Amanye amanqaku kolu ngcelele:
- Imbali yodluliselo
- Imbali yeekhompyuter ze-elektroniki
- Imbali ye-transistor
- Imbali ye-Intanethi
Intshayelelo
Ekuqaleni kwee-1970s, i-AT&T, i-monopoly enkulu yezonxibelelwano zase-US, yeza ngomnikelo onomdla. Ngelo xesha, wayengumlawuli wecandelo le-computing ye-Arhente yeeProjekthi zoPhando oluPhezulu (i-ARPA), umbutho omncinci ophakathi kwiSebe lezoKhuselo owenze uphando lwexesha elide, ngaphandle komhlaba. Kwiminyaka emihlanu ekhokelela kule ngongoma, uRoberts wayejongene nokudalwa kwe-ARPANET, yokuqala yeenethiwekhi ezinkulu zekhompyutheni ezidibanisa iikhomputha ezifumaneka kwiindawo ze-25 ezahlukeneyo kwilizwe lonke.
Uthungelwano lwaba yimpumelelo, kodwa ubukho bayo bexesha elide kunye nabo bonke uburhulumente obunxulumeneyo abuwelanga phantsi kwegunya le-ARPA. URoberts wayejonge indlela yokuwukhuphela komnye umntu umsebenzi. Kwaye ngoko waqhagamshelana nabalawuli be-AT & T ukuba babanikeze "izitshixo" kule nkqubo. Emva kokuqwalasela ngononophelo unikezelo, i-AT&T ekugqibeleni yasishiya. Iinjineli eziphezulu zenkampani kunye nabaphathi bakholelwa ukuba iteknoloji ye-ARPANET esisiseko ayinakwenzeka kwaye ayizinzile, kwaye yayingenayo indawo kwinkqubo eyilelwe ukubonelela ngenkonzo ethembekileyo kunye neyomhlaba wonke.
I-ARPANET ngokwemvelo yaba yimbewu apho i-Intanethi yaqaqamba; iprototype yesixokelelwano esikhulu solwazi esigubungela umhlaba wonke, onesakhono ze-kaleidoscopic ezingenakwenzeka ukuba zibalwe. Kwenzeka njani ukuba i-AT&T ingaboni amandla anjalo kwaye ibambeke kakhulu kwixesha elidlulileyo? UBob Taylor, owaqesha uRoberts ukuba alawule iprojekthi ye-ARPANET ngo-1966, kamva wayichaza ngokucacileyo: "Ukusebenza ne-AT & T kuya kufana nokusebenza noCro-Magnons." Nangona kunjalo, ngaphambi kokuba sijongane nokungazi kakuhle kwamagosa angaziwayo amashishini anobutshaba, masibuyele umva. Isihloko sebali lethu siya kuba yimbali ye-Intanethi, ngoko kuqala luluvo olulungileyo ukufumana umbono obanzi wento esithetha ngayo.
Kuzo zonke iinkqubo zobuchwepheshe ezidalwe kwisiqingatha samva senkulungwane yama-XNUMX, i-Intanethi ngokungathandabuzekiyo ibe nempembelelo enkulu kuluntu, inkcubeko kunye noqoqosho lwehlabathi lanamhlanje. Oyena mntu ukhuphisana naye ngokusondeleyo kulo mba unokuhamba ngejethi. Ngokusebenzisa i-Intanethi, abantu banokwabelana ngeefoto, iividiyo neengcinga ngoko nangoko, ezifunwayo nezingafunwayo, nabahlobo kunye nosapho kwihlabathi liphela. Ulutsha oluhlala amawaka eekhilomitha ukusuka komnye nomnye ngoku luhlala luthandana kwaye luze lutshate kwihlabathi elibonakalayo. Udederhu lweevenkile olungenasiphelo luyafikeleleka nangaliphi na ixesha lemini okanye lobusuku ngokuthe ngqo kwizigidi zamakhaya atofotofo.
