{"id":55071,"date":"2020-01-11T00:00:00","date_gmt":"2020-01-10T21:00:00","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/blog\/blog_prohoster\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote"},"modified":"2020-02-18T14:03:09","modified_gmt":"2020-02-18T11:03:09","slug":"istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/prohoster.info\/sq\/blog\/administrirovanie\/istoriya-tranzistora-probirayas-na-oshhup-v-temnote","title":{"rendered":"Historia e transistorit: duke u p\u00ebrballur me err\u00ebsir\u00ebn","gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"text"}]},"content":{"rendered":"<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit: duke u p\u00ebrballur me err\u00ebsir\u00ebn\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/16ad3c6eaa7f0e32992939696172bd90.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<br \/>\n<b class=\"spoiler_title\">Artikuj t\u00eb tjer\u00eb t\u00eb ciklit:<\/b><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Historia e rel\u00e8?\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404373\/\">Metoda e 'shpejt\u00eb t\u00eb transmetimit t\u00eb informacionit', apo Lindja e rel\u00e8?<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404475\/\">P\u00ebrshkruesi i larg\u00ebsis\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/370545\/\">Galvanizmi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404657\/\">Sip\u00ebrmarr\u00ebsit<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404723\/\">Dhe ja, p\u00ebrfundimisht, rel\u00e8<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/404889\/\">Telegrafi fol\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405025\/\">Thjesht bashkoni<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/company\/mailru\/blog\/370471\/\">Gjenerata e harruar e kompjuter\u00ebve rel\u00e8<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">Epoka elektronike<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e kompjuter\u00ebve elektronik\u00eb\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408611\/\">Prologu<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/374043\/\">Kolosi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/408597\/\">ENIAC <\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/447916\/\">Revolucioni elektronik<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e transistorit\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">Duke u p\u00ebrpjekur me duar n\u00eb err\u00ebsir\u00eb<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\">Nga g\u00ebrshetimi i luft\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448576\/\"><\/a><\/noindex><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/449760\/\">Shum\u00eb her\u00eb e ri-shpikur<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<li>Historia e internetit\n<ul>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450168\/\">Rrjeti mb\u00ebshtet\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/450522\/\">Shkat\u00ebrrimi, pjesa 1<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/451606\/\">Shkat\u00ebrrimi, pjesa 2<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/452030\/\">Duke hapur interaktivitetin<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/453154\/\">Duke zgjeruar interaktivitetin<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/456200\/\">ARPANET \u2014 lindja<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/457256\/\">ARPANET \u2014 pacet<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/461177\/\">ARPANET \u2014 n\u00ebnrrjeti<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/472582\/\">Kompjuteri si nj\u00eb pajisje komunikimi<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<li><noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/483366\/\">Historia e internetit: nd\u00ebrveprimi i rrjeteve<\/a><\/noindex><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<p>\nRruga drejt kalueseve t\u00eb ngurta ka qen\u00eb e gjat\u00eb dhe e v\u00ebshtir\u00eb. Ajo filloi me zbulimin se disa materiale veprojn\u00eb n\u00eb m\u00ebnyr\u00eb t\u00eb \u00e7uditshme n\u00eb pranin\u00eb e elektricitetit - ndryshe nga parashikimet e teorive t\u00eb asaj kohe. M\u00eb pas erdhi nj\u00eb histori se si, n\u00eb shekullin XX, teknologjia u b\u00eb nj\u00eb disiplin\u00eb gjithnj\u00eb e m\u00eb shkencore dhe institucionale. Amator\u00ebt, fillestar\u00ebt dhe shpik\u00ebsit profesionist\u00eb, pothuajse pa asnj\u00eb arsimim shkencor, kontribuan seriozisht n\u00eb formimin e telegrameve, telefonis\u00eb dhe radiove. Por, si\u00e7 do ta shohim, pothuajse t\u00eb gjitha p\u00ebrparimet n\u00eb historin\u00eb e elektronikeve t\u00eb kaluara ndodh\u00ebn fal\u00eb shkenc\u00ebtar\u00ebve q\u00eb kishin studiuar n\u00eb universitete (dhe zakonisht kishin nj\u00eb doktorat\u00eb n\u00eb fizik\u00eb), dhe q\u00eb punonin n\u00eb universitete ose laborator\u00eb k\u00ebrkimor\u00eb korporativ\u00eb.