{"id":55071,"date":"2020-01-11T00:00:00","date_gmt":"2020-01-10T21:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/blog\/blog_prohoster\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote"},"modified":"2020-02-18T14:03:09","modified_gmt":"2020-02-18T11:03:09","slug":"istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote","title":{"rendered":"Historia e tranzistorit: duke ecur n\u00eb err\u00ebsir\u00eb","gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"text"}]},"content":{"rendered":"<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit: duke ecur n\u00eb err\u00ebsir\u00eb\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/16ad3c6eaa7f0e32992939696172bd90.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<br \/>\n<b class=\"spoiler_title\">Artikuj t\u00eb tjer\u00eb t\u00eb ciklit:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Historia e releve\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404373\/\">Metoda e \"shkarkimit t\u00eb shpejt\u00eb t\u00eb informacionit\", ose Lindja e releve<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404475\/\">Telegrafi i gjat\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/370545\/\">Galvanizmi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404657\/\">Sip\u00ebrmarr\u00ebsit<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404723\/\">Ja, m\u00eb n\u00eb fund, dhe releja<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404889\/\">Telegrafi i fol\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405025\/\">Thjesht p\u00ebr t'u lidhur<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/company\/mailru\/blog\/370471\/\">Nj\u00eb brez i harruar i kompjuter\u00ebve me rele<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">Epoka elektronike<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e kompjuter\u00ebve elektronik\u00eb\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408611\/\">Prologu<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/374043\/\">Kolosi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408597\/\">ENIAC <\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Revolucioni elektronik<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e tranzistorit\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">Duke u shmangur n\u00eb err\u00ebsir\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">Nga furra e luft\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\"><\/a><\/noindex><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/449760\/\">Riinovimi i shum\u00ebfisht\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e Internetit\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450168\/\">RRjet i mb\u00ebshtetjes<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450522\/\">Shk\u00ebputja, pjesa 1<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/451606\/\">Shk\u00ebputja, pjesa 2<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/452030\/\">Duke hapur interaktivitetin<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/453154\/\">Zgjerimi i interaktivitetit<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">ARPANET - lindja<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">ARPANET - paketi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/461177\/\">ARPANET - n\u00ebnrrjeti<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/472582\/\">Kompjuter si nj\u00eb pajisje komunikimi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/483366\/\">Historia e Internetit: nd\u00ebrveprimi i rrjeteve<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\nRruga drejt \u00e7el\u00ebsve t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb ishte e gjat\u00eb dhe e komplikuar. Ajo filloi me zbulimin se disa materiale veprojn\u00eb \u00e7uditsh\u00ebm p\u00ebrball\u00eb elektricitetit \u2013 ndryshe nga sa parashikoheshin nga teorit\u00eb ekzistuese n\u00eb at\u00eb koh\u00eb. Pas saj erdhi nj\u00eb histori mbi at\u00eb se si teknologjia n\u00eb shekullin XX po b\u00ebhej gjithnj\u00eb e m\u00eb shum\u00eb nj\u00eb disiplin\u00eb shkencore dhe institucionale. Amator\u00eb, t\u00eb rinj dhe shpik\u00ebs profesionist\u00eb, thuajse pa asnj\u00eb arsimim shkencor, b\u00ebn\u00eb kontribucione t\u00eb r\u00ebnd\u00ebsishme n\u00eb formimin e telgrafit, telefonis\u00eb dhe radios. Por, si do ta shohim, pothuajse t\u00eb gjitha p\u00ebrparimet n\u00eb historin\u00eb e elektronik\u00ebs s\u00eb ngurt\u00eb ndodh\u00ebn fal\u00eb shkenc\u00ebtar\u00ebve q\u00eb ndoq\u00ebn studimet n\u00eb universitete (dhe zakonisht kishin nj\u00eb doktoratur\u00eb n\u00eb fizik) dhe punonin n\u00eb universitete ose laboratore k\u00ebrkimore korporatash.<br \/>\n<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" name=\"habracut\"><\/a><\/noindex><br \/>\n\u00c7do person me akses n\u00eb nj\u00eb pun\u00ebtori dhe me aft\u00ebsi bazike n\u00eb punimin e materialeve mund t\u00eb montoj\u00eb nj\u00eb rel\u00e9 nga telat, metali dhe druri. P\u00ebr t\u00eb krijuar llampa elektronike nevojiten mjete m\u00eb t\u00eb specializuara, t\u00eb cilat jan\u00eb n\u00eb gjendje t\u00eb krijojn\u00eb nj\u00eb kup\u00eb stakll dhe t\u00eb nxjerrin ajrin prej saj. Pajisjet e ngurta, nga ana tjet\u00ebr, u zhyt\u00ebn n\u00eb nj\u00eb hare, nga e cila \u00e7el\u00ebsi digjital nuk u kthye kurr\u00eb, duke u zhytur gjithnj\u00eb e m\u00eb thell\u00eb n\u00eb bot\u00eb, ku vet\u00ebm matematika abstrakte i kupton dhe q\u00eb jan\u00eb t\u00eb arritshme vet\u00ebm me ndihm\u00ebn e pajisjeve t\u00eb \u00e7mendura t\u00eb shtrenjta.<\/p>\n<h2>Galeni<\/h2>\n<p>\nN\u00eb vitin 1874 <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD,_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4\">Ferdinand Braun<\/a><\/noindex>, nj\u00eb fizikant 24-vje\u00e7ar nga Shkolla Sh\u00ebn Thoma n\u00eb Leipzig, publikoi pun\u00ebn e par\u00eb nga nj\u00eb num\u00ebr i madh punimesh t\u00eb r\u00ebnd\u00ebsishme shkencore gjat\u00eb karrier\u00ebs s\u00eb tij t\u00eb gjat\u00eb. Puna \"P\u00ebr kalimin e rrymave elektrike n\u00eb sulfidet e metaleve\" u pranuar n\u00eb revist\u00ebn Pogendorff\u2019s Annalen, nj\u00eb revist\u00eb prestigjioze e dedikuar shkencave fizike. Pavar\u00ebsisht nga titulli i m\u00ebrzitsh\u00ebm, puna e Braunit p\u00ebrshkruante disa rezultate eksperimentale t\u00eb befasuese dhe misterioze.