn e tij nga Berlini n\u00eb lindje, n\u00eb nj\u00eb abaci n\u00eb Silezin\u00eb, p\u00ebr t\u00eb shmangur sulmet ajrore t\u00eb koalicionit anti-Hitler, dhe m\u00eb pas n\u00eb per\u00ebndim p\u00ebr t\u00eb evituar avancimin e Ushtris\u00eb s\u00eb Kuqe, duke p\u00ebrfunduar n\u00eb duar t\u00eb ushtris\u00eb amerikane.<\/p>\n<p>Si si bashk\u00ebpun\u00ebtor\u00ebt e tyre nga Koalicioni Antihitlerian, gjerman\u00ebt n\u00eb fillim t\u00eb viteve 1940 e dinin se detektor\u00ebt kristalor\u00eb ishin marr\u00ebsit ideal\u00eb p\u00ebr radar\u00ebt, dhe se silikoni dhe germani ishin materialet m\u00eb t\u00eb premtuara p\u00ebr krijimin e tyre. Matar\u00e9 dhe Welker gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs p\u00ebrpiqeshin t\u00eb p\u00ebrmir\u00ebsonin p\u00ebrdorimin efektiv t\u00eb k\u00ebtyre materialeve n\u00eb drejtuesit. Pas luft\u00ebs, t\u00eb dy ata ishin n\u00ebn hetime periodike rreth pun\u00ebs s\u00eb tyre ushtarake, dhe p\u00ebrfundimisht mor\u00ebn nj\u00eb ftes\u00eb nga nj\u00eb spiun francez n\u00eb Paris n\u00eb vitin 1946.<\/p>\n<p>Compagnie des Freins &amp; Signaux (\u00abkompania tormozov i signalov\u00bb), nj\u00eb nj\u00ebsi fr\u00ebnge e Westinghouse, mori nj\u00eb kontrat\u00eb nga administrata e telefonit francez p\u00ebr krijimin e drejtuesve t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb dhe k\u00ebrkonte ndihm\u00ebn e shkenc\u00ebtar\u00ebve gjerman\u00eb. Ky aleanc\u00eb mes armik\u00ebve t\u00eb fundit mund t\u00eb duket e \u00e7uditshme, megjithat\u00eb, kjo marr\u00ebveshje u tregua mjaft e favorshme p\u00ebr t\u00eb dyja pal\u00ebt. Francez\u00ebt, q\u00eb p\u00ebsuan humbje n\u00eb vitin 1940, nuk kishin mund\u00ebsi t\u00eb fitonin njohuri n\u00eb fush\u00ebn e gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesve dhe kishin nevoj\u00eb urgjente p\u00ebr aft\u00ebsit\u00eb e gjerman\u00ebve. Gjerman\u00ebt nuk ishin n\u00eb gjendje t\u00eb zhvillonin projekte n\u00eb \u00e7do fush\u00eb me teknologji t\u00eb lart\u00eb n\u00eb nj\u00eb vend t\u00eb pushtuar dhe t\u00eb shkat\u00ebrruar nga lufta, prandaj mor\u00ebn mund\u00ebsin\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb vazhduar pun\u00ebn.<\/p>\n<p>Welker dhe Matare organizuan nj\u00eb zyr\u00eb n\u00eb nj\u00eb nd\u00ebrtese dy-kat\u00ebshe n\u00eb periferi t\u00eb Parisit, Oney-sou-Bois, dhe me ndihm\u00ebn e nj\u00eb ekipi teknik\u00ebsh vendos\u00ebn nj\u00eb prodhim t\u00eb suksessh\u00ebm t\u00eb drejtuesve t\u00eb germaniit deri n\u00eb fund t\u00eb vitit 1947. M\u00eb pas, ata i kthyen v\u00ebmendjen \u00e7mimeve m\u00eb serioze: Welker u rikthye n\u00eb interesin e tij p\u00ebr superp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit, nd\u00ebrsa Matare p\u00ebr amplifikator\u00ebt.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit, pjesa 2: nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/0e2b1d04e85c02f64555fc137ba65eae.