<br \/>\n<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" name=\"habracut\"><\/a><\/noindex><br \/>\n\u00c7do njeri me akses n\u00eb nj\u00eb pun\u00ebtori dhe me aft\u00ebsi bazike n\u00eb punimin e materialeve mund t\u00eb nd\u00ebrtoj\u00eb nj\u00eb rele nga telat, metalet dhe druri. Nd\u00ebrsa p\u00ebr t\u00eb krijuar llamba elektronike nevojiten mjete m\u00eb t\u00eb specializuara, t\u00eb cilat jan\u00eb n\u00eb gjendje t\u00eb krijojn\u00eb nj\u00eb en\u00eb qelqi dhe t\u00eb t\u00ebrheqin ajrin nga ajo. Pajisjet e kaluara, nga ana tjet\u00ebr, ishin futur n\u00eb nj\u00eb vrim\u00eb t\u00eb lepurit, nga e cila kaluesi digjital nuk u kthye kurr\u00eb, duke u zhytur gjithnj\u00eb e m\u00eb thell\u00eb n\u00eb bot\u00eb q\u00eb kuptoheshin vet\u00ebm nga matematika abstrakte dhe ishin t\u00eb arritshme vet\u00ebm me ndihm\u00ebn e pajisjeve t\u00eb \u00e7mendura t\u00eb shtrenjta.<\/p>\n<h2>Galeni<\/h2>\n<p>\nN\u00eb vitin 1874 <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BD,_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB_%D0%A4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4\">Ferdinand Braun<\/a><\/noindex>, nj\u00eb fizikant 24-vje\u00e7ar nga Shkolla e Sh\u00ebn Tom\u00ebs n\u00eb Leipzig, publikoi punimin e par\u00eb nga shum\u00eb studime t\u00eb r\u00ebnd\u00ebsishme n\u00eb karrier\u00ebn e tij t\u00eb gjat\u00eb. Punimi \"Rreth kalimit t\u00eb rrymave elektrike p\u00ebrmes sulfidve t\u00eb metaleve\" u miratua n\u00eb revist\u00ebn Pogendorff\u2019s Annalen, nj\u00eb revist\u00eb prestigjioze e dedikuar shkencave fizike. Pavar\u00ebsisht titullit t\u00eb m\u00ebrzitsh\u00ebm, punimi i Braun p\u00ebrshkruante disa rezultate eksperimentale t\u00eb habitshme dhe enigmatike.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit: duke u p\u00ebrballur me err\u00ebsir\u00ebn\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/dba4a5648572427d3c139ff9560f92f9.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Ferdinand Braun<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Braun u intrigued nga sulfidet - kristalet minerale q\u00eb p\u00ebrb\u00ebhen nga lidhjet e squfurit me metalet - fal\u00eb punimeve <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%93%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84,_%D0%98%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD_%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC\">Johann Wilhelm Hittorf<\/a><\/noindex>. Q\u00eb n\u00eb vitin 1833, Michael Faraday vuri n\u00eb dukje se p\u00ebr\u00e7ueshm\u00ebria e sulfidit t\u00eb argjendit rritet me temperatur\u00ebn, nj\u00eb fakt krejt\u00ebsisht i kund\u00ebrt me sjelljen e p\u00ebr\u00e7uesve metalik\u00eb. Hittorf p\u00ebrgatiti nj\u00eb raport t\u00eb kujdessh\u00ebm sasinor mbi matjet e k\u00ebtij efekti n\u00eb vitet 1850, p\u00ebr sulfid\u00ebt si argjendi ashtu edhe bakri. Tani Braun, duke p\u00ebrdorur nj\u00eb konfigurim eksperimental t\u00eb zgjuar, q\u00eb shtypte nj\u00eb tel metalik mbi nj\u00eb kristal sulfidi me nj\u00eb spring p\u00ebr t\u00eb siguruar kontakt t\u00eb mir\u00eb, zbuloi di\u00e7ka edhe m\u00eb t\u00eb \u00e7uditshme. P\u00ebrcueshm\u00ebria e kristaleve varej nga drejtimi - p\u00ebr shembull, rryma mund t\u00eb kalonte mir\u00eb n\u00eb nj\u00eb drejtim, por duke i kthyer polaritetin e bateris\u00eb, rryma mund t\u00eb binte papritur. Kristalet n\u00eb nj\u00eb drejtim punonin m\u00eb shum\u00eb si p\u00ebr\u00e7ues (si metale normal), nd\u00ebrsa n\u00eb drejtimin e tjet\u00ebr m\u00eb shum\u00eb si izolator\u00eb (si qelqi ose goma). Ky tipar u njoh si drejtp\u00ebrdrejtim, p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb aft\u00ebsis\u00eb s\u00eb tij p\u00ebr t\u00eb drejtuar rrym\u00ebn alternuese \"t\u00eb rralluar\" n\u00eb rrym\u00ebn \"t\u00eb shesht\u00eb\" DC.<\/p>\n<p>Af\u00ebrsisht n\u00eb t\u00eb nj\u00ebjt\u00ebn koh\u00eb, studiuesit zbuluan dhe disa karakteristika t\u00eb tjera t\u00eb \u00e7uditshme t\u00eb materialeve t\u00eb tilla si seleni, i cili mund t\u00eb shfaqet nga disa \u00e7imento sulfidike. N\u00ebn ndikimin e drit\u00ebs, seleni rritej p\u00ebr\u00e7ueshm\u00ebria dhe madje fillonte t\u00eb gjeneronte elektricitet, si dhe mund t\u00eb p\u00ebrdorej p\u00ebr drejtp\u00ebrdrejtim. A kishte ndonj\u00eb lidhje k\u00ebtu me kristalet e sulfidit? Pa modele teorike q\u00eb mund t\u00eb shpjegonin \u00e7far\u00eb po ndodhte, n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb fush\u00eb kishte konfuzion.<\/p>\n<p>Megjithat\u00eb, mungesa e teoris\u00eb nuk e ndali p\u00ebrpjekjen p\u00ebr aplikimin praktik t\u00eb rezultateve. N\u00eb fund t\u00eb viteve 1890, Braun u b\u00eb profesor n\u00eb Universitetin e Strasburgut - i sapo aneksuar nga Franca gjat\u00eb <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE-%D0%BF%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0\">Luft\u00ebs Franco-Prusiane<\/a><\/noindex> dhe e riem\u00ebruar si Universiteti i Kaiser Wilhelm. Atje, ai u t\u00ebrhoq n\u00eb nj\u00eb bot\u00eb t\u00eb re t\u00eb mahnitshme t\u00eb radiotelegrafis\u00eb. Ai pranoi propozimin e nj\u00eb grupi sip\u00ebrmarr\u00ebsish p\u00ebr t\u00eb bashk\u00ebpunuar n\u00eb krijimin e nj\u00eb sistemi komunikimi me val\u00eb, t\u00eb bazuar n\u00eb transmetimin e val\u00ebve radio p\u00ebrmes ujit. Sidoqoft\u00eb, ata me shok\u00ebt e tij shpejt e braktis\u00ebn iden\u00eb fillestare p\u00ebr transmetimin ajror t\u00eb sinjalit, q\u00eb p\u00ebrdorte Marconi dhe t\u00eb tjer\u00eb.