Ubukhulu becala, konke oku kuqhelekile kwaye kunjalo kanye. Kodwa njengokuba umbhali ngokwakhe enokungqina, i-Intanethi iye yangqineka mhlawumbi isesona siphazamiso, esichitha ixesha, nomthombo wokonakala kwengqondo kwimbali yoluntu, ukodlula umabonwakude—yaye oko kwakungeyondlela ilula. Wavumela zonke iintlobo ze-idiots, abashicileli kunye nabathandi beethiyori zeyelenqe ukuba basasaze ububhanxa babo kwihlabathi lonke ngesantya sokukhanya - enye yale ngcaciso inokugqalwa njengengenabungozi, kwaye abanye abanako. Ivumele imibutho emininzi, yabucala kunye nekawonke-wonke, ukuba iqokelele kancinci, kwaye kwezinye iimeko ngokukhawuleza kwaye ngokuhlazola, iintaba ezinkulu zedatha. Ngokubanzi, uye waba ngumandisi wobulumko kunye nobudenge bomntu, kwaye ubungakanani bokugqibela buyoyikeka.
Kodwa yintoni into esiyixubushayo, isakhiwo sayo somzimba, bonke obu matshini obuvumela ukuba olu tshintsho lwentlalo kunye nenkcubeko lwenzeke? Yintoni i-Intanethi? Ukuba ngandlel’ ithile besikwazi ukuhluza le nto ngokuyibeka kwisitya seglasi, besiya kuyibona ihluzwa ibe ngamaleko amathathu. Uthungelwano lonxibelelwano lwehlabathi luya kufakwa ezantsi. Olu maleko lwandulela i-Intanethi malunga nenkulungwane, kwaye lwenziwa okokuqala ngeengcingo zobhedu okanye zentsimbi, kodwa ukusukela oko lwathatyathelwa indawo ziintambo ze-coaxial, ii-microwave eziphindaphindayo, i-optical fiber, kunye nonxibelelwano lukanomathotholo.
Umaleko olandelayo uneekhompyuter ezinxibelelana enye kwenye ngale nkqubo kusetyenziswa iilwimi eziqhelekileyo, okanye imigaqo. Phakathi kwezona zibalulekileyo kwezi yi-Internet Protocol (IP), iProtocol Transmission Control (TCP), kunye neBorder Gateway Protocol (BGP). Lo ngundoqo we-Intanethi ngokwawo, kunye nokubonakaliswa kwayo kwekhonkrithi kuza njengothungelwano lweekhomputha ezikhethekileyo ezibizwa ngokuba zii-routers, ezinoxanduva lokufumana indlela yomyalezo ohambayo ukusuka kwikhompyutheni yomthombo ukuya kwikhompyutheni yendawo.
Ekugqibeleni, kwinqanaba eliphezulu kukho izicelo ezahlukeneyo ezisetyenziswa ngabantu kunye noomatshini ekusebenzeni nasekudlaleni kwi-Intanethi, uninzi lwazo zisebenzisa iilwimi ezikhethekileyo: iziphequluli zewebhu, izicelo zonxibelelwano, imidlalo yevidiyo, izicelo zokurhweba, njl. Ukusebenzisa i-Intanethi, isicelo sidinga kuphela ukufaka umyalezo kwifomati ezinokuthi ziqondwe iirotha. Umyalezo unokuhamba kwi-chess, inxalenye encinci ye-movie, okanye isicelo sokudlulisa imali kwi-akhawunti enye yebhanki ukuya kwenye - ii-routers azikhathali kwaye ziya kuyiphatha ngokufanayo.
Ibali lethu liza kuhlanganisa le misonto mithathu ukubalisa ibali le-Intanethi. Okokuqala, inethiwekhi yonxibelelwano yehlabathi. Ekugqibeleni, bonke ubuqaqawuli beenkqubo ezahlukeneyo ezivumela abasebenzisi bekhompyuter ukuba bonwabe okanye benze into eluncedo kwinethiwekhi. Ngokudibeneyo zidityaniswe nobuchwephesha kunye neeprothokholi ezivumela iikhompyuter ezahlukeneyo ukuba zinxibelelane. Abaqulunqi bobu buchwepheshe kunye neeprothokholi zazisekwe kwimpumelelo yexesha elidlulileyo (uthungelwano) kwaye babenombono ongacacanga wekamva ababekhangela kulo (iinkqubo zekamva).