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Herbert Matare n\u00eb vitin 1950<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs, Matare eksperimentoi me drejtues q\u00eb kishin dy pika kontakti \u2013 \"duodioda\" \u2013 n\u00eb p\u00ebrpjekje p\u00ebr t\u00eb reduktuar zhurm\u00ebn n\u00eb rreth. Ai rifilloi eksperimentet dhe shpejt zbuloi se \"mishi i katit\" i dyt\u00eb, i vendosur n\u00eb 1\/100 milion t\u00eb metrit nga i pari, ndonj\u00ebher\u00eb mund t\u00eb modulonte rrym\u00ebn q\u00eb kalonte p\u00ebrmes mishi t\u00eb par\u00eb. Ai krijoi nj\u00eb p\u00ebrforcues t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb, megjith\u00ebse mjaft t\u00eb padobish\u00ebm. P\u00ebr t\u00eb arritur nj\u00eb funksionim m\u00eb t\u00eb besuesh\u00ebm, ai u drejtua te Velker, i cili kishte fituar nj\u00eb p\u00ebrvoj\u00eb t\u00eb madhe me kristalet e germaniumit gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs. Ekipi i Velkerit rriti mostra m\u00eb t\u00eb m\u00ebdha dhe m\u00eb t\u00eb pastra t\u00eb kristaleve t\u00eb germaniumit, dhe me p\u00ebrmir\u00ebsimin e cil\u00ebsis\u00eb s\u00eb materialit, deri n\u00eb qershor 1948, p\u00ebrforcuesit me kontakt pik\u00ebsor t\u00eb Matares ishin b\u00ebr\u00eb t\u00eb besuesh\u00ebm.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit, pjesa 2: nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/a8144b93316280b86206f061db496895.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Fotografia radiografike e \"transistorit\" t\u00eb bazuar n\u00eb skem\u00ebn e Matares, e cila ka dy pika kontakti me germaniumin.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb Matar, kishte nj\u00eb model teorik t\u00eb zhvillimeve: ai mendonte se kontakti i dyt\u00eb b\u00ebnte vrima n\u00eb Gjermani, duke p\u00ebrshpejtuar kalimin e rrym\u00ebs p\u00ebrmes kontaktit t\u00eb par\u00eb, duke furnizuar mbajt\u00ebsit e karik\u00ebs jo themelore. Velker nuk ishte dakord me t\u00eb dhe mendonte se \u00e7far\u00eb po ndodhte varej nga nj\u00eb efekt fushor. Megjithat\u00eb, para se ata t\u00eb mund t\u00eb zhvillonin pajisjen ose teorin\u00eb, ata m\u00ebsuan se nj\u00eb grup amerikan\u00ebsh kishte zhvilluar t\u00eb nj\u00ebjt\u00ebn koncept \u2013 amplifikuesin e germaniut me dy pika kontakti \u2013 gjasht\u00eb muaj m\u00eb par\u00eb.<\/p>\n<h2>Murray Hill<\/h2>\n<p>\nN\u00eb fund t\u00eb luft\u00ebs, Mervin Kelly reformoi grupin e k\u00ebrkimeve t\u00eb laborator\u00ebve Bell, i cili merrej me gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit me Bill Shockley n\u00eb krye. Projekti u zgjerua, mori m\u00eb shum\u00eb financim, dhe u shp\u00ebrngul nga nd\u00ebrtesa fillestare e laborator\u00ebve n\u00eb Manhattan n\u00eb kampusin n\u00eb rritje n\u00eb Murray Hill (New Jersey).<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit, pjesa 2: nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/560531e9e37e48adf34d521238d1f77c.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Kampusi n\u00eb Murray Hill, rreth 1960<\/i><\/p>\n<p>P\u00ebr t'u njohur s\u00ebrish me \u00e7ipet e avancuara (pas k\u00ebrkimeve t\u00eb tij mbi operacionet gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs), n\u00eb pranver\u00ebn e vitit 1945, Shockley vizitoi laboratorin e Russell Ohl n\u00eb Holmdel. Ohl kaloi vitet e luft\u00ebs duke punuar me silikon dhe nuk e humbi asnj\u00eb \u00e7ast. Ai i tregoi Shockley nj\u00eb amplifikues t\u00eb b\u00ebr\u00eb vet\u00eb, t\u00eb quajtur \"dezisster\". Ai mori nj\u00eb drejtues silicid t\u00eb kontaktit dhe e lidh at\u00eb me energji nga nj\u00eb bateri. Sipas dukjes, nxeht\u00ebsia e bateris\u00eb ndihmoi p\u00ebr t\u00eb ulur rezistenc\u00ebn p\u00ebrmes pik\u00ebs s\u00eb kontaktit dhe e kthente drejtuesin n\u00eb nj\u00eb amplifikues, i cili mund t\u00eb transmetonte sinjalet radio n\u00eb nj\u00eb kontur mjaft t\u00eb fuqish\u00ebm p\u00ebr t\u00eb fuqizuar nj\u00eb altoparlant.