<\/p>\n<p>Nd\u00ebr aspektet e radios q\u00eb grupi i Braunit p\u00ebrpiqej t'i p\u00ebrmir\u00ebsonte, ishte marr\u00ebsi standard i asaj kohe, <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%80\">koh\u00ebzgjatja<\/a><\/noindex>. Ai u bazua n\u00eb faktin se val\u00ebt e radios b\u00ebn\u00eb q\u00eb copat metalike t\u00eb grumbulloheshin n\u00eb nj\u00eb mas\u00eb, q\u00eb lejonte kalimin e rrym\u00ebs nga bateria drejt pajisjes sinjalesh. Kjo funksionoi, por sistemi reagonte vet\u00ebm ndaj sinjaleve relativisht t\u00eb fuqishme, dhe p\u00ebr t\u00eb shkat\u00ebrruar grumbullin e copave k\u00ebrkohej t\u00eb goditej vazhdimisht pajisja. Brauni p\u00ebrmendi eksperiments e tij t\u00eb vjetra me kristalet e sulfidit, dhe n\u00eb vitin 1899, krijoi p\u00ebrs\u00ebri instalimin e tij eksperimental t\u00eb vjet\u00ebr me q\u00ebllimin e ri \u2013 t\u00eb sh\u00ebrbente si nj\u00eb detektor i sinjaleve pa tela. Ai p\u00ebrdori efektin e drejtp\u00ebrdrejtimit p\u00ebr t\u00eb transformuar nj\u00eb rrym\u00eb t\u00eb vog\u00ebl t\u00eb dridhshme, e cila u gjenerua nga val\u00ebt e radios q\u00eb kalonin, n\u00eb nj\u00eb rrym\u00eb t\u00eb vazhdueshme q\u00eb mund t\u00eb ushqente nj\u00eb altoparlant t\u00eb vog\u00ebl, i cili jepte klikime t\u00eb d\u00ebgjuara p\u00ebr \u00e7do pik\u00eb ose tregues. Ky aparat m\u00eb von\u00eb u b\u00eb i njohur si &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80\">detektor i musteqeve t\u00eb mac\u00ebs<\/a><\/noindex>&#187; p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb pamjes s\u00eb telit q\u00eb leht\u00eb prekte maj\u00ebn e kristalit. N\u00eb Indin\u00eb Britanike (ku sot ndodhet Bangladeshi) shkenc\u00ebtari dhe shpik\u00ebsi Jagadish Bose nd\u00ebrtuan nj\u00eb pajisje t\u00eb ngjashme, ndoshta madje n\u00eb vitin 1894. T\u00eb tjer\u00ebt shpejt filluan t\u00eb b\u00ebnin detektor\u00eb t\u00eb ngjash\u00ebm bazuar n\u00eb silikon dhe karborundum (karbidi i silikonit).<\/p>\n<p>Megjithat\u00eb, sakt\u00ebsisht <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82\">galeniti<\/a><\/noindex>, sulfidi i lider\u00ebs, i cili \u00ebsht\u00eb shkrir\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb marr\u00eb plumb nga koh\u00ebt e lashta, u b\u00eb materiali i preferuar p\u00ebr detektor\u00ebt kristalor\u00eb. Ata ishin t\u00eb leht\u00eb p\u00ebr t'u prodhuar dhe t\u00eb lir\u00eb, dhe si rezultat u b\u00ebn\u00eb shum\u00eb t\u00eb njohur mes brezit t\u00eb par\u00eb t\u00eb entuziast\u00ebve t\u00eb radios. P\u00ebr m\u00eb tep\u00ebr, ndryshe nga kogerer\u00ebt binar\u00eb (me pluhur, t\u00eb cilat ose grumbulloheshin ose jo), drejtuesi kristalor mund t\u00eb riprodhonte nj\u00eb sinjal t\u00eb vazhduesh\u00ebm. Prandaj, ai mund t\u00eb l\u00ebshonte transmetime t\u00eb d\u00ebgjueshme t\u00eb z\u00ebrit dhe muzik\u00ebs, jo vet\u00ebm kodin Morse me pikat dhe \u00e7izgjet e saj.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit: duke u p\u00ebrballur me err\u00ebsir\u00ebn\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/b43382b70622d1171b8d3e65e5927526.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Detektori \"musteqi i mac\u00ebs\" i bazuar n\u00eb galenit. Nj\u00eb cop\u00eb e vog\u00ebl e telit t\u00eb majt\u00eb \u2013 ky \u00ebsht\u00eb musteqi, nd\u00ebrsa copa e materialit argjendt\u00eb posht\u00eb \u2014 kristali i galenit.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Megjithat\u00eb, si\u00e7 u vendos s\u00eb shpejti nga entuziast\u00ebt e radios q\u00eb ishin t\u00eb shqet\u00ebsuar, gjetja e pik\u00ebs magjike n\u00eb sip\u00ebrfaqen e kristalit q\u00eb do t\u00eb ofronte drejtime t\u00eb mira mund t\u00eb merrte minuta ose madje edhe or\u00eb. Sinjalet pa amplifikim ishin t\u00eb dob\u00ebta dhe kishin nj\u00eb tingull metalik. Deri n\u00eb vitet 1920, pranuesit me tube elektronike me amplifikator\u00eb triode praktikisht e \u00e7uan jasht\u00eb p\u00ebrdorimit detektor\u00ebt kristalor\u00eb kudo. Aty njer\u00ebzit mbeteshin duke e quajtur at\u00eb nj\u00eb t\u00ebrheqje p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb \u00e7mimit t\u00eb ul\u00ebt.<\/p>\n<p>Ky shfaqje e shkurt\u00ebr n\u00eb aren\u00ebn e pranuesve t\u00eb radios, dukej se kishte arritur kulmin n\u00eb aplikimin praktik t\u00eb vetive t\u00eb \u00e7uditshme elektrike materiale, t\u00eb zbuluara nga Braun dhe t\u00eb tjer\u00ebt.<\/p>\n<h2>Oksidi i sakt\u00eb<\/h2>\n<p>\nPastaj, n\u00eb vitet 1920, nj\u00eb fizik tjet\u00ebr me emrin Lars Grondal zbuloi di\u00e7ka t\u00eb \u00e7uditshme p\u00ebrmes pajisjes s\u00eb tij eksperimentale. Grondal, i pari nga nj\u00eb zinxhir inteligjent\u00ebsh dhe t\u00eb pakapsh\u00ebm t\u00eb historis\u00eb s\u00eb Per\u00ebndimit Amerikan, ishte djali i nj\u00eb inxhinieri nd\u00ebrtimor. Babai i tij, emigrant nga Norvegjia n\u00eb vitin 1880, kaloi disa dekada duke punuar n\u00eb hekurudhat e Kalifornis\u00eb, Oregonit dhe Washingtonit. Fillimisht, Grondal dukej se kishte vendosur t\u00eb linte pas bot\u00ebn inxhinierike t\u00eb babait dhe shkoi n\u00eb institutin e John Hopkins p\u00ebr t\u00eb marr\u00eb doktoratur\u00ebn n\u00eb fizik, p\u00ebr t\u00eb ndjekur nj\u00eb rrug\u00eb akademike. Por pastaj ai gjithashtu u angazhua n\u00eb industrin\u00eb hekurudhore dhe mori nj\u00eb pozicion si drejtori i k\u00ebrkimeve n\u00eb kompanin\u00eb Union Switch and Signal, nj\u00eb n\u00ebnakt\u00ebsi e gjigantit industrial <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Westinghouse_Electric\">Westinghouse<\/a><\/noindex>, i cili furnizonte pajisje p\u00ebr industrin\u00eb hekurudhore.