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit: duke ecur n\u00eb err\u00ebsir\u00eb\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/dba4a5648572427d3c139ff9560f92f9.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Ferdinand Braun<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Brauni u intrigua nga sulfidet \u2013 kristale minerale t\u00eb p\u00ebrb\u00ebra nga komponime t\u00eb squfurit me metale \u2013 fal\u00eb punimeve <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%93%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC\">Johann Wilhelm Hittorf<\/a><\/noindex>. N\u00eb vitin 1833, Michael Faraday vuri re se dukshm\u00ebria e sulfidit t\u00eb argjendit rritet me temperatur\u00ebn, gj\u00eb q\u00eb \u00ebsht\u00eb krejt\u00ebsisht e kund\u00ebrt me sjelljen e flor\u00ebs metalike. Gitthorpe p\u00ebrgatiti nj\u00eb raport t\u00eb kujdessh\u00ebm sasiore mbi matjet e k\u00ebtij efekti n\u00eb vitet 1850, p\u00ebr sulfidet e argjendit dhe atij t\u00eb bakrit. Tani, Brown, duke p\u00ebrdorur nj\u00eb p\u00ebrb\u00ebrje eksperimentale t\u00eb zgjuar q\u00eb shtypte nj\u00eb tel metalik n\u00eb kristalin e sulfidit me nj\u00eb spring, p\u00ebr t\u00eb siguruar nj\u00eb kontakt t\u00eb mir\u00eb, zbuloi di\u00e7ka edhe m\u00eb t\u00eb \u00e7uditshme. Dukshm\u00ebria e kristaleve varej nga drejtimi \u2013 p\u00ebr shembull, energjia mund t\u00eb rridhte mir\u00eb n\u00eb nj\u00eb drejtim, por kur p\u00ebrmbysnin polaritetin e bateris\u00eb, energjia mund t\u00eb binte papritmas. Kristalet n\u00eb nj\u00eb drejtim punonin m\u00eb shum\u00eb si duke qen\u00eb drejtues (si metalet normale), nd\u00ebrsa n\u00eb drejtimin tjet\u00ebr m\u00eb shum\u00eb si izolator\u00eb (si qelqi ose goma). Ky avantazh u njoh si drejtimi, p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb aft\u00ebsis\u00eb p\u00ebr t'i drejtuar energjis\u00eb<\/p>\n<p>Rreth t\u00eb nj\u00ebjt\u00ebs koh\u00eb, hulumtuesit zbuluan edhe disa cil\u00ebsi t\u00eb tjera t\u00eb \u00e7uditshme t\u00eb materialeve si seleni, i cili mund t\u00eb ishte nxjerr\u00eb nga disa mineralet sulfidike t\u00eb metaleve. N\u00ebn ndihm\u00ebn e drit\u00ebs, seleni rriti dukshm\u00ebrin\u00eb dhe madje filloi t\u00eb gjeneronte elektricitet, si dhe mund t\u00eb p\u00ebrdorej p\u00ebr t\u00eb drejtuar energjin\u00eb. A kishte ndonj\u00eb lidhje me kristalet e sulfid\u00ebve? Pa modele teorike p\u00ebr t\u00eb shpjeguar at\u00eb q\u00eb ndodhte, n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb fush\u00eb mbizot\u00ebronte konfuzioni.<\/p>\n<p>Megjithat\u00eb, mungesa e teoris\u00eb nuk ndaloi p\u00ebrpjekjet p\u00ebr p\u00ebrdorimin praktik t\u00eb rezultateve. N\u00eb fund t\u00eb viteve 1890, Brown u b\u00eb profesor n\u00eb Universitetin e Strasburgut \u2013 q\u00eb sapo ishte aneksuar nga Franca gjat\u00eb <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0\">Luft\u00ebs Franco-Prusiane<\/a><\/noindex> dhe u riem\u00ebrua si Universiteti i Kaiser Wilhelm. Atje, u thith nga bota emocionuese e re e radiotelegrafis\u00eb. Ai pranoi propozimin e nj\u00eb grupi sip\u00ebrmarr\u00ebsish p\u00ebr t\u00eb bashk\u00ebpunuar n\u00eb krijimin e nj\u00eb sistemi komunikimi pa tel, t\u00eb bazuar n\u00eb transmetimin e val\u00ebve t\u00eb radios p\u00ebrmes ujit. Megjithat\u00eb, ata dhe aleat\u00ebt e tij shpejt braktis\u00ebn iden\u00eb fillestare n\u00eb favor t\u00eb transmetimit t\u00eb sinjaleve n\u00eb aj\u00ebr, q\u00eb ishte p\u00ebrdorur nga Marconi dhe t\u00eb tjer\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>Mes bukave t\u00eb radios q\u00eb grupi Brown p\u00ebrpiqej t\u00eb p\u00ebrmir\u00ebsonte, ishte pranuar n\u00eb at\u00eb koh\u00eb standardi i receptor\u00ebve, <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%80\">koherer<\/a><\/noindex>. Ai u bazua n\u00eb faktin se val\u00ebt radio e detyronin pluhurin metalik t\u00eb grumbullohej n\u00eb nj\u00eb grumbull, duke lejuar q\u00eb aktuali nga bateria t\u00eb kalonte n\u00eb pajisjen sinjalizuese. Kjo funksionoi, por sistemi p\u00ebrgjigjej vet\u00ebm ndaj sinjaleve relativisht t\u00eb forta, dhe p\u00ebr t\u00eb shkat\u00ebrruar grumbullin e pluhurit k\u00ebrkonte t\u00eb godisje vazhdimisht pajisjen. Braun e kujtoi eksperimente e tij t\u00eb vjetra me kristalet e sulfidit dhe n\u00eb 1899, rip\u00ebrs\u00ebriti pajisjen e tij eksperimentale t\u00eb vjet\u00ebr me nj\u00eb q\u00ebllim t\u00eb ri - t\u00eb sh\u00ebrbente si detektor i sinjaleve pa tela. Efekti i drejtimit e p\u00ebrdori p\u00ebr t\u00eb konvertuar nj\u00eb rrym\u00eb t\u00eb vog\u00ebl t\u00eb luhatshme, e shkaktuar nga val\u00ebt radio q\u00eb kalonin, n\u00eb rrym\u00eb t\u00eb vazhdueshme, e cila mund t\u00eb ushqente nj\u00eb altoparlant t\u00eb vog\u00ebl q\u00eb l\u00ebshonte klikime t\u00eb d\u00ebgjueshme p\u00ebr \u00e7do pik\u00eb ose hije. Kjo pajisje m\u00eb von\u00eb u b\u00eb e njohur me emrin &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80\">detektor i mustaqeve t\u00eb maceve<\/a><\/noindex>&#187; p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb pamjes s\u00eb telit q\u00eb prekte leht\u00ebsisht pjes\u00ebn e sip\u00ebrme t\u00eb kristalit. N\u00eb India Britanike (ku ndodhet sot Bangladeshi), shkenc\u00ebtari dhe shpik\u00ebsi Jagadish Bose nd\u015f\u0131roi nj\u00eb pajisje t\u00eb ngjashme, ndoshta edhe n\u00eb 1894. T\u00eb tjer\u00ebt s\u00eb shpejti filluan t\u00eb b\u00ebnin detektor\u00eb t\u00eb ngjash\u00ebm mbi baz\u00ebn e silikonit dhe karborundum (karbidi i silikonit).