<\/p>\n<p>Efekti ishte i pap\u00ebrpikt\u00eb dhe i pasigurt\u00eb, i pap\u00ebrshtatsh\u00ebm p\u00ebr komercializim. Megjithat\u00eb, ishte i mjaftuesh\u00ebm p\u00ebr t\u00eb konfirmuar mendimin e Shockley mbi mund\u00ebsin\u00eb e krijimit t\u00eb nj\u00eb amplifikatori polup\u00ebr\u00e7ues dhe se kjo duhej t\u00eb b\u00ebhej nj\u00eb prioritet n\u00eb k\u00ebrkimin n\u00eb fush\u00ebn e elektronik\u00ebs s\u00eb ngurt\u00eb. Po ashtu, kjo takim me ekipin e Ola e bind\u00eb Shockley q\u00eb duhet t\u00eb studiohen fillimisht siliciumi dhe germani. Ato treguan pronat elektrike t\u00ebrheq\u00ebse, dhe p\u00ebr m\u00eb tep\u00ebr, koleg\u00ebt e Ol\u00ebs, metalurg\u00ebt Jack Scaff dhe Henry Terer arrit\u00ebn suksese t\u00eb jasht\u00ebzakonshme n\u00eb rritjen, pastrimin dhe shtimin e impuriteteve n\u00eb k\u00ebto kristale gjat\u00eb luft\u00ebs, duke e kaluar \u00e7do teknologji q\u00eb ekzistonte p\u00ebr materialet e tjera polup\u00ebr\u00e7ues. Grupi i Shockley nuk kishte m\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb humbur koh\u00eb me amplifikator\u00ebt para luft\u00ebs nga oksidi i bakrit.<\/p>\n<p>Me ndihm\u00ebn e Kelly, Shockley filloi t\u00eb formonte nj\u00eb ekip t\u00eb ri. N\u00eb mesin e lojtar\u00ebve kryesor\u00eb ishte Walter Brattain, q\u00eb iu ndihmoi Shockley-t me p\u00ebrpjekjen e tij t\u00eb par\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb krijuar nj\u00eb amplifikator gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues (n\u00eb 1940), dhe John Bardeen, nj\u00eb fizikant i ri dhe punonj\u00ebs i ri n\u00eb laborator\u00ebt Bell. Bardeen kishte ndoshta njohurit\u00eb m\u00eb t\u00eb thelluara n\u00eb fizik\u00ebn e trupave t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb nga t\u00eb gjith\u00eb an\u00ebtar\u00ebt e ekipit \u2013 disertacioni i tij p\u00ebrshkruante nivelet e energjis\u00eb s\u00eb elektroneve n\u00eb struktur\u00ebn e natriumit metalik. Ai gjithashtu ishte nj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr protezja e John Hasbrouck Van Fleck, si Atanasov dhe Brattain.<\/p>\n<p>Si n\u00eb rastin e Atanasov, disertacionet e Bardeen dhe Shockley k\u00ebrkonin llogaritje shum\u00eb komplekse. Ata duhej t\u00eb p\u00ebrdornin teorin\u00eb kuantike t\u00eb gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesve, t\u00eb p\u00ebrcaktuar nga Alan Wilson, p\u00ebr t\u00eb llogaritur struktur\u00ebn energjetike t\u00eb materialeve me an\u00eb t\u00eb nj\u00eb kalkulatori t\u00eb dor\u00ebs Monroe. Duke ndihmuar n\u00eb krijimin e transistorit, ata, n\u00eb thelb, kontribuan n\u00eb \u00e7lirimin e ardhsh\u00ebm t\u00eb doktorand\u00ebve nga nj\u00eb pun\u00eb e till\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>\u041f\u0435\u0440\u0432\u044b\u0439 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0445\u043e\u0434 \u0428\u043e\u043a\u043b\u0438 \u043a \u0442\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0434\u043e\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043c\u0443 \u0443\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0430\u0433\u0430\u043b\u0441\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u0442\u043e, \u0447\u0442\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0437\u0434\u043d\u0435\u0435 \u043d\u0430\u0437\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0438 &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%AD%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8F\">efekti i fush\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex>&#171;. \u041e\u043d \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0432\u0435\u0448\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b \u043c\u0435\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0443\u044e \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0443 \u043d\u0430\u0434 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u043e\u043c n-\u0442\u0438\u043f\u0430 (\u0441 \u0438\u0437\u0431\u044b\u0442\u043a\u043e\u043c \u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0437\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0434\u043e\u0432). \u041f\u0440\u0438\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0436\u0438\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e \u0437\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0430 \u043a \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435 \u0432\u044b\u0442\u044f\u0433\u0438\u0432\u0430\u043b\u043e \u0438\u0437\u0431\u044b\u0442\u043e\u043a \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043e\u0432 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u043a\u0440\u0438\u0441\u0442\u0430\u043b\u043b\u0430, \u0441\u043e\u0437\u0434\u0430\u0432\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043a\u0443 \u043e\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0446\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u044c\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u0437\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0434\u043e\u0432, \u043f\u043e \u043a\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043c\u043e\u0433 \u043b\u0435\u0433\u043a\u043e \u0442\u0435\u0447\u044c \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u043e\u043a. \u0423\u0441\u0438\u043b\u0438\u0432\u0430\u0435\u043c\u044b\u0439 \u0441\u0438\u0433\u043d\u0430\u043b (\u043f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0441\u0442\u0430\u0432\u043b\u0435\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0443\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043d\u0435\u043c \u0437\u0430\u0440\u044f\u0434\u0430 \u043d\u0430 \u043f\u043b\u0430\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0435) \u0442\u0430\u043a\u0438\u043c \u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043e\u043c \u043c\u043e\u0433 \u043c\u043e\u0434\u0443\u043b\u0438\u0440\u043e\u0432\u0430\u0442\u044c \u043e\u0441\u043d\u043e\u0432\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u043a\u043e\u043d\u0442\u0443\u0440 (\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0445\u043e\u0434\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u043f\u043e \u043f\u043e\u0432\u0435\u0440\u0445\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438 \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0443\u043f\u0440\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0434\u043d\u0438\u043a\u0430). \u0420\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u043e\u0441\u043f\u043e\u0441\u043e\u0431\u043d\u043e\u0441\u0442\u044c \u0434\u0430\u043d\u043d\u043e\u0439 \u0441\u0445\u0435\u043c\u044b \u0435\u043c\u0443 \u043f\u043e\u0434\u0441\u043a\u0430\u0437\u0430\u043b\u0438 \u0435\u0433\u043e \u0442\u0435\u043e\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0438\u0447\u0435\u0441\u043a\u0438\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u0437\u043d\u0430\u043d\u0438\u044f \u0432 \u0444\u0438\u0437\u0438\u043a\u0435. \u041d\u043e, \u043d\u0435\u0441\u043c\u043e\u0442\u0440\u044f \u043d\u0430 \u043c\u043d\u043e\u0436\u0435\u0441\u0442\u0432\u043e \u043e\u043f\u044b\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0438 \u044d\u043a\u0441\u043f\u0435\u0440\u0438\u043c\u0435\u043d\u0442\u043e\u0432, \u0441\u0445\u0435\u043c\u0430 \u0442\u0430\u043a \u0438 \u043d\u0435 \u0437\u0430\u0440\u0430\u0431\u043e\u0442\u0430\u043b\u0430.<\/p>\n<p>Deri n\u00eb mars 1946, Bardin kishte krijuar nj\u00eb teori t\u00eb mir\u00ebp\u00ebrpunuar q\u00eb shpjegonte arsyen e k\u00ebtij fenomeni: sip\u00ebrfaqja e polsemiconductor-it n\u00eb nivelin kuantik sillet ndryshe nga thell\u00ebsit\u00eb e tij. Ngarkesat negative q\u00eb t\u00ebrhiqeshin n\u00eb sip\u00ebrfaqe kapeshin n\u00eb \"gjendje sip\u00ebrfaq\u00ebsore\" dhe bllokonin dep\u00ebrtimin e fush\u00ebs elektrike nga pllak\u00eb n\u00eb material. An\u00ebtar\u00ebt e tjer\u00eb t\u00eb ekipit e konsideruan k\u00ebt\u00eb analiz\u00eb bind\u00ebse dhe nis\u00ebn nj\u00eb program t\u00eb ri k\u00ebrkues n\u00eb tri drejtime:<\/p>\n<ol>\n<li>T\u00eb provosh ekzistenc\u00ebn e gjendjeve sip\u00ebrfaq\u00ebsore.<\/li>\n<li>T\u00eb studosh pronat e tyre.<\/li>\n<li>T\u00eb imagjinosh se si t\u00eb fitohet mbi to dhe t\u00eb krijosh nj\u00eb <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80\">transistor fushor<\/a><\/noindex>.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n<p>Pas nj\u00eb viti e gjysm\u00eb k\u00ebrkimesh dhe eksperimenti, m\u00eb 17 n\u00ebntor 1947, Brettin b\u00ebri nj\u00eb p\u00ebrparim. Ai zbuloi se n\u00ebse vendosni nj\u00eb likuid t\u00eb mbushur me jona, p\u00ebr shembull, uj\u00eb, midis nj\u00eb pllake dhe nj\u00eb gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesi, fusha elektrike nga pllaka do t\u00eb shtynte jonet drejt gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit, ku ato do t\u00eb neutralizonin ngarkesat e kapura n\u00eb gjendjet sip\u00ebrfaq\u00ebsore. Tani ai mund t\u00eb kontrollonte sjelljen elektrike t\u00eb nj\u00eb blloku silikoni duke ndryshuar ngarkes\u00ebn n\u00eb pllaka. Ky sukses i dha Bardhin iden\u00eb p\u00ebr nj\u00eb qasje t\u00eb re n\u00eb krijimin e nj\u00eb amplifikatori: t\u00eb rrethoj\u00eb pik\u00ebn e kontaktit t\u00eb drejtuesit me uj\u00eb elektrolitik dhe m\u00eb pas t\u00eb p\u00ebrdor\u00eb nj\u00eb tel t\u00eb dyt\u00eb n\u00eb uj\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb kontrolluar gjendjet sip\u00ebrfaq\u00ebsore, dhe n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb t\u00eb menaxhoj\u00eb nivelin e p\u00ebr\u00e7ueshm\u00ebris\u00eb s\u00eb kontaktit kryesor. K\u00ebshtu Bardhi dhe Brettin arrit\u00ebn n\u00eb finish.