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb burime t\u00eb ndryshme jepen arsye t\u00eb kontestueshme p\u00ebr motivimin e Grondalit n\u00eb k\u00ebrkimet e tij, por si\u00e7 do q\u00eb t\u00eb jet\u00eb, ai filloi t\u00eb eksperimentoje me disqe bakri, t\u00eb ngrohta nga nj\u00ebra an\u00eb p\u00ebr t\u00eb krijuar nj\u00eb shtres\u00eb oksided. Duke punuar me to, ai vuri re asimetri t\u00eb rrym\u00ebs - rezistenca n\u00eb nj\u00eb drejtim ishte tre her\u00eb m\u00eb e madhe se n\u00eb t\u00eb kund\u00ebrt\u00ebn. Disku i bakrit dhe oksidit t\u00eb bakrit drejtonte rrym\u00ebn, ashtu si kristali i sulfide.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit: duke u p\u00ebrballur me err\u00ebsir\u00ebn\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/5ea17aa0272848adb9fdb122b650dc19.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Skema e drejtimeve t\u00eb oksidit t\u00eb bakrit<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Gjoni i Grondal zhvilloi nj\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsi komerciale t\u00eb gatshme p\u00ebr p\u00ebrdorim, duke u mb\u00ebshtetur n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb fenomen p\u00ebr gjasht\u00eb vitet e ardhshme, me ndihm\u00ebn e nj\u00eb studiuesi tjet\u00ebr nga SHBA, Paul Geiger, m\u00eb pas dor\u00ebzoi nj\u00eb aplikim p\u00ebr patent\u00eb dhe shpalli zbulimin e tij n\u00eb Shoqat\u00ebn Fizik\u00ebs Amerikane n\u00eb vitin 1926. Pajisja shpejt u b\u00eb nj\u00eb hit komercial. Fal\u00eb munges\u00ebs s\u00eb fijeve t\u00eb brishta, ajo ishte shum\u00eb m\u00eb e besueshme se drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsit bazuar n\u00eb lampat elektronike, t\u00eb cilat funksiononin sipas parimeve t\u00eb Flemingut, dhe ishte e lir\u00eb p\u00ebr t'u prodhuar. Ndryshe nga kristalet-baz\u00eb t\u00eb Braun, ajo funksiononte q\u00eb n\u00eb p\u00ebrpjekjen e par\u00eb, dhe duke qen\u00eb se kishte nj\u00eb sip\u00ebrfaqe kontakti m\u00eb t\u00eb madhe midis metalit dhe oksidit, ajo punonte me nj\u00eb gam\u00eb m\u00eb t\u00eb gjer\u00eb t\u00eb rrymave dhe tensioneve. Ajo mund t\u00eb ngarkonte baterit\u00eb, t\u00eb zbuloj\u00eb sinjale n\u00eb sisteme t\u00eb ndryshme elektrike dhe t\u00eb funksiononte si nj\u00eb shunt sigurie n\u00eb gjenerator\u00eb t\u00eb fuqish\u00ebm. Kur p\u00ebrdorej si fotolement, disk\u00ebt mund t\u00eb funksiononin si mat\u00ebs t\u00eb sasis\u00eb s\u00eb drit\u00ebs dhe ishin ve\u00e7an\u00ebrisht t\u00eb dobish\u00ebm n\u00eb fotografi. Studiues t\u00eb tjer\u00eb gjithashtu zhvilluan drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsit nga seleni, duke gjetur p\u00ebrdorime t\u00eb ngjashme.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit: duke u p\u00ebrballur me err\u00ebsir\u00ebn\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/61c76a25b892e1064316faf461bd3da1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Nj\u00eb paket\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsish bazuar n\u00eb oksid bakri. Nj\u00eb p\u00ebrb\u00ebrje prekje e disa disqeve rriti rezistenc\u00ebn e kthyer, duke lejuar p\u00ebrdorimin e tyre me tension t\u00eb lart\u00eb.<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Pas disa vitesh, dy fizikant\u00eb nga Laborator\u00ebt Bell, Joseph Becker dhe <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BD,_%D0%A3%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%B7%D0%B5%D1%80\">Walter Brattain<\/a><\/noindex>, vendos\u00ebn t\u00eb studiojn\u00eb parimin e funksionimit t\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsit t\u00eb bakrit \u2013 ishin t\u00eb interesuar t\u00eb dinin se si funksionon dhe si mund t\u00eb p\u00ebrdoret n\u00eb kompanin\u00eb Bell System.<\/p>\n<p><img decoding=\"async\" alt=\"Historia e transistorit: duke u p\u00ebrballur me err\u00ebsir\u00ebn\" src=\"\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/01\/a670707a5c9ee86ae7b7f129fd8fdee1.jpg\" style=\"display:block;margin: 0 auto;\" \/><br \/>\n<i>Brattain n\u00eb mosh\u00eb t\u00eb avancuar \u2013 rreth vitit 1950<\/i><\/p>\n<p>Brattain ishte origjinal nga e nj\u00ebjta zon\u00eb si Grondal, nga Northwest Paq\u00ebsor, ku rritej n\u00eb nj\u00eb ferm\u00eb disa kilometra larg kufirit kanadez. N\u00eb klasat e larta, ai filloi t\u00eb interesohej p\u00ebr fizik\u00ebn, tregoi aft\u00ebsi n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb fush\u00eb, dhe p\u00ebrfundimisht fitoi nj\u00eb doktorat\u00eb n\u00eb Universitetin e Minesot\u00ebs n\u00eb fund t\u00eb viteve 1920, dhe iu bashkua Laborator\u00ebve Bell n\u00eb vitin 1929. Nd\u00ebr t\u00eb tjera, n\u00eb universitet ai studioi fizik\u00ebn teorike m\u00eb t\u00eb re, e cila po fitonte popullaritet n\u00eb Evrop\u00eb, t\u00eb njohur si mekanika kuantike (mentor i tij ishte <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%A4%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%BE%D0%BD_%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B1%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA\">John H. Van Vleck<\/a><\/noindex>, i cili gjithashtu mentoroi John Atanasoff).