<\/p>\n<p>Megjithat\u00eb, pik\u00ebrisht <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82\">galeniti<\/a><\/noindex>, sulfidi i plumbit, i cili \u00ebsht\u00eb shkrir\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb marr\u00eb plumb q\u00eb nga koh\u00ebt e lashta, u b\u00eb materiali preferuar p\u00ebr detektor\u00ebt kristalor\u00eb. Ata ishin t\u00eb thjesht\u00eb p\u00ebr t'u prodhuar dhe t\u00eb lir\u00eb, dhe si rezultat, u b\u00eb popullor\u00eb nd\u00ebr brezin e par\u00eb t\u00eb entuziast\u00ebve t\u00eb radios. M\u00eb shum\u00eb se kaq, ndryshe nga kohereri binar (me pluhurin q\u00eb ose grumbullohej ose jo), drejtuesi kristalor mund t\u00eb riprodhonte nj\u00eb sinjal t\u00eb vazhduesh\u00ebm. Prandaj, ai mund t\u00eb jepte t\u00eb d\u00ebgjuar sinjale t\u00eb bisedave dhe muzik\u00ebs, jo vet\u00ebm morse me pika dhe vij\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit: duke ecur n\u00eb err\u00ebsir\u00eb\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/b43382b70622d1171b8d3e65e5927526.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Detektori \"mustaqet e maceve\" i bazuar n\u00eb galenit. Nj\u00eb cop\u00eb e vog\u00ebl teli majtas \u2013 kjo \u00ebsht\u00eb mustaqja, dhe cop\u00eb e materialit t\u00eb argjendt\u00eb m\u00eb posht\u00eb \u2013 kristali i galenit.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Megjithat\u00eb, si\u00e7 e kuptuan shpejt entuziast\u00ebt e radios, gjetja e pik\u00ebs magjike n\u00eb sip\u00ebrfaqen e kristalit, e cila do t'i jepte nj\u00eb drejtim t\u00eb mir\u00eb, mund t\u00eb zgjaste minuta ose madje or\u00eb. Nd\u00ebrsa sinjalet pa amplifikim ishin t\u00eb dob\u00ebta dhe kishin nj\u00eb tingull metalik. Deri n\u00eb vitet 1920, prapambet\u00ebsit me lamp\u00eb elektronike dhe amplifikator\u00eb triode praktikisht e kishin nxjerr\u00eb nga p\u00ebrdorimi detektor\u00ebt kristal n\u00eb pothuajse \u00e7do vend. Ajo \u00e7far\u00eb mbetej erreth tyre ishte vet\u00ebm \u00e7mimi i ul\u00ebt.<\/p>\n<p>Ky paraqitje e shkurt\u00ebr n\u00eb aren\u00ebn e prapambet\u00ebsve duket se ishte kufiri i aplikimit praktik t\u00eb vetive t\u00eb \u00e7uditshme elektrike t\u00eb materialit, t\u00eb zbuluara nga Braun dhe t\u00eb tjer\u00ebt.<\/p>\n<h2>Oksidi i bakrit<\/h2>\n<p>\nM\u00eb pas, n\u00eb vitet 1920, nj\u00eb fizikant tjet\u00ebr me emrin Lars Grondal zbuloi di\u00e7ka t\u00eb \u00e7uditshme p\u00ebrmes pajisjes s\u00eb tij eksperimentale. Grondal, i pari n\u00eb zinxhirin e burrave t\u00eb men\u00e7ur dhe t\u00eb pap\u00ebrshtatsh\u00ebm nga historia e Per\u00ebndimit Amerikan, ishte biri i nj\u00eb inxhinieri nd\u00ebrtimi. Baba i tij, i emigruesh\u00ebm nga Norvegjia n\u00eb vitin 1880, punoi p\u00ebr disa dekada n\u00eb hekurudhat e Kalifornis\u00eb, Oregonit dhe Washingtonit. Fillimisht, Grondal dukej se kishte vendosur t\u00eb linte pas bot\u00ebn inxhinierike t\u00eb babait, dhe shkoi n\u00eb Institutin Johns Hopkins p\u00ebr t\u00eb marr\u00eb doktoratur\u00ebn n\u00eb fizik\u00eb, p\u00ebr t'u shkolluar n\u00eb nj\u00eb rrug\u00eb akademike. Por m\u00eb von\u00eb ai gjithashtu u p\u00ebrfshi n\u00eb biznesin hekurudhor dhe u pun\u00ebsua si drejtor i k\u00ebrkimeve n\u00eb kompanin\u00eb Union Switch and Signal, nj\u00eb deg\u00eb e gjigantit industrial <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Westinghouse_Electric\">Westinghouse<\/a><\/noindex>, e cila furnizonte pajisje p\u00ebr industrin\u00eb hekurudhore.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb burime t\u00eb ndryshme p\u00ebrmenden arsye t\u00eb kontradiktor\u00eb q\u00eb e motivuan Grondalin n\u00eb k\u00ebrkimet e tij, por si\u00e7 do t\u00eb ishte, ai filloi t\u00eb eksperimentohet me disqe bakri t\u00eb ngrohur nga nj\u00ebra an\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb krijuar nj\u00eb shtres\u00eb oksiduese. Nd\u00ebrsa punonte me ta, ai vuri re asimetri t\u00eb rrym\u00ebs \u2013 rezistenca n\u00eb nj\u00eb drejtim ishte trefishi m\u00eb i madh se n\u00eb tjetrin. Nj\u00eb disk i bakrit dhe oksidit t\u00eb bakrit drejtimin energjin\u00eb, ngjash\u00ebm me kristalin e sulfidit.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit: duke ecur n\u00eb err\u00ebsir\u00eb\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/5ea17aa0272848adb9fdb122b650dc19.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Skema e drejtuesit nga oksidi i bakrit<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Grondal pas k\u00ebtij fenomeni zhvilloi nj\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebs komercial t\u00eb gatsh\u00ebm p\u00ebr p\u00ebrdorim n\u00eb gjasht\u00eb vitet n\u00eb vijim, duke marr\u00eb ndihm\u00ebn e nj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr k\u00ebrkuesi nga SHBA, Paul Geiger, dhe m\u00eb pas d\u00ebrgoi nj\u00eb aplikim p\u00ebr patent\u00eb dhe shpalli zbulimin e tij n\u00eb Shkoll\u00ebn Amerikane t\u00eb Fizik\u00ebs n\u00eb 1926. Pajisja menj\u00ebher\u00eb u b\u00eb nj\u00eb hit tregu. Fal\u00eb munges\u00ebs s\u00eb fij\u00ebve t\u00eb brishta ajo ishte shum\u00eb m\u00eb e besueshme se drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsi me vacuum q\u00eb bazohej n\u00eb parimin e valvul\u00ebs s\u00eb Fleming dhe ishte e lir\u00eb p\u00ebr t'u prodhuar. Ndryshe nga kristalet- drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebs t\u00eb Brownit, ajo funksiononte q\u00eb n\u00eb p\u00ebrpjekjen e par\u00eb, dhe fal\u00eb nj\u00eb sip\u00ebrfaqe m\u00eb t\u00eb madhe kontakti midis metalit dhe oksidit, ajo funksiononte me nj\u00eb gam\u00eb m\u00eb t\u00eb gjer\u00eb rrymash dhe tensionesh. Ajo mund t\u00eb ngarkohej akumulator\u00ebt, t\u00eb zbulonte sinjalet n\u00eb sisteme t\u00eb ndryshme elektrike, dhe t\u00eb punonte si shunt sigurie n\u00eb gjeneratoret e fuqish\u00ebm. Kur p\u00ebrdorej si fotoelemen, disqet mund t\u00eb funksiononin si mat\u00ebs t\u00eb sasis\u00eb s\u00eb drit\u00ebs dhe ishin ve\u00e7an\u00ebrisht t\u00eb dobishme n\u00eb fotografi. K\u00ebrkues t\u00eb tjer\u00eb rreth k\u00ebsaj kohe zhvilluan drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebs t\u00eb bazuar n\u00eb selen, q\u00eb gjet\u00ebn p\u00ebrdorime t\u00eb ngjashme.