<\/p>\n<p>Ideja e Bardinit funksionoi, megjithat\u00eb forca ishte e dob\u00ebt dhe punonte n\u00eb frekuenca shum\u00eb t\u00eb ulta, jasht\u00eb d\u00ebgjimit t\u00eb njeriut \u2013 k\u00ebshtu q\u00eb ishte e padobishme si forcuese telefonike ose radio. Bardini sugjeroi kalimin n\u00eb germanium t\u00eb q\u00ebndruesh\u00ebm ndaj tensionit t\u00eb kund\u00ebrt, t\u00eb prodhuar n\u00eb Purdue, duke besuar se mbi sip\u00ebrfaqen e tij do t\u00eb grumbullohej m\u00eb pak ngarkes\u00eb. Papritur ata mor\u00ebn nj\u00eb forcim t\u00eb fuqish\u00ebm, megjithat\u00eb n\u00eb drejtimin e kund\u00ebrt nga ai q\u00eb pritej. Ata e zbuluan efektin e bart\u00ebsve jo-n\u00ebnshtrues \u2013 n\u00eb vend t\u00eb elektroneve t\u00eb pritura, rryma q\u00eb kalonte p\u00ebrmes germaniumit forconte vrimat q\u00eb vinin nga elektroliti. Rryma n\u00eb tel n\u00eb elektrolit krijoi nj\u00eb shtres\u00eb p-tipi (zon\u00eb t\u00eb tep\u00ebrt me ngarkesa pozitive) mbi sip\u00ebrfaqen e germaniumit n-tipi.<\/p>\n<p>Eksperimentet e m\u00ebpasshme treguan se elektroliti n\u00eb t\u00eb v\u00ebrtet\u00eb nuk ishte i nevojsh\u00ebm: thjesht duke vendosur dy pika kontakti pran\u00eb nj\u00ebra-tjetr\u00ebs n\u00eb sip\u00ebrfaqen e germaniumit, ishte e mundur t\u00eb modulohej toka n\u00eb nj\u00ebra prej tyre me tok\u00ebn n\u00eb tjetr\u00ebn. P\u00ebr t'i sjell\u00eb ato sa m\u00eb af\u00ebr, Brettain e mb\u00ebshtolli nj\u00eb cop\u00eb ar n\u00eb form\u00ebn e nj\u00eb trek\u00ebnd\u00ebshi plastike dhe m\u00eb pas e preu me kujdes folin\u00eb n\u00eb fund. M\u00eb pas, duke p\u00ebrdorur nj\u00eb spring, ai synoi trek\u00ebnd\u00ebshin ndaj germaniumit, duke b\u00ebr\u00eb q\u00eb dy skajet e prerjes t\u00eb preknin sip\u00ebrfaqen e tij n\u00eb nj\u00eb distanc\u00eb prej 0.05 mm. Kjo i dha prototipit t\u00eb tranzistorit t\u00eb laborator\u00ebve Bell pamjen e tij karakteristike:<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit, pjesa 2: nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/ffead032339d3960dfce3a691005f6e1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Prototipi i tranzistorit t\u00eb Brettain dhe Bardeen<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Si\u00f1a dhe pajisja Matara dhe Velkera, kjo ishte, n\u00eb esenc\u00eb, nj\u00eb \"mustaqe t\u00eb maceve\" klasike, thjesht me dy pika kontakti n\u00eb vend t\u00eb nj\u00eb. M\u00eb 16 dhjetor, ai dha nj\u00eb forcim t\u00eb konsideruesh\u00ebm t\u00eb tensionit dhe fuqis\u00eb, dhe nj\u00eb frekuenc\u00eb prej 1000 Hz n\u00eb gam\u00ebn e d\u00ebgjueshme. Pas nj\u00eb jave, pas disa p\u00ebrmir\u00ebsimeve t\u00eb vogla, Bardin dhe Bretein mor\u00ebn nj\u00eb forcim t\u00eb tensionit 100 her\u00eb dhe t\u00eb fuqis\u00eb 40 her\u00eb, dhe demonstruan p\u00ebr drejtor\u00ebt e Bellit se pajisja e tyre mund t\u00eb riprodhoj\u00eb fjal\u00ebn e d\u00ebgjuar. John Pierce, nj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr an\u00ebtar i ekipit t\u00eb zhvillimit t\u00eb pajisjeve t\u00eb forta, shpiku termin \"tranzistor\" frym\u00ebzuar nga emri i drejtuesit t\u00eb Bellit mbi oksid bakri, varistor.