<\/p>\n<h2>Revolucioni Kuantik<\/h2>\n<p>\nNj\u00eb platform\u00eb teorike e re u zhvillua ngadal\u00eb gjat\u00eb tri dekadave t\u00eb fundit, dhe nj\u00eb koh\u00eb do t\u00eb ishte n\u00eb gjendje t\u00eb shpjegonte t\u00eb gjitha fenomenet e \u00e7uditshme, t\u00eb cilat ishin v\u00ebzhguar p\u00ebr shum\u00eb vite n\u00eb materiale si galeniti, seleni dhe oksidi i bakrit. Nj\u00eb gjenerat\u00eb e t\u00eb rinjve fizikant\u00ebsh, kryesisht nga Gjermania dhe vendet fqinj\u00eb, shkaktuan nj\u00eb revolucion kuantik n\u00eb fizik\u00eb. Kudo q\u00eb shikonin, ata zbulonin nj\u00eb bot\u00eb t\u00eb \u00e7uditshme dhe t\u00eb ndar\u00eb, e cila ishte e ndryshme nga ajo q\u00eb kan\u00eb m\u00ebsuar, dhe jo nj\u00eb bot\u00eb t\u00eb qet\u00eb dhe t\u00eb vazhdueshme.<\/p>\n<p>\u00c7do gj\u00eb filloi n\u00eb vitet 1890. Max Planck, professori m\u00eb i njohur i Universitetit t\u00eb Berlinit, vendosi t\u00eb punoj\u00eb me nj\u00eb \u00e7\u00ebshtje t\u00eb njohur t\u00eb pazgjidhur: si &#171;<noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%90%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8E%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%87%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BE\">trup t\u00eb zez\u00eb absolut<\/a><\/noindex>&#187; (substanca ideale q\u00eb absorbon gjith\u00eb energjin\u00eb dhe nuk e reflekton at\u00eb) emetonte rrezatimin n\u00eb spektrin elektromagnetik? U provuan modele t\u00eb ndryshme, t\u00eb cilat asnj\u00ebra nuk p\u00ebrputhej me rezultatet eksperimentale \u2013 ato nuk arrinin t\u00eb ishin t\u00eb sakta ose n\u00eb nj\u00eb skaj, ose n\u00eb tjetrin e spektrit. Planck zbuloi se n\u00ebse supozohej se energjia emetohej nga trupi n\u00eb paketa t\u00eb vogla t\u00eb sasis\u00eb diskrete, at\u00ebher\u00eb mund t\u00eb formulohej nj\u00eb ligj i thjesht\u00eb i lidhjes midis frekuenc\u00ebs dhe energjis\u00eb, duke p\u00ebrputhur ngjash\u00ebm me rezultatet empirike.<\/p>\n<p>Pak pas k\u00ebsaj, Einstein zbuloi se kjo \u00ebsht\u00eb e v\u00ebrtet\u00eb edhe me thithjen e drit\u00ebs (hint i par\u00eb p\u00ebr foton\u00ebt), nd\u00ebrsa J.J. Thomson tregoi se elektriciteti gjithashtu transportohet jo si nj\u00eb l\u00ebng apo val\u00eb e vazhdueshme, por si grimca t\u00eb ve\u00e7anta \u2013 elektrone. Pastaj Niels Bohr krijoi nj\u00eb model q\u00eb shpjegonte se si atom\u00ebt e eksituar emetojn\u00eb rrezatim, duke u caktuar elektroneve orbita t\u00eb ve\u00e7anta n\u00eb atom, secila nga t\u00eb cilat kishte energjin\u00eb e vet. Megjithat\u00eb, ky em\u00ebr \u00ebsht\u00eb i g\u00ebnjysh\u00ebm, pasi ata nuk veprojn\u00eb aspak si orbitat e planet\u00ebve \u2013 n\u00eb modelin Bohr, elektronet kalonin menj\u00ebher\u00eb nga nj\u00eb orbital, ose nivel energjie n\u00eb tjetrin, pa kaluar n\u00eb nj\u00eb gjendje nd\u00ebrmjet. Dhe, p\u00ebrfundimisht, n\u00eb vitet 1920, Erwin Schr\u00f6dinger, Werner Heisenberg, Max Born dhe t\u00eb tjer\u00eb krijuan nj\u00eb platform\u00eb matematike t\u00eb p\u00ebrgjithshme t\u00eb njohur si mekanika kuantike, e cila p\u00ebrfshinte t\u00eb gjitha modelet e ve\u00e7anta kuantike, t\u00eb krijuara gjat\u00eb nj\u00ebzet viteve t\u00eb m\u00ebparshme.<\/p>\n<p>Der p\u00ebr k\u00ebt\u00eb koh\u00eb, fizikant\u00ebt ishin tashm\u00eb t\u00eb sigurt se materiale si seleni dhe galeniti, t\u00eb cilat tregojn\u00eb pronat fotogalvanike dhe drejtuesve, i p\u00ebrkasin nj\u00eb klase t\u00eb ve\u00e7ant\u00eb materialesh q\u00eb ata e quajt\u00ebn gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues. Klasifikimi mori kaq shum\u00eb koh\u00eb p\u00ebr disa arsye. S\u00eb pari, kategorit\u00eb e njohura \"t\u00eb drejtuesve\" dhe \"izolator\u00ebve\" ishin t\u00eb mjaftueshme t\u00eb gjera. T\u00eb ashtuquajturit \"t\u00eb drejtuesve\" ndaheshin jasht\u00ebzakonisht n\u00eb drejtueshm\u00ebri, ashtu si\u00e7 ndodhte (me m\u00eb pak intensitet) edhe me izolator\u00ebt, dhe nuk ishte e qart\u00eb se si nj\u00eb drejtues i caktuar mund t\u00eb kategorizohej n\u00eb nj\u00eb nga k\u00ebto klasa. M\u00eb shum\u00eb, deri n\u00eb mesin e shekullit t\u00eb 20-t\u00eb, ishte e pamundur t\u00eb merreshin ose t\u00eb krijoheshin substanca shum\u00eb t\u00eb pastra, dhe \u00e7do \u00e7rregullim n\u00eb drejtueshm\u00ebrin\u00eb e materialeve natyrore gjithmon\u00eb mund t\u00eb atribuoheshin ndotjes.<\/p>\n<p>Tani fizikant\u00ebt kishin si mjete matematikore mekanik\u00ebn kuantike, ashtu edhe nj\u00eb klas\u00eb t\u00eb re materialesh n\u00eb t\u00eb cil\u00ebn mund t\u00eb aplikoheshin ato. Teoritik britanik <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Alan_Herries_Wilson\">Alan Wilson<\/a><\/noindex> ishte i pari q\u00eb e grumbulloi gjith\u00e7ka dhe ndBuilding a general model of semiconductors and their operating principles in 1931.