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit: duke ecur n\u00eb err\u00ebsir\u00eb\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/61c76a25b892e1064316faf461bd3da1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Nj\u00eb paket\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsish t\u00eb bazuar n\u00eb oksid bakri. Nj\u00eb montim i disa disqeve rritte rezistenc\u00ebn prapavij\u00eb, duke e lejuar at\u00eb t\u00eb p\u00ebrdorej me tension t\u00eb lart\u00eb.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Pas disa vitesh, dy fizikant\u00eb nga Laborator\u00ebt Bell, Joseph Becker dhe <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD,_%D0%A3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80\">Walter Brattain<\/a><\/noindex>, vendos\u00ebn t\u00eb studiojn\u00eb parimin e funksionimit t\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsit t\u00eb bakrit - ata ishin t\u00eb interesuar t\u00eb dinin se si funksiononte dhe si mund t\u00eb p\u00ebrdorej n\u00eb kompanin\u00eb Bell System.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e tranzistorit: duke ecur n\u00eb err\u00ebsir\u00eb\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/a670707a5c9ee86ae7b7f129fd8fdee1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Brattain n\u00eb mosh\u00eb t\u00eb avancuar - rreth 1950<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Brattain ishte nga t\u00eb nj\u00ebjtat vende si Grondal, nga veriper\u00ebndimi i Paq\u00ebsorit, ku u rrit n\u00eb nj\u00eb ferm\u00eb q\u00eb ndodhej disa kilometra nga kufiri kanadez. N\u00eb vitet e fundit t\u00eb shkoll\u00ebs s\u00eb mesme, ai filloi t\u00eb interesohej p\u00ebr fizik\u00ebn, tregoi aft\u00ebsi n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb fush\u00eb, dhe n\u00eb fund mori nj\u00eb doktoratur\u00eb n\u00eb Universitetin e Minesot\u00ebs n\u00eb fund t\u00eb viteve 1920, dhe filloi pun\u00eb n\u00eb Laborator\u00ebt Bell n\u00eb 1929. Nd\u00ebr t\u00eb tjera, n\u00eb universitet ai studioi fizik\u00ebn teorike m\u00eb t\u00eb fundit, e cila po fitonte popullaritet n\u00eb Evrop\u00eb, dhe e njohur si mekanika kuantike (kurore e tij ishte <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA\">John Hasbrouck Van Vleck<\/a><\/noindex>, i cili gjithashtu kishte qen\u00eb mentor i John Atanasoff).<\/p>\n<h2>Revolucioni kuantik<\/h2>\n<p>\nPlatforma teorike e re po zhvillohet ngadal\u00eb p\u00ebrgjat\u00eb tri dekadave t\u00eb fundit, dhe nj\u00eb dit\u00eb do t\u00eb jet\u00eb n\u00eb gjendje t\u00eb shpjegoj\u00eb t\u00eb gjitha fenomenet e \u00e7uditshme q\u00eb jan\u00eb v\u00ebzhguar p\u00ebr vite t\u00eb t\u00ebra n\u00eb materiale t\u00eb tilla si galenit, seleni dhe oksidi i bakrit. Nj\u00eb grup i t\u00ebr\u00eb kryesisht fizikant\u00ebsh t\u00eb rinj, shumica nga Germania dhe vendet p\u00ebrreth, shkaktuan nj\u00eb revolucion kuantik n\u00eb fizik\u00eb. Kudo q\u00eb shikonin, ata zbulojn\u00eb nj\u00eb bot\u00eb t\u00eb \u00e7uditshme dhe diskrete, q\u00eb u m\u00ebsuan se ishte e qet\u00eb dhe e vazhdueshme.<\/p>\n<p>\u00c7do gj\u00eb filloi n\u00eb vitet 1890. Max Planck, profesori m\u00eb i njohur i Universitetit t\u00eb Berlin, vendosi t\u00eb punoj\u00eb me nj\u00eb detyr\u00eb t\u00eb njohur t\u00eb pa zgjidhur: si &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%87%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE\">trupi i zi absolut<\/a><\/noindex>&#187; (substanca ideale q\u00eb absorbon gjith\u00eb energjin\u00eb dhe nuk e reflekton at\u00eb) emeton rrezatimin n\u00eb spektrin elektromagnetik? U provuan modele t\u00eb ndryshme, asnj\u00ebra prej t\u00eb cilave nuk p\u00ebrputhej me rezultatet eksperimentale - ato d\u00ebshtuan ose n\u00eb nj\u00ebra, ose n\u00eb an\u00ebn tjet\u00ebr t\u00eb spektrit. Planck zbuloi se n\u00ebse supozohej q\u00eb energia emetohej nga trupi n\u00eb \"paketa\" t\u00eb vogla me p\u00ebrmasa discrete, at\u00ebher\u00eb mund t\u00eb shkruhej nj\u00eb ligj i thjesht\u00eb i lidhjes midis frekuenc\u00ebs dhe energjis\u00eb, q\u00eb p\u00ebrputhej perfekt me rezultatet empirike.<\/p>\n<p>S\u00eb shpejti pas k\u00ebsaj, Einstein zbuloi se e nj\u00ebjta gj\u00eb ndodhte edhe me absorbimin e drit\u00ebs (hint i par\u00eb p\u00ebr foton\u00ebt), dhe J.J. Thomson tregoi se elektriciteti gjithashtu p\u00ebrcillet jo si nj\u00eb l\u00ebng i vazhduesh\u00ebm apo si nj\u00eb val\u00eb, por si pjes\u00ebza diskrete \u2013 elektronet. M\u00eb pas, Niels Bohr krijoi modelin q\u00eb shpjegonte se si atomet e eksituara emetonin rrezatim, duke u caktuar elektron\u00ebve orbita t\u00eb ve\u00e7anta n\u00eb atom, secila e cila ka energjin\u00eb e saj. Sidoqoft\u00eb, ky em\u00ebr \u00ebsht\u00eb mashtrues, pasi ato nuk sillen fare si orbitat e planet\u00ebve \u2013 n\u00eb modelin e Bohr-it, elektronet kalonin menj\u00ebher\u00eb nga nj\u00eb orbit\u00eb, apo nivel energjie, n\u00eb nj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr, pa kaluar n\u00eb nj\u00eb gjendje nd\u00ebrmjetore. Dhe, p\u00ebrfundimisht, n\u00eb vitet 1920, Erwin Schr\u00f6dinger, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born dhe t\u00eb tjer\u00eb krijuan nj\u00eb platform\u00eb t\u00eb p\u00ebrgjithshme matematike, t\u00eb njohur si mekanika kuantike, e cila p\u00ebrfshinte t\u00eb gjitha modelet e ve\u00e7anta kuantike q\u00eb ishin krijuar gjat\u00eb nj\u00ebzete vjet\u00ebve t\u00eb fundit.