Ukongeza kwaba badali, omnye wabalinganiswa rhoqo kwibali lethu uya kuba ngurhulumente. Oku kuya kuba yinyani ngakumbi kwinqanaba lothungelwano lonxibelelwano, olwaluqhutywa ngurhulumente okanye lwaluphantsi kweliso elingqongqo likarhulumente. Okusibuyisela kwi-AT&T. Njengokuba babekuthiyile ukuyivuma, ikamva likaTaylor, uRoberts kunye noogxa babo be-ARPA baboshwe ngokungenathemba kubaqhubi bezonxibelelwano, eyona nto iphambili yekamva le-Intanethi. Ukusebenza kothungelwano lwabo kwakuxhomekeke ngokupheleleyo kwiinkonzo ezinjalo. Siyichaza njani inzondo yabo, inkolelo yabo yokuba i-ARPANET imele ihlabathi elitsha elichasene ne-retrograde bureaucrats eqhuba unxibelelwano?
Enyanisweni, la maqela mabini ayengahlulwanga ngokwexeshana, kodwa ngokwahlukana ngokwentanda-bulumko. Abalawuli be-AT&T kunye neenjineli bazibone njengabanakekeli bomatshini omkhulu kunye nonzima obonelela ngeenkonzo zonxibelelwano ezithembekileyo kunye nehlabathi jikelele ukusuka komnye umntu ukuya komnye. I-Bell System yayinoxanduva lwazo zonke izixhobo. Abaqulunqi be-ARPANET bajonga inkqubo njenge-conduit ye-bits engaqondakaliyo yedatha, kwaye bakholelwa ukuba abaqhubi bayo akufanele baphazamise indlela idatha eyenziwe ngayo kwaye isetyenziswe kuzo zombini iziphelo zocingo.
Ke kufuneka siqale ngokuxela ukuba, ngamandla karhulumente wase-US, oku kungqubana kubume bonxibelelwano lwaseMelika kwasonjululwa njani.
Inkqubo enye, inkonzo yehlabathi jikelele?
I-Intanethi yazalelwa kwindawo ethile yonxibelelwano lwaseMelika-e-United States ababoneleli ngefowuni kunye ne-telegraph baphathwa ngendlela eyahlukileyo kwihlabathi liphela-kwaye kukho zonke izizathu zokukholelwa ukuba le meko idlale indima yokuphuhlisa nokwakha. yomoya we-Intanethi yexesha elizayo. Ngoko makhe sihlolisise indlela okwenzeka ngayo konke oku. Ukwenza oku, siya kubuyela ekuzalweni kwe-telegraph yaseMelika.
I-anomaly yaseMelika
Ngonyaka we-1843 kunye nabalingane bakhe baqinisekisa iCongress ukuba ichithe i-$ 30 ukwenza umgca wetelegraph phakathi kweWashington D.C. kunye neBaltimore. Babekholelwa ukuba eli yayiza kuba likhonkco lokuqala kuthungelwano lwemigca yetelegraph eyenziwe ngemali karhulumente eyayiza kusasazeka kwilizwekazi lonke. Kwileta eya kwiNdlu yabaMeli, uMorse ucebise ukuba urhulumente athenge onke amalungelo kumalungelo akhe omenzi we-telegraph kwaye emva koko ikhontrakthi yeenkampani zabucala ukuba zakhe iinxalenye zenethiwekhi, ngelixa egcina imigca eyahlukeneyo yonxibelelwano olusemthethweni. Kule meko, uMorse wabhala, "akuzukuthatha ixesha elide ngaphambi kokuba umhlaba wonke weli lizwe uhlanjululwe kunye nale mithambo-luvo, eya kuthi, ngesantya sokucinga, isasaze ulwazi ngayo yonke into eyenzekayo emhlabeni, iguqule ilizwe lonke. kwindawo enkulu yokuhlala.”