<\/p>\n<p>Fillimisht Wilson argumentoi se materialet drejtues dalloheshin nga dielektrik\u00ebt nga gjendjet e zona energjike. Mekanika kuantike pohon se elektronet mund t\u00eb ekzistojn\u00eb n\u00eb nj\u00eb num\u00ebr t\u00eb kufizuar t\u00eb niveleve t\u00eb energjis\u00eb, t\u00eb cilat u p\u00ebrkasin orbitave t\u00eb atomeve t\u00eb ve\u00e7anta. N\u00ebse k\u00ebta atome kompresohen s\u00eb bashku n\u00eb struktur\u00ebn e ndonj\u00eb materiali, \u00ebsht\u00eb m\u00eb e sakt\u00eb t\u00eb p\u00ebrfytyrosh zona t\u00eb vazhdueshme energjitike, q\u00eb kalojn\u00eb p\u00ebrmes tij. N\u00eb drejtues, n\u00eb zonat energjitike t\u00eb larta ka vende t\u00eb lira, dhe fusha elektrike mund t\u00eb l\u00ebviz\u00eb lirsh\u00ebm elektronet atje. N\u00eb izolator\u00ebt, zonat jan\u00eb t\u00eb mbushura, dhe p\u00ebr t\u00eb arritur n\u00eb zon\u00ebn m\u00eb t\u00eb lart\u00eb, ku elektriciteti do t\u00eb kalonte m\u00eb leht\u00eb, duhet t\u00eb ngjiten mjaft larg.<\/p>\n<p>Kjo e \u00e7oi at\u00eb n\u00eb p\u00ebrfundimin se papast\u00ebrtit\u00eb \u2013 atomet e huaj n\u00eb struktur\u00ebn e materialit \u2013 duhet t\u00eb kontribuonin n\u00eb pronat e tij gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uese. Ato mund t\u00eb ofrojn\u00eb elektrone t\u00eb tep\u00ebrta, t\u00eb cilat dalin leht\u00ebsisht n\u00eb zon\u00ebn e drejtimit, ose hap\u00ebsira \u2013 mungesa e elektronit n\u00eb krahasim me materialin tjet\u00ebr \u2013 e cila krijon vende energjitike t\u00eb zbraz\u00ebta, ku mund t\u00eb l\u00ebvizin elektronet e lira. Variante e para m\u00eb von\u00eb u quajt\u00ebn gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7ues t\u00eb tipit n (ose elektrone) \u2013 p\u00ebr ngarkes\u00ebn negative t\u00eb tep\u00ebrt, nd\u00ebrsa t\u00eb dyta \u2013 t\u00eb tipit p, ose hap\u00ebsira \u2013 p\u00ebr ngarkes\u00ebn e tep\u00ebrt pozitive.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb fund, Wilson sugjeroi se drejtimi i rrym\u00ebs nga gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit mund t\u00eb shpjegohej n\u00eb terma kuantike <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A2%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%8D%D1%84%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82\">efektit t\u00eb tunelit<\/a><\/noindex>, nj\u00eb shk\u00ebputje t\u00eb papritur t\u00eb elektronit p\u00ebrmes nj\u00eb barriere elektrike t\u00eb holl\u00eb n\u00eb material. Teoria dukej e besueshme, megjithat\u00eb parashikonte se rrjedha n\u00eb drejtues duhet t\u00eb shkonte nga oksidi n\u00eb bak\u00ebr, nd\u00ebrsa n\u00eb realitet ishte e kund\u00ebrta.<\/p>\n<p>Ashtu, pavar\u00ebsisht t\u00eb gjitha p\u00ebrparimeve t\u00eb Wilson-it, gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit mbet\u00ebn t\u00eb v\u00ebshtir\u00eb p\u00ebr t'u shpjeguar. Si\u00e7 b\u00ebhej gjithmon\u00eb e qart\u00eb, ndryshimet mikroskopike n\u00eb struktur\u00ebn kristalore dhe p\u00ebrqendrimin e papast\u00ebrtive pat\u00ebn ndikim disproporcional mbi sjelljen e tyre elektrike makroskopike. Pa marr\u00eb parasysh munges\u00ebn e kuptueshm\u00ebris\u00eb \u2013 pasi askush nuk mundi t\u00eb shpjegonte vobservimin eksperimental q\u00eb Brawn b\u00ebri 60 vjet m\u00eb par\u00eb \u2013 Brattain dhe Becker zhvilluan nj\u00eb proces t\u00eb efektsh\u00ebm t\u00eb prodhimit t\u00eb drejtuesve t\u00eb oksidit t\u00eb bakrit p\u00ebr pun\u00ebdh\u00ebn\u00ebsin e tyre. Sistemi Bell shpejt filloi t\u00eb z\u00ebvend\u00ebsonte drejtuesit n\u00eb lambat elektronike n\u00eb t\u00eb gjith\u00eb sistemin me nj\u00eb pajisje t\u00eb re, e cila inxhinier\u00ebt e tij e quajt\u00ebn <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80\">varistor<\/a><\/noindex>, pasi q\u00eb rezistenca e saj ndryshonte n\u00eb var\u00ebsi t\u00eb drejtimit.<\/p>\n<h2>Medalja e art\u00eb<\/h2>\n<p>\nMervin Kelly, fizikant dhe ish-kreu i departamentit t\u00eb lambave elektronike n\u00eb Laborator\u00ebt Bell, ishte shum\u00eb i interesuar n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb arritje. P\u00ebr disa dhjet\u00ebra vjet, lambat elektronike kishin sh\u00ebrbyer Bell-it nj\u00eb sh\u00ebrbim t\u00eb \u00e7muar dhe mund t\u00eb realizonin funksione, t\u00eb cilat nuk ishin t\u00eb arritshme p\u00ebr gjenerat\u00ebn e m\u00ebparshme t\u00eb komponent\u00ebve mekanik\u00eb dhe elektromeanik\u00eb. Por ato ngroheshin shum\u00eb, nganj\u00ebher\u00eb digjnin, konsumonin shum\u00eb energji dhe ishin t\u00eb komplikuara p\u00ebr t'u mir\u00ebmbajtur. Kelly kishte p\u00ebr q\u00ebllim t\u00eb rind\u00ebrtonte sistemin Bell nga fillimi mbi baza m\u00eb t\u00eb besueshme dhe m\u00eb t\u00eb forta t\u00eb komponent\u00ebve elektronik\u00eb solide, si varistori, i cili nuk k\u00ebrkonte as d\u00ebrrasa t\u00eb hermetizuara t\u00eb mbushura me gaz apo as zuckl\u00eb e nxehta. N\u00eb vitin 1936, ai u b\u00eb kreu i departamentit t\u00eb k\u00ebrkimit t\u00eb Laborator\u00ebve Bell dhe filloi t\u00eb riformatoj\u00eb organizat\u00ebn n\u00eb nj\u00eb drejtim t\u00eb ri.