<\/p>\n<p>Gjat\u00eb gjasht\u00eb muajve t\u00eb ardhsh\u00ebm, laboratori e mbajti krijimin e ri n\u00eb sekret. Drejtoria donte t\u00eb sigurohej q\u00eb do t\u00eb kishte nj\u00eb avantazh n\u00eb realizimin e mund\u00ebsive komerciale t\u00eb transistorit para se ta merrte dikush tjet\u00ebr. Konferenca p\u00ebr shtyp u caktua p\u00ebr 30 qershor 1948, pik\u00ebrisht n\u00eb koh\u00ebn e duhur p\u00ebr t\u00eb shkat\u00ebrruar t\u00eb gjitha \u00ebndrrat e Welker dhe Matare p\u00ebr amshimin. Nd\u00ebrkoh\u00eb, grupi i k\u00ebrkimeve t\u00eb polup\u00ebr\u00e7uesve u shp\u00ebrb\u00eb n\u00eb heshtje. Duke d\u00ebgjuar arritjet e Bardinit dhe Brettenit, shefi i tyre, Bill Shockley, filloi t\u00eb punonte p\u00ebr t'u atribuuar t\u00eb gjith\u00eb lavdin\u00eb. Dhe megjith\u00ebse ai luante vet\u00ebm nj\u00eb rol v\u00ebzhgues, n\u00eb prezantimin publik, Shockley mori po aq, n\u00ebse jo m\u00eb shum\u00eb reklam\u00eb - si\u00e7 tregohet n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb foto t\u00eb publikuar, ku ai \u00ebsht\u00eb n\u00eb mes t\u00eb ngjarjeve, pran\u00eb tavolin\u00ebs s\u00eb laboratorit:<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit, pjesa 2: nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/5f65d24d08f716197396b59aa12b4a2d.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Fotografia reklamimi e vitit 1948 - Bardin, Shockley dhe Bretten<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Megjithat\u00eb, Shockley nuk ishte i k\u00ebnaqur me nj\u00eblloj lavdie. Dhe qysh para se dikush jasht\u00eb laboratoreve Bell t\u00eb m\u00ebsonte p\u00ebr transistorin, ai e mori at\u00eb si t\u00eb vet\u00ebn duke e rinovuar. Dhe kjo ishte vet\u00ebm e para n\u00eb nj\u00eb s\u00ebr\u00eb rinovimesh t\u00eb ngjashme.<\/p>\n<h2>\u00c7far\u00eb tjet\u00ebr p\u00ebr t\u00eb lexuar<\/h2>\n<p><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Robert Buderi, Shkenca q\u00eb Ndryshoi Bot\u00ebn (1996)<\/li>\n<li>Michael Riordan, \u201cSi Evropa E Humbiti Transistorin,\u201d IEEE Spectrum (1 N\u00ebntor 2005)<\/li>\n<li>Michael Riordan dhe Lillian Hoddeson, Crystal Fire (1997)<\/li>\n<li>Armand Van Dormael, \u201cTransistori \u2018Fr\u00ebng\u2019,\u201d <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"http:\/\/www.cdvandt.org\/VanDormael.pdf\">www.cdvandt.org\/VanDormael.pdf<\/a><\/noindex> (1994)<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>Burimi: <a content=\"nofollow\" rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">habr.com<\/a><\/p>","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430: 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\u041c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u041e\u043f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u0442\u044c \u0420\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0434, [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[688],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-55070","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-administrirovanie"],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t<!-- All in One SEO 4.9.10 - aioseo.com -->\n\t<meta name=\"description\" content=\"\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430: 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