Kuye kwabonakala ngathi inkqubo yonxibelelwano ibaluleke ngolo hlobo ngokwendalo yanceda uluntu, yaza ke ngoko yaba phantsi kweenkxalabo zikarhulumente. Ukubonelela ngonxibelelwano phakathi kwamazwe aliqela ngeenkonzo zeposi kwakungomnye wemisebenzi emininzi karhulumente wobumbano ephawulwe ngokukodwa kuMgaqo-siseko wase-US. Noko ke, injongo yakhe yayingamiselwanga ngokupheleleyo yinkonzo eluntwini. Ulawulo lukaRhulumente lwanika uMorse kunye nabaxhasi bakhe ithuba lokugqiba ngempumelelo ishishini labo - ukufumana intlawulo enye, kodwa ebalulekileyo kwimali yoluntu. Ngowe-1845, uCave Johnson, oyiNjengele yaseUnited States phantsi koMongameli we-11 waseUnited States, uJames Polk, wavakalisa inkxaso yakhe ngenkqubo yetelegraph kawonke wonke eyacetywa nguMorse esithi: “Ukusetyenziswa kwesixhobo esinamandla ngolo hlobo, okulungileyo okanye okubi, ukuze kukhuseleke abantu. ayinakushiywa ezandleni zabucala. ”ubhale watsho. Noko ke, kulapho yaphela khona yonke loo nto. Amanye amalungu olawulo lweDemokhrasi yePolk ayengafuni nto yakwenza netelegraph yoluntu, njengoko yenza iDemocratic Congress. Iqela alizange liwathande amacebo , benyanzela urhulumente ukuba achithe imali “kuphuculo lwangaphakathi” - baqwalasela ezi zicwangciso zokukhuthaza umkhethe, ubugwenxa nobuqhophololo.
Ngenxa yokungathandi kukarhulumente ukwenza okuthile, elinye lamalungu eqela likaMorse, uAmos Kendal, waqala ukuphuhlisa iskimu sothungelwano lwetelegraph ngenkxaso yabaxhasi babucala. Nangona kunjalo, i-patent kaMorse yayinganelanga ukukhusela i-monopoly kunxibelelwano lwe-telegraph. Kwisithuba seminyaka elishumi, kwavela abantu abaninzi abakhuphisanayo, mhlawumbi bathenga iilayisensi zolunye ubugcisa betelegraph (ingakumbi iRoyal House yoshicilelo lwetelegraph) okanye bazibandakanya nje kushishino olungekho mthethweni ngezizathu zomthetho ezixengaxengayo. Amatyala afakwe kwimihlambi, ubutyebi bamaphepha banyuka kwaye banyamalala, kwaye iinkampani ezisilelayo zawa okanye zathengiswa kubakhuphisana emva kokunyuka kwamaxabiso esitokhwe. Kuzo zonke ezi ziphithiphithi, omnye umdlali ophambili wavela ngasekupheleni kweminyaka yoo-1860: iWestern Union.
Ilizwi elothukileyo elithi "monopoly" laqala ukusasazeka. I-telegraph yayisele ibalulekile kwiinkalo ezininzi zobomi baseMelika: ezemali, oololiwe kunye namaphephandaba. Akuzange nanini na ngaphambili kubekho nawuphi na umbutho wabucala okhule wafikelela kwinqanaba elinjalo. Isindululo solawulo lukarhulumente lwetelegraph sifumene ubomi obutsha. Kwiminyaka elishumi emva kweMfazwe yombango, iikomiti zeposi zekhongolose zeza nezicwangciso ezahlukeneyo zokuzisa i-telegraph kwi-orbit yeNkonzo yePosi. Iinketho ezintathu ezisisiseko ziye zavela: 1) inkonzo yeposi ixhasa enye imbangi yeWestern Union, inika ukufikelela okukhethekileyo kwiiofisi zeposi kunye noohola bendlela, njengembuyekezo yokumisela izithintelo zerhafu. 2) INkonzo yePosi isungula itelegraph yayo ukuze ikhuphisane neWU kunye nabanye abaqhubi babucala. 3) Urhulumente uya kwenza yonke i-ofisi yeetelegraph kuzwelonke, ayibeke phantsi kolawulo lwenkonzo yeposi.
Izicwangciso ze-telegraph yeposi zafumana abaxhasi abaninzi abathembekileyo kwiCongress, kuquka u-Alexander Ramsay, usihlalo weKomiti yePosi yeSenate. Nangona kunjalo, amandla amaninzi eli phulo abonelelwa ngabaxhasi bangaphandle, ngakumbi uGardiner Hubbard, owayenamava kwinkonzo yoluntu njengomququzeleli wamanzi esixeko kunye negesi yegesi eCambridge (kamva waba ngumnikeli omkhulu ku-Alexander Bell kunye nomseki wenkqubo yokukhanyisa igesi. National Geographic Society). U-Hubbard kunye nabaxhasi bakhe baxoxa ukuba inkqubo yoluntu iya kubonelela ngendlela efanayo yokusasazwa kolwazi njengoko iposi yamaphepha yenze ngelixa igcina amaxabiso aphantsi. Bathe le ndlela yokusebenzela inganceda uluntu ngcono kunenkqubo yeWU, ejoliswe kumashishini aphezulu. I-WU, ngokwendalo, yachasa ukuba ixabiso leetelegram liqikelelwe ngeendleko zazo, kwaye inkqubo yoluntu eyehlisa iirhafu ngokungeyomfuneko iya kuba neengxaki kwaye ayizukunceda nabani na.