<\/p>\n<p>Pas p\u00ebrfitimi t\u00eb nj\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdrejt\u00ebsi t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb, hapi tjet\u00ebr logjik ishte krijimi i nj\u00eb amplifikatori t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb. Natyrisht, nj\u00eb pajisje e till\u00eb mund t\u00eb punonte gjithashtu si nj\u00eb nd\u00ebrrues digjital, ashtu si amplifikatori me vakum. Kjo ishte ve\u00e7an\u00ebrisht e r\u00ebnd\u00ebsishme p\u00ebr laboratorin Bell, pasi shum\u00eb nd\u00ebrrues elektromechanik\u00eb digjital\u00eb vazhdonin t\u00eb ishin n\u00eb p\u00ebrdorim n\u00eb telefonat. Kompania k\u00ebrkonte nj\u00eb z\u00ebvend\u00ebsim m\u00eb t\u00eb besuesh\u00ebm, t\u00eb kompakt, energjikisht efikas dhe t\u00eb ftoht\u00eb p\u00ebr vakumin n\u00eb sistemet telefonike, radio, radar\u00eb dhe pajisje t\u00eb tjera analogjike, ku ato ishin p\u00ebrdorur p\u00ebr t\u00eb amplifikuar sinjale t\u00eb dob\u00ebta deri n\u00eb nj\u00eb nivel t\u00eb kapsh\u00ebm p\u00ebr veshin njer\u00ebzor.<\/p>\n<p>N\u00eb vitin 1936, Laborator\u00ebt Bell p\u00ebrfundimisht hoq\u00ebn ndalimin p\u00ebr rekrutimin e personelit, t\u00eb vendosur gjat\u00eb <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%8F\">Depresionit t\u00eb Madh<\/a><\/noindex>. Kelly menj\u00ebher\u00eb filloi t\u00eb pun\u00ebsonte ekspert\u00eb n\u00eb mekanik\u00eb kuantike p\u00ebr t\u00eb ndihmuar n\u00eb nisjen e programit t\u00eb tij t\u00eb k\u00ebrkimeve mbi pajisjet e ngurt\u00eb, mes t\u00eb cil\u00ebve ishte dhe <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8,_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%91%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4\">William Shockley<\/a><\/noindex>, nj\u00eb tjet\u00ebr p\u00ebrfaq\u00ebsues nga Bregu Per\u00ebndimor, nga Palo Alto (Kaliforni). Tema e disertacionit t\u00eb tij t\u00eb sapokryer n\u00eb MIT ishte m\u00eb se e p\u00ebrshtatshme p\u00ebr nevojat e Kelly: \"Zona elektronike n\u00eb kloridin e natriumit\".<\/p>\n<p>Brattain dhe Becker gjat\u00eb k\u00ebsaj kohe vazhduan k\u00ebrkimet e tyre mbi drejtp\u00ebrdresit\u00eb me oksid bakri, duke k\u00ebrkuar t\u00eb krijonin nj\u00eb amplifikator t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb m\u00eb t\u00eb p\u00ebrmir\u00ebsuar. M\u00ebnyra m\u00eb e dukshme p\u00ebr ta b\u00ebr\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb ishte duke ndjekur analogjin\u00eb me amplifikatorin me vakum. Nj\u00ebsoj si Lee de Forest, i cili mori nj\u00eb amplifikator me vakum dhe <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/405207\/\">vendosi nj\u00eb rrjet\u00eb elektrike<\/a><\/noindex> mes katod\u00ebs dhe anod\u00ebs, k\u00ebshtu Brattain dhe Becker e paraqit\u00ebn iden\u00eb e vendosjes s\u00eb rrjet\u00ebs n\u00eb kontaktin mes bakrit dhe oksidit t\u00eb bakrit, ku supozohej se ndodhte drejtp\u00ebrdrezimi. Megjithat\u00eb, p\u00ebr shkak t\u00eb trash\u00ebsis\u00eb s\u00eb vog\u00ebl t\u00eb shtres\u00ebs, ata e konsideruan t\u00eb pamundur ta b\u00ebnin k\u00ebt\u00eb dhe nuk pat\u00ebn sukses.<\/p>\n<p>Nd\u00ebrkoh\u00eb, zhvillime t\u00eb tjera treguan se Laborator\u00ebt Bell nuk ishin e vetmja kompani q\u00eb ishte e interesuar p\u00ebr elektronikat e ngurt\u00eb. N\u00eb vitin 1938, Rudolf Hilch dhe Robert Paul publikuan rezultatet e eksperimenteve t\u00eb kryera n\u00eb Universitetin e G\u00f6ttingen mbi nj\u00eb amplifikator t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb n\u00eb pun\u00eb, i krijuar p\u00ebrmes integrimit t\u00eb nj\u00eb rrjete n\u00eb kristalin e bromidit t\u00eb kaliumit. Ky pajisje laboratorike nuk kishte vler\u00eb praktike \u2013 kryesisht, pasi punonte n\u00eb nj\u00eb frekuenc\u00eb jo m\u00eb t\u00eb lart\u00eb se 1 Hz. Megjithat\u00eb, ky arritje nuk mund t\u00eb mos e g\u00ebzonte t\u00eb gjith\u00eb ata q\u00eb ishin t\u00eb interesuar p\u00ebr elektronikat e ngurt\u00eb. N\u00eb t\u00eb nj\u00ebjtin vit, Kelly e vendosi Shockley n\u00eb nj\u00eb grup t\u00eb ri t\u00eb pavarur p\u00ebr k\u00ebrkimin mbi pajisjet e ngurt\u00eb dhe i dha atij dhe koleg\u00ebve t\u00eb tij, Foster Nix dhe Dean Wooldridge, kart\u00eb blanche p\u00ebr t\u00eb eksploruar mund\u00ebsit\u00eb e tyre.<\/p>\n<p>T\u00eb pakt\u00ebn dy shpik\u00ebs t\u00eb tjer\u00eb arrit\u00ebn t\u00eb krijonin amplifikator\u00eb t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb para Luft\u00ebs s\u00eb Dyt\u00eb Bot\u00ebrore. N\u00eb vitin 1922, fizikanti dhe shpik\u00ebsi sovjetik <noindex><a rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/ru.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B2,_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3_%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87\">Oleg Vladimirovich Lossev<\/a><\/noindex> publikoi rezultatet e eksperimenteve t\u00eb suksesshme me polus\u00eb k\u00ebnaq\u00ebsie, por pun\u00ebt e tij mbet\u00ebn t\u00eb paq\u00ebndrueshme p\u00ebr komunitetin per\u00ebndimor; n\u00eb vitin 1926, shpik\u00ebsi amerikan Julius Lilienfeld paraqiti nj\u00eb k\u00ebrkes\u00eb p\u00ebr patent\u00eb p\u00ebr nj\u00eb amplifikator t\u00eb ngurt\u00eb, megjithat\u00eb nuk kishte d\u00ebshmi mbi funksionalitetin e shpikjes s\u00eb tij.