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb koh\u00eb, fizikant\u00ebt ishin t\u00eb sigurt se materiale si seleni dhe galeniti, q\u00eb tregojn\u00eb pronat fotogalvanike dhe drejtueshm\u00ebrin\u00eb, i p\u00ebrkasin nj\u00eb klase t\u00eb ve\u00e7ant\u00eb materialesh, q\u00eb ata e quajt\u00ebn gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues. Klasifikimi mori kaq shum\u00eb koh\u00eb p\u00ebr disa arsye. S\u00eb pari, kategorit\u00eb \"drejtues\" dhe \"izolator\u00eb\" ishin mjaft t\u00eb gjera. T\u00eb ashtuquajturit \"drejtues\" ndryshonin shum\u00eb n\u00eb drejtueshm\u00ebrin\u00eb e tyre, po ashtu (n\u00eb nj\u00eb mas\u00eb m\u00eb t\u00eb vog\u00ebl) ndodhte edhe me izolator\u00ebt, dhe nuk ishte e qart\u00eb se si ndonj\u00eb drejtues specifik mund t\u00eb p\u00ebrfshihej n\u00eb ndonj\u00eb prej k\u00ebtyre klasave. M\u00eb tep\u00ebr, deri n\u00eb gjysm\u00ebn e shekullit XX, ishte e pamundur t\u00eb merreshin ose t\u00eb krijoheshin substanca shum\u00eb t\u00eb pastra, dhe \u00e7do anomali n\u00eb drejtueshm\u00ebrin\u00eb e materialeve natyrore mund t\u00eb ishte gjithmon\u00eb n\u00eb lidhje me ndotjen.<\/p>\n<p>Tani fizikant\u00ebt kishin si mjetet matematike t\u00eb mekanik\u00ebs kuantike ashtu edhe nj\u00eb klas\u00eb t\u00eb re materialesh, t\u00eb cilat mund t\u00eb p\u00ebrdoren p\u00ebr to. Teoritik britanik <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Herries_Wilson\">Alan Wilson<\/a><\/noindex> ishte i pari q\u00eb mblodhi gjith\u00e7ka s\u00eb bashku dhe nd\u00ebrlikoi nj\u00eb model t\u00eb p\u00ebrgjithsh\u00ebm p\u00ebr gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit dhe parimet e funksionimit t\u00eb tyre n\u00eb vitin 1931.<\/p>\n<p>Fillimisht, Wilson pretendoi se materialet drejtues ndryshojn\u00eb nga dielektrik\u00ebt n\u00eb gjendjen e zonave energjetike. Mekanika kuantike pohon se elektronet mund t\u00eb ekzistojn\u00eb n\u00eb nj\u00eb num\u00ebr t\u00eb kufizuar t\u00eb niveleve energjetike q\u00eb i takojn\u00eb shell-it ose orbitaleve t\u00eb atomeve t\u00eb ve\u00e7anta. N\u00ebse k\u00ebta atome ngjeshen s\u00eb bashku n\u00eb struktur\u00ebn e ndonj\u00eb materiali, \u00ebsht\u00eb m\u00eb e sakt\u00eb t\u00eb imagjinohet se zonat energjetike vazhdojn\u00eb p\u00ebrmes tij. N\u00eb drejtues, n\u00eb zonat energjetike t\u00eb larta ka vende t\u00eb lira, dhe fusha elektrike mund t\u00eb l\u00ebviz\u00eb elektronet atje. N\u00eb izolator\u00eb, zonat jan\u00eb t\u00eb plota, nd\u00ebrsa p\u00ebr t\u00eb arritur nj\u00eb zon\u00eb m\u00eb t\u00eb lart\u00eb, drejtueshm\u00ebria e saj b\u00ebhet m\u00eb e leht\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>Kjo e \u00e7oi at\u00eb n\u00eb p\u00ebrfundimin se p\u00ebrmbajtjet e huaja \u2013 atomet e huaja n\u00eb struktur\u00ebn e materialit \u2013 duhet t\u00eb kontribuojn\u00eb n\u00eb vetit\u00eb e tij polushemike. Ato mund t\u00eb ofrojn\u00eb elektron t\u00eb tep\u00ebrt, i cili leht\u00eb kalon n\u00eb zon\u00ebn e provodshm\u00ebris\u00eb, ose mungesa e electron\u00ebve - q\u00eb krijon hap\u00ebsira energjetike t\u00eb lira ku mund t\u00eb l\u00ebvizin elektron\u00ebt e lir\u00eb. Opsioni i par\u00eb m\u00eb von\u00eb u quajt polushemik\u00eb t\u00eb tipit n (ose elektronike) \u2013 p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb ngarkes\u00ebs negative t\u00eb tep\u00ebrt, dhe t\u00eb dyt\u00ebt \u2013 t\u00eb tipit p, ose boshll\u00ebk \u2013 p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb ngarkes\u00ebs pozitive t\u00eb tep\u00ebrt.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb fund, Wilson sugjeroi se drejtimi i rrym\u00ebs nga polushemik\u00ebt mund t\u00eb shpjegohet n\u00eb terma t\u00eb efektit <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%8D%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82\">tunneling<\/a><\/noindex>, nj\u00eb k\u00ebrcim t\u00eb papritur t\u00eb elektron\u00ebve p\u00ebrmes nj\u00eb bari elektrik t\u00eb holl\u00eb n\u00eb material. Teoria dukej e besueshme, megjithat\u00eb parashikonte se n\u00eb drejtorin, rryma duhet t\u00eb rrjedh\u00eb nga oksidi n\u00eb bak\u00ebr, nd\u00ebrsa n\u00eb realitet ishte e kund\u00ebrta.<\/p>\n<p>K\u00ebshtu, megjith\u00eb t\u00eb gjitha p\u00ebrparimet e Wilsonit, polushemik\u00ebt mbet\u00ebn t\u00eb v\u00ebshtir\u00eb p\u00ebr t'u shpjeguar. Si\u00e7 u b\u00eb gradualisht e qart\u00eb, ndryshimet mikroskopike n\u00eb struktur\u00ebn kristalore dhe koncentrimin e p\u00ebrmbajtjeve t\u00eb huaja ndikonin n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb disproporcionale n\u00eb sjelljen e tyre elektrike makroskopike. Pa marr\u00eb parasysh munges\u00ebn e kuptimit \u2013 pasi askush nuk mundi ta shpjegonte v\u00ebzhgimin eksperimentale t\u00eb b\u00ebr\u00eb nga Brown 60 vjet m\u00eb par\u00eb \u2013 Brattain dhe Becker zhvilluan nj\u00eb proces t\u00eb efektsh\u00ebm prodhimi t\u00eb drejtuesve t\u00eb oksidit t\u00eb bakrit p\u00ebr pun\u00ebdh\u00ebn\u00ebsin e tyre. Sistemi Bell filloi shpejt t\u00eb z\u00ebvend\u00ebsonte drejtor\u00ebt e lampave elektronike n\u00eb t\u00eb gjith\u00eb sistemin me nj\u00eb pajisje t\u00eb re, t\u00eb cil\u00ebn inxhinier\u00ebt e tyre e quajt\u00ebn <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80\">varistor<\/a><\/noindex>, pasi q\u00eb rezistenca e tij ndryshonte n\u00eb var\u00ebsi t\u00eb drejtimit.<\/p>\n<h2>Medalja e Art\u00eb<\/h2>\n<p>\nMervin Kelly, fizik dhe ish-drejtor i departamentit t\u00eb lampave elektronike t\u00eb Laboratoreve Bell, ishte shum\u00eb i interesuar p\u00ebr k\u00ebt\u00eb arritje. Gjat\u00eb disa dekadave, lampat elektronike i kishin sh\u00ebrbyer Bell-it nj\u00eb sh\u00ebrbim t\u00eb \u00e7muar dhe mund t\u00eb kryenin funksione q\u00eb ishin jasht\u00eb reach-it t\u00eb brezit t\u00eb m\u00ebparsh\u00ebm t\u00eb komponimeve mekanike dhe elektromekanike. Por ato ngroheshin shum\u00eb, shpesh duke u mbinxehur, konsumonin shum\u00eb energji dhe ishin t\u00eb v\u00ebshtira p\u00ebr t'u mir\u00ebmbajtur. Kelly kishte p\u00ebr q\u00ebllim t\u00eb rind\u00ebrtonte sistemin e Bell-it nga e para bazuar n\u00eb komponent\u00eb elektronike t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb m\u00eb t\u00eb besuesh\u00ebm dhe m\u00eb t\u00eb q\u00ebndruesh\u00ebm, si varistori, i cili nuk kishte nevoj\u00eb p\u00ebr asnj\u00eb en\u00eb hermetike t\u00eb mbushur me gaz apo bosh, as t\u00eb nxehta filamente. N\u00eb vitin 1936, ai u b\u00eb kryetar i departamentit t\u00eb k\u00ebrkimeve t\u00eb Laboratoreve Bell dhe filloi t\u00eb drejtonte organizat\u00ebn n\u00eb nj\u00eb rrug\u00eb t\u00eb re.