Ngayiphi na imeko, i-telegraph yeposi ayizange ifumane inkxaso eyaneleyo ukuba ibe ngumba wedabi kwiCongress. Yonke imithetho ecetywayo yafa ngokuzolileyo. Umthamo wemonopoly awukafikeleli kumanqanaba anjalo anokoyisa uloyiko lokuxhatshazwa ngurhulumente. Iidemokhrasi zaphinda zalawula iNkongolo ngo-1874, umoya wokwakhiwa ngokutsha kwelizwe emva kwexesha leMfazwe yoLuntu wacinywa, kwaye iinzame zokuqala ezibuthathaka zokuyila i-telegraph yeposi zaphazamiseka. Ingcamango yokubeka i-telegraph (kwaye kamva ifowuni) phantsi kolawulo lukarhulumente yavela ngamaxesha athile kwiminyaka elandelayo, kodwa ngaphandle kwamaxesha amafutshane (okuthiwayo) kolawulo lukarhulumente lwefowuni ngexesha lemfazwe ngo-1918, akukho nto yakha yakhula.
Lo rhulumente wokungahoywa kwetelegraph kunye nefowuni yaba yinto engaqhelekanga kwihlabathi jikelele. EFransi, i-telegraph yenziwa kwilizwe nangaphambi kokufakwa kombane. Ngomnyaka we-1837, xa inkampani yabucala izama ukufaka i-telegraph ye-optical (isebenzisa iinqaba zesignali) ecaleni kwenkqubo ekhoyo elawulwa ngurhulumente, ipalamente yaseFransi yadlulisela umthetho ovimbela ukuphuhliswa kwetelegraph engagunyaziswanga ngurhulumente. EBritani, i-telegraphy yabucala yavunyelwa ukuba iphuhlise amashumi eminyaka. Nangona kunjalo, ukunganeliseki koluntu ngenxa ye-duopoly eyabangela ukuba urhulumente alawule imeko ngo-1868. Kulo lonke elaseYurophu, oorhulumente babeka ucingo kunye nefowuni phantsi kolawulo lweposi karhulumente, njengoko uHubbard nabaxhasi bakhe babecebise. [eRashiya, ishishini likarhulumente "Central Telegraph" yasekwa ngo-Oktobha 1, 1852 / malunga. guqulela.].
Ngaphandle kweYurophu kunye neNyakatho Melika, ininzi yehlabathi yayilawulwa ngabasemagunyeni bekoloniyali kwaye ngoko ke yayingenalo ilizwi ekuphuhliseni nasekulawuleni i-telegraphy. Apho oorhulumente abazimeleyo bekhona, bahlala bedala iinkqubo zetelegraph zombuso kwimodeli yaseYurophu. Ezi nkqubo ngokubanzi zazingenamali yokwandisa ngesantya esibonwa eUnited States nakumazwe aseYurophu. Ngokomzekelo, inkampani ye-telegraph yelizwe laseBrazil, esebenza phantsi kwephiko loMphathiswa wezoLimo, uRhwebo kunye nezaBasebenzi, yayine-1869 km kuphela yemigca ye-telegraph ngo-2100, ngelixa e-USA, kwindawo efanayo, apho abantu abaphindwe ka-4 bahlala khona. ngo-1866 sele zoluliwe 130 km.
Isivumelwano esitsha
Kwakutheni ukuze iUnited States ithabathe indlela ekhethekileyo ngolo hlobo? Umntu unokuzisa kule nkqubo yengingqi yokusasazwa kwezikhundla zikarhulumente phakathi kwabalandeli beqela eliphumelele unyulo, elabakho de kwaba yiminyaka yokugqibela yenkulungwane ye-XNUMX. Ulawulo lukarhulumente, ukuya kutsho kwiiofisi, lwaluquka ukuqeshwa kwezopolitiko ekwakunokuvuzwa ngazo amahlakani athembekileyo. Omabini amaqela akazange afune ukudala imithombo emitsha yokuxhasa abachasi babo-eya kwenzeka ngokuqinisekileyo xa i-telegraph iphantsi kolawulo lukarhulumente. Nangona kunjalo, eyona ngcaciso ilula kukungathembi kwemveli yaseMelika kurhulumente ophakathi onamandla - ngesizathu esifanayo izakhiwo zokhathalelo lwempilo lwaseMelika, imfundo kunye namanye amaziko oluntu ahluke kakhulu kulawo akwamanye amazwe.