<\/p>\n<p>Zbulimi i par\u00eb t\u00eb r\u00ebnd\u00ebsish\u00ebm p\u00ebr Shockley n\u00eb detyr\u00ebn e tij t\u00eb re ndodhi gjat\u00eb leximit t\u00eb pun\u00ebs s\u00eb fizikantit britanik Neville Mott \"Teoria e drejtp\u00ebrdhez\u00ebve kristalor\u00eb\" nga viti 1938, ku p\u00ebrfundimisht shpjegohej principi i funksionimit t\u00eb drejtp\u00ebrdres\u00ebs Grondal mbi oksidin e bakrit. Mott p\u00ebrdori matematik\u00ebn e mekanik\u00ebs kuantike p\u00ebr t\u00eb p\u00ebrshkruar formimin e fush\u00ebs elektrike n\u00eb kufirin mes metalit q\u00eb b\u00ebn kalim dhe oksidit t\u00eb polus\u00eb, dhe se si elektronet \"kaluar\" p\u00ebrmes k\u00ebtij barrieri elektrik, p\u00ebrve\u00e7 se t\u2019u jepnin term q\u00eb sugjerohej nga Wilson. Rryma kalon m\u00eb leht\u00eb nga metali n\u00eb polus\u00eb se p\u00ebrkundrazi, pasi metali ka shum\u00eb m\u00eb tep\u00ebr elektrone t\u00eb lira.<\/p>\n<p>Kjo e \u00e7oi Shokli pik\u00ebrisht n\u00eb t\u00eb nj\u00ebjtin koncept q\u00eb Brattain dhe Becker e kishin shqyrtuar dhe refuzuar shum\u00eb vite m\u00eb par\u00eb \u2013 t\u00eb krijonin nj\u00eb amplifikues me shum\u00eb\u00e7ip, duke futur nj\u00eb rrjet\u00eb me oksid bakri n\u00eb hap\u00ebsir\u00ebn midis bakrit dhe oksidit t\u00eb bakrit. Ai shpresonte se rryma q\u00eb kalonte p\u00ebrmes rrjet\u00ebs do t\u00eb rris\u00eb barrier\u00ebn q\u00eb kufizonte rrym\u00ebn nga bakri n\u00eb oksid, duke krijuar nj\u00eb version t\u00eb p\u00ebrforcuar, t\u00eb inversuar t\u00eb sinjalit n\u00eb rrjet\u00eb. P\u00ebrpjekja e tij e par\u00eb ishte plot\u00ebsisht e d\u00ebshtuar, prandaj ai iu drejtua nj\u00eb personi me aft\u00ebsi laboratorike m\u00eb t\u00eb zhvilluara dhe t\u00eb njohur mir\u00eb me drejtuesit \u2013 Walter Brattain. Edhe pse nuk kishte dyshime p\u00ebr rezultatin, Brattain pranoi t\u00eb k\u00ebnaqte kureshtjen e Shoklit dhe krijoi nj\u00eb version m\u00eb t\u00eb avancuar t\u00eb amplifikuesit 'rrjet\u00eb'. Ajo gjithashtu d\u00ebshtoi t\u00eb funksiononte.<\/p>\n<p>Pastaj lufta nd\u00ebrhyri, duke l\u00ebn\u00eb programin e ri t\u00eb k\u00ebrkimeve t\u00eb Kelly n\u00eb kaos. Kelly u vendos n\u00eb krye t\u00eb nj\u00eb grupi punues p\u00ebr radar\u00ebt n\u00eb Laborator\u00ebt Bell, duke punuar n\u00ebn mb\u00ebshtetje t\u00eb qendr\u00ebs kryesore t\u00eb k\u00ebrkimeve p\u00ebr radar\u00ebt t\u00eb SHBA n\u00eb MIT. Brattain punoi p\u00ebr nj\u00eb koh\u00eb t\u00eb shkurt\u00ebr n\u00ebn t\u00eb, pastaj kaloi n\u00eb k\u00ebrkime p\u00ebr zbulimin magnetik t\u00eb n\u00ebndet\u00ebseve p\u00ebr llogari t\u00eb flot\u00ebs ushtarake. Wulridge punoi mbi sistemet e kontrollit t\u00eb zjarrin, Nix mbi difuzionin e gazeve p\u00ebr Projektin Manhattan, dhe Shokli kaloi n\u00eb k\u00ebrkime operative, duke u angazhuar fillimisht n\u00eb luft\u00eb kund\u00ebr n\u00ebndet\u00ebseve n\u00eb Atlantik, dhe m\u00eb pas n\u00eb bombardimet strategjike n\u00eb Paq\u00ebsor.<\/p>\n<p>Por, pavar\u00ebsisht nga kjo nd\u00ebrhyrje, lufta nuk ndali zhvillimin e elektronik\u00ebs me shum\u00eb\u00e7ip. P\u00ebrkundrazi, ajo organizoi nj\u00eb pompim masiv burimesh n\u00eb k\u00ebt\u00eb fush\u00eb dhe \u00e7oi n\u00eb p\u00ebrqendrim k\u00ebrkimesh mbi dy materiale: germaniu dhe silikoni.<\/p>\n<h2>\u00c7far\u00eb tjet\u00ebr p\u00ebr t\u00eb lexuar<\/h2>\n<p>\nErnest Bruan dhe Stuart MacDonald, Revolution in Miniature (1978)<\/p>\n<p>Friedrich Kurylo dhe Charles Susskind, Ferdinand Braun (1981)<\/p>\n<p>G. L. Pearson dhe W. H. Brattain, \u201cHistoria e K\u00ebrkimeve mbi Gjysm\u00ebp\u00ebr\u00e7uesit,\u201d Proceedings of the IRE (Dhjetor 1955).<\/p>\n<p>Michael Riordan dhe Lillian Hoddeson, Crystal Fire (1997)<br \/>\n<br \/>Burimi: <a content=\"nofollow\" rel=\"nofollow\" href=\"https:\/\/habr.com\/ru\/post\/448238\/\">habr.com<\/a><\/p>","protected":false,"gt_translate_keys":[{"key":"rendered","format":"html"}]},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>\u0414\u0440\u0443\u0433\u0438\u0435 \u0441\u0442\u0430\u0442\u044c\u0438 \u0446\u0438\u043a\u043b\u0430: \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u041c\u0435\u0442\u043e\u0434 \u00ab\u0431\u044b\u0441\u0442\u0440\u043e\u0439 \u043f\u0435\u0440\u0435\u0434\u0430\u0447\u0438 \u0441\u0432\u0435\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0439\u00bb, \u0438\u043b\u0438 \u0417\u0430\u0440\u043e\u0436\u0434\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0414\u0430\u043b\u044c\u043d\u043e\u043f\u0438\u0441\u0435\u0446 \u0413\u0430\u043b\u044c\u0432\u0430\u043d\u0438\u0437\u043c \u041f\u0440\u0435\u0434\u043f\u0440\u0438\u043d\u0438\u043c\u0430\u0442\u0435\u043b\u0438 \u0410 \u0432\u043e\u0442, \u043d\u0430\u043a\u043e\u043d\u0435\u0446, \u0438 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435 \u0413\u043e\u0432\u043e\u0440\u044f\u0449\u0438\u0439 \u0442\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0433\u0440\u0430\u0444 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u0441\u0442\u043e \u0441\u043e\u0435\u0434\u0438\u043d\u0438\u0442\u044c \u0417\u0430\u0431\u044b\u0442\u043e\u0435 \u043f\u043e\u043a\u043e\u043b\u0435\u043d\u0438\u0435 \u0440\u0435\u043b\u0435\u0439\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u042d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u0430\u044f \u044d\u0440\u0430 \u0418\u0441\u0442\u043e\u0440\u0438\u044f \u044d\u043b\u0435\u043a\u0442\u0440\u043e\u043d\u043d\u044b\u0445 \u043a\u043e\u043c\u043f\u044c\u044e\u0442\u0435\u0440\u043e\u0432 \u041f\u0440\u043e\u043b\u043e\u0433 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