<\/p>\n<p>Pas marrjes s\u00eb nj\u00eb drejtuesi t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb, hapi i ardhsh\u00ebm i duksh\u00ebm ishte krijimi i nj\u00eb amplifikatori t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb. Natyrisht, si amplifikatori me lamp\u00eb, nj\u00eb pajisje e till\u00eb mund t\u00eb operonte gjithashtu si nj\u00eb nd\u00ebrrues digjital. Kjo e interesonte ve\u00e7an\u00ebrisht kompanin\u00eb Bell, pasi n\u00eb nd\u00ebrruesit telefonik\u00eb ende punonin nj\u00eb num\u00ebr i madh nd\u00ebrruesish elektromechanical. Kompania k\u00ebrkonte nj\u00eb z\u00ebvend\u00ebsim m\u00eb t\u00eb besuesh\u00ebm, kompakt, efikas n\u00eb energji dhe t\u00eb ftoht\u00eb p\u00ebr lamp\u00ebn elektronike n\u00eb sistemet telefonike, receptor\u00ebt e radios, radar\u00ebt dhe pajisje t\u00eb tjera analoge, ku ato ishin p\u00ebrdorur p\u00ebr t\u00eb amplifikuar sinjalet e dob\u00ebta n\u00eb nj\u00eb nivel t\u00eb arritsh\u00ebm p\u00ebr veshin e njeriut.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb vitin 1936, Laborator\u00ebt Bell p\u00ebrfundimisht anuluan ndales\u00ebn p\u00ebr rekrutimin e stafit, t\u00eb vendosur gjat\u00eb <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F\">Depresionit t\u00eb Madh<\/a><\/noindex>. Kelly menj\u00ebher\u00eb filloi t\u00eb rekrutoj\u00eb ekspert\u00eb n\u00eb mekanik\u00ebn kuantike p\u00ebr t'i ndihmuar t\u00eb lan\u00e7onin programin e tij t\u00eb k\u00ebrkimeve mbi pajisjet e ngurt\u00eb, nd\u00ebr t\u00eb cilat ishte edhe <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8,_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%91%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4\">William Shockley<\/a><\/noindex>, nj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr i lindur n\u00eb Bregun Per\u00ebndimor, nga Palo Alto (Kaliforni). Tema e disertacionit t\u00eb tij t\u00eb sapoformuar n\u00eb MIT ishte p\u00ebr t\u00eb mirat e nevojave t\u00eb Kellyt: \"Zone elektronike n\u00eb klorid sodiumi\".<\/p>\n<p>Brattain dhe Becker vazhduan k\u00ebrkimet e tyre mbi drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsin me oksid bakri, duke synuar t\u00eb merrnin nj\u00eb amplifikator m\u00eb t\u00eb avancuar. M\u00ebnyra m\u00eb e dukshme p\u00ebr ta nd\u00ebrtuar k\u00ebt\u00eb ishte t\u00eb ndjekin analogjin\u00eb me lamp\u00ebn elektronike. Ashtu si Lee de Forest mori amplifikatorin me lamp\u00eb dhe <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">vendosi nj\u00eb rrjet elektrik<\/a><\/noindex> midis katod\u00ebs dhe anod\u00ebs, ashtu edhe Brattain me Becker paraqit\u00ebn se si mund t\u00eb fusnin nj\u00eb rrjet n\u00eb vendin ku preken bakri dhe oksidi i bakrit, ku supozohej se ndodhte drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsia. Megjithat\u00eb, p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb trash\u00ebsis\u00eb s\u00eb vog\u00ebl t\u00eb shtres\u00ebs, ata e konsideruan t\u00eb pamundur k\u00ebt\u00eb dhe nuk pat\u00ebn sukses.<\/p>\n<p>Nd\u00ebrkoh\u00eb, zhvillime t\u00eb tjera treguan se Laborator\u00ebt Bell nuk ishin e vetmja kompani q\u00eb po merreshin me elektronik\u00ebn me gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues. N\u00eb 1938, Rudolf Hilsh dhe Robert Paul publikuan rezultatet e eksperimenteve, t\u00eb kryera n\u00eb Universitetin e G\u00f6ttingen, mbi nj\u00eb amplifikator gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues n\u00eb pun\u00eb, i krijuar p\u00ebrmes implementimit t\u00eb nj\u00eb rrjeti n\u00eb kristalin e bromidit t\u00eb kaliumit. Ky pajisje laboratori nuk kishte vler\u00eb praktike \u2013 kryesisht sepse punonte n\u00eb nj\u00eb frekuenc\u00eb jo m\u00eb shum\u00eb se 1 Hz. Megjithat\u00eb, kjo arritje nuk mund t\u00eb mos g\u00ebzonte t\u00eb gjith\u00eb ata t\u00eb interesuar p\u00ebr elektronik\u00ebn me gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues. N\u00eb t\u00eb nj\u00ebjtin vit, Kelly e caktoi Shockley n\u00eb nj\u00eb grup t\u00eb ri t\u00eb pavarur p\u00ebr k\u00ebrkimin e pajisjeve gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uese dhe i dha atij dhe koleg\u00ebve t\u00eb tij \u2013 Foster Nix dhe Dean Woolridge \u2013 nj\u00eb kart\u00eb blanko p\u00ebr t\u00eb shqyrtuar mund\u00ebsit\u00eb e tyre.<\/p>\n<p>T\u00eb pakt\u00ebn, edhe dy shpik\u00ebs arrit\u00ebn t\u00eb krijonin amplifikator\u00eb gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues para Luft\u00ebs s\u00eb Dyt\u00eb Bot\u00ebrore. N\u00eb vitin 1922, fizikani dhe shpik\u00ebsi rus <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2,_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87\">Oleg Vladimirovi\u00e7 Losev<\/a><\/noindex> publikoi rezultatet e eksperimentimeve t\u00eb suksesshme me gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit zinkit, por punimet e tij mbet\u00ebn t\u00eb pazbuluara nga komuniteti per\u00ebndimor; n\u00eb vitin 1926, shpik\u00ebsi amerikan Julius Lilienfeld aplikoi p\u00ebr patent\u00eb p\u00ebr nj\u00eb amplifikator gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues, por nuk ka asnj\u00eb prov\u00eb t\u00eb funksionimit t\u00eb shpikjes s\u00eb tij.<\/p>\n<p>Rreth nj\u00eb iluminim t\u00eb par\u00eb t\u00eb r\u00ebnd\u00ebsish\u00ebm, Shockley u ndodh gjat\u00eb leximit t\u00eb nj\u00eb veprimi t\u00eb fizikanit britanik Neville Mott \"Teoria e diodave kristalore\" nga viti 1938, ku p\u00ebrfundimisht u shpjegua parimi i funksionimit t\u00eb diod\u00ebs Grondal mbi oksidin e bakrit. Mott p\u00ebrdori matematik\u00ebn e mekanik\u00ebs kuantike p\u00ebr t\u00eb p\u00ebrshkruar formimin e fush\u00ebs elektrike n\u00eb kufirin midis metalit t\u00eb ng conductor dhe oksidit polus, dhe sesi elektronet \"shkaktojn\u00eb\" k\u00ebt\u00eb penges\u00eb elektrike, n\u00eb vend q\u00eb t\u00eb tunelohen, si\u00e7 kishte propozuar Wilson. P\u00ebrcjellja e elektricitetit \u00ebsht\u00eb m\u00eb e leht\u00eb nga metali n\u00eb polus se sa anasjelltas, pasi metali ka shum\u00eb m\u00eb tep\u00ebr elektrone t\u00eb lira.<\/p>\n<p>Kjo e \u00e7oi Shockley n\u00eb nj\u00eb ide t\u00eb ngjashme me at\u00eb q\u00eb ishin shqyrtuar dhe refuzuar nga Brattain dhe Becker shum\u00eb vite m\u00eb par\u00eb - t\u00eb prodhohej nj\u00eb amplifikator me shumic\u00eb, duke futur nj\u00eb rrjet\u00eb t\u00eb oksidit t\u00eb bakrit n\u00eb hap\u00ebsir\u00ebn midis bakrit dhe oksidit t\u00eb bakrit. Ai shpresonte se aktuali q\u00eb kalonte n\u00ebp\u00ebr rrjet\u00eb do t\u00eb rritte penges\u00ebn q\u00eb kufizonte rrym\u00ebn nga bakri n\u00eb oksid, duke krijuar nj\u00eb version t\u00eb kthyer, t\u00eb intensifikuar t\u00eb sinjalit n\u00eb rrjet\u00eb. P\u00ebrpjekja e tij e par\u00eb e eg\u00ebr d\u00ebshtoi plot\u00ebsisht, k\u00ebshtu q\u00eb ai iu drejtua nj\u00eb njeriu me aft\u00ebsi m\u00eb t\u00eb rafinuara laboratorike dhe i njohur mir\u00eb me diodet - Walter Brattain. Dhe, megjith\u00ebse nuk kishte dyshime p\u00ebr rezultatin, Brattain ra dakord t\u00eb k\u00ebnaqte kuriozitetin e Shockley dhe krijoi nj\u00eb version m\u00eb t\u00eb nd\u00ebrlikuar t\u00eb amplifikatorit \"rrjet\u00eb\". Ai gjithashtu d\u00ebshtoi t\u00eb funksiononte.<\/p>\n<p>M\u00eb pas, lufta nd\u00ebrhyri, duke e l\u00ebn\u00eb programin e ri k\u00ebrkues t\u00eb Kelly n\u00eb kaos. Kelly u caktua si kreu i grupit t\u00eb pun\u00ebs p\u00ebr radar\u00ebt n\u00eb Laborator\u00ebt Bell, i mb\u00ebshtetur nga qendra kryesore e k\u00ebrkimit p\u00ebr radar\u00eb t\u00eb SHBA-s\u00eb n\u00eb MIT. Brattain punoi p\u00ebr pak koh\u00eb me t\u00eb, pastaj kaloi n\u00eb k\u00ebrkime p\u00ebr zbulimin magnetik t\u00eb n\u00ebndet\u00ebseve p\u00ebr llogari t\u00eb marin\u00ebs ushtarake. Wooldridge punonte n\u00eb sistemet e kontrollit t\u00eb zjarrit, Nix - n\u00eb difuzionin e gazrave p\u00ebr projektin Manhattan, dhe Shockley kaloi n\u00eb hulumtime operative, fillimisht duke u angazhuar n\u00eb luftimin e n\u00ebndet\u00ebseve n\u00eb Atlantik, e pastaj me bombat strategjike n\u00eb Oqeanin e Paq\u00ebsor.<\/p>\n<p>Megjithat\u00eb, edhe pse ndodhi kjo nd\u00ebrhyrje, lufta nuk e ndali zhvillimin e elektronik\u00ebs me gjendje t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb. P\u00ebrkundrazi, ajo organizoi nj\u00eb rritje masive t\u00eb burimeve n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb fush\u00eb dhe \u00e7oi n\u00eb p\u00ebrqendrim t\u00eb hulumtimeve n\u00eb dy materiale: germaniumin dhe silikonin.<\/p>\n<h2>\u00c7far\u00eb t\u00eb lexoni tjet\u00ebr<\/h2>\n<p>\nErnest Bruan dhe Stuart MacDonald, Revolucioni n\u00eb Miniatur\u00eb (1978)<\/p>\n<p>Friedrich Kurylo dhe Charles Susskind, Ferdinand Braun (1981)<\/p>\n<p>G. L. Pearson dhe W. H. Brattain, \u201cHistoria e K\u00ebrkimeve mbi Geprajt\u00ebsit,\u201d Proceedings of the IRE (Dhjetor 1955).<\/p>\n<p>Michael Riordan dhe Lillian Hoddeson, Zjarri i Kristalit (1997)<br \/>\n<br \/>Burimi: <a content=\"nofollow\" rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">habr.com<\/a><\/p>","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430: \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u041c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434 \u00ab\u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439\u00bb, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0417\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0414\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0446 \u0413\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0410 \u0432\u043e\u0442, \u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0446, \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0413\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0417\u0430\u0431\u044b\u0442\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u042d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u044d\u0440\u0430 \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433 \u041a\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0441\u0441 ENIAC \u042d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0440\u0435\u0432\u043e\u043b\u044e\u0446\u0438\u044f \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0437\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u044f\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0449\u0443\u043f\u044c \u0432 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0442\u0435 \u0418\u0437 \u0433\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0438\u043b\u0430 \u0432\u043e\u0439\u043d\u044b \u041c\u043d\u043e\u0433\u043e\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0442\u043d\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0438\u0437\u043e\u0431\u0440\u0435\u0442\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0438\u043d\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043d\u0435\u0442\u0430 \u041e\u043f\u043e\u0440\u043d\u0430\u044f \u0441\u0435\u0442\u044c \u0420\u0430\u0441\u043f\u0430\u0434, [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[688],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-55071","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-administrirovanie"],"aioseo_notices":[],"aioseo_head":"\n\t\t<!-- All in One SEO 5.0.2 - aioseo.com -->\n\t<meta name=\"description\" content=\"\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438.\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"robots\" content=\"max-image-preview:large\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"author\" content=\"Yuri Gagarin\"\/>\n\t<link rel=\"canonical\" href=\"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote\" \/>\n\t<meta name=\"generator\" content=\"All in One SEO (AIOSEO) 5.0.2\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:locale\" content=\"sq_AL\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:site_name\" content=\"ProHoster | \u041a\u0443\u043f\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0445\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0433 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0441\u0430\u0439\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0441 \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0442 DDoS, VPS VDS \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044b\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:type\" content=\"article\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:title\" content=\"\ud83e\udd47\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0437\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430: \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u044f\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0449\u0443\u043f\u044c \u0432 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0442\u0435 | ProHoster\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:description\" content=\"\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438.\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:url\" content=\"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:image\" content=\"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/11\/logo-350.jpg\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:image:secure_url\" content=\"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/11\/logo-350.jpg\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:image:width\" content=\"350\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"og:image:height\" content=\"350\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"article:published_time\" content=\"2020-01-10T21:00:00+00:00\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"article:modified_time\" content=\"2020-02-18T11:03:09+00:00\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"article:publisher\" content=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/prohoster\" \/>\n\t\t<meta property=\"article:author\" content=\"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/prohoster\" \/>\n\t\t<!-- All in One SEO -->\n\n","aioseo_head_json":{"title":"\ud83e\udd47Historia e tranzistorit: duke u p\u00ebrpjekur n\u00eb err\u00ebsir\u00eb | ProHoster","description":"Artikuj t\u00eb tjer\u00eb.","canonical_url":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote","robots":"max-image-preview:large","keywords":"","webmasterTools":{"miscellaneous":""},"schema":null,"og:locale":"sq_AL","og:site_name":"ProHoster | \u041a\u0443\u043f\u0438\u0442\u044c \u043d\u0430\u0434\u0435\u0436\u043d\u044b\u0439 \u0445\u043e\u0441\u0442\u0438\u043d\u0433 \u0434\u043b\u044f \u0441\u0430\u0439\u0442\u043e\u0432 \u0441 \u0437\u0430\u0449\u0438\u0442\u043e\u0439 \u043e\u0442 DDoS, VPS VDS \u0441\u0435\u0440\u0432\u0435\u0440\u044b","og:type":"article","og:title":"\ud83e\udd47\u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0442\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0437\u0438\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0430: \u043f\u0440\u043e\u0431\u0438\u0440\u0430\u044f\u0441\u044c \u043d\u0430 \u043e\u0449\u0443\u043f\u044c \u0432 \u0442\u0435\u043c\u043d\u043e\u0442\u0435 | ProHoster","og:description":"\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438.","og:url":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote","og:image":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/11\/logo-350.jpg","og:image:secure_url":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/wp-content\/uploads\/2021\/11\/logo-350.jpg","og:image:width":350,"og:image:height":350,"article:published_time":"2020-01-10T21:00:00+00:00","article:modified_time":"2020-02-18T11:03:09+00:00","article:publisher":"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/prohoster","article:author":"https:\/\/www.facebook.com\/prohoster"},"aioseo_meta_data":{"post_id":"55071","title":null,"description":null,"keywords":null,"keyphrases":null,"primary_term":null,"canonical_url":null,"og_title":null,"og_description":null,"og_object_type":"default","og_image_type":"default","og_image_url":null,"og_image_width":null,"og_image_height":null,"og_image_custom_url":null,"og_image_custom_fields":null,"og_video":null,"og_custom_url":null,"og_article_section":null,"og_article_tags":null,"twitter_use_og":false,"twitter_card":"default","twitter_image_type":"default","twitter_image_url":null,"twitter_image_custom_url":null,"twitter_image_custom_fields":null,"twitter_title":null,"twitter_description":null,"schema":{"blockGraphs":[],"customGraphs":[],"default":{"data":{"Article":[],"Course":[],"Dataset":[],"FAQPage":[],"Movie":[],"Person":[],"Product":[],"ProductReview":[],"Car":[],"Recipe":[],"Service":[],"SoftwareApplication":[],"WebPage":[]},"graphName":"","isEnabled":true},"graphs":[]},"schema_type":null,"schema_type_options":null,"pillar_content":false,"robots_default":true,"robots_noindex":false,"robots_noarchive":false,"robots_nosnippet":false,"robots_nofollow":false,"robots_noimageindex":false,"robots_noodp":false,"robots_notranslate":false,"robots_max_snippet":null,"robots_max_videopreview":null,"robots_max_imagepreview":"large","priority":null,"frequency":null,"local_seo":null,"seo_analyzer_scan_date":null,"breadcrumb_settings":null,"limit_modified_date":false,"reviewed_by":null,"ai":null,"created":"2021-02-28 19:51:58","updated":"2022-09-29 06:59:17","focus_keyword":null,"additional_keywords":null,"truseo_locale":null},"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"link","format":"url"}],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/55071","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=55071"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/55071\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=55071"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=55071"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=55071"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}