Ngenxa yokubaluleka okwandayo konxibelelwano lombane kubomi belizwe kunye nokhuseleko, iUnited States ayikwazanga ukuzahlula ngokupheleleyo kuphuhliso lonxibelelwano. Kumashumi eminyaka yokuqala yenkulungwane yama-XNUMX, kwavela inkqubo ye-hybrid apho iinkqubo zonxibelelwano zabucala zavavanya amandla amabini: kwelinye icala, i-bureaucracy ihlala ibeka iliso kwiirhafu zeenkampani zonxibelelwano, ziqinisekisa ukuba azithathi ndawo kwaye azizange zenze. ingeniso egqithisileyo; kwelinye icala, kukho isisongelo sokwahlulwa phantsi kwemithetho yokungathembeki kwimeko yokuziphatha engafanelekanga. Njengoko siza kubona, la mandla mabini anongquzulwano: ithiyori yoluhlu lwamaxabiso yayikholelwa ukuba udlamko yinto yendalo phantsi kweemeko ezithile, kwaye ukuphinda-phindwa kweenkonzo kuya kuba yinkcitho engeyomfuneko yemithombo yobutyebi. Abalawuli badla ngokuzama ukunciphisa imiba engalunganga ye-monopoly ngokulawula amaxabiso. Kwangaxeshanye, umthetho we-antimonopoly wawufuna ukutshabalalisa imonopoly kwi-bud ngokuququzelela ngenkani imarike yokhuphiswano.
Ingqikelelo yolawulo lweerhafu yavela kwiindlela zikaloliwe, kwaye yaphunyezwa kwinqanaba le-federal ngokusebenzisa i-Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), eyadalwa yiCongress ngo-1887. Impembelelo ephambili yomthetho yayingamashishini amancinci kunye namafama azimeleyo. Babedla ngokungabi nandlela yimbi ngaphandle kokuthembela kumzila kaloliwe, ababewusebenzisa ukuthutha imveliso yabo ukuya emarikeni, yaye bathi iinkampani zikaloliwe zalixhakamfula eli thuba ngokubacinezela bakhuphe yonke intwana yemali ngelixa bebonelela ngonyango olunobunewunewu kumaqumrhu amakhulu. . Ikhomishini enamalungu amahlanu yanikwa igunya lokubeka iliso kwiinkonzo zomzila kaloliwe kunye namaxabiso kunye nokuthintela ukusetyenziswa kakubi kwamandla olawulo olulodwa, ngakumbi ngokuthintela imizila kaloliwe ekuboneleleni ngamaxabiso akhethekileyo kwiinkampani ezikhethiweyo (isandulela sengcamango namhlanje esiyibiza ngokuba “ukungathathi cala kwenetha”). Umthetho we-Mann-Elkins ka-1910 wandisa amalungelo e-ICC kwitelegraph kunye nomnxeba. Nangona kunjalo, i-ICC, ngelixa igxile kwezothutho, ayizange ibe nomdla ngakumbi kwezi ndawo zintsha zoxanduva, ingazihoyi.
Kwangaxeshanye, urhulumente wobumbano waphuhlisa isixhobo esitsha ngokupheleleyo sokulwa noosomashishini. Ngowe-1890 wanika amagqwetha ngokubanzi amandla okucela umngeni enkundleni nayiphi na “intlangano” yezorhwebo erhanelwa “ngokunqanda urhwebo”—oko kukuthi, ukucinezela ukhuphiswano ngokusebenzisa igunya elilodwa. Umthetho wasetyenziselwa ukuqhekeza amashishini amakhulu amaninzi kwiminyaka engamashumi amabini ezayo, kuquka nesigqibo seNkundla ePhakamileyo ngo-1911 sokuqhekeza i-Standard Oil ibe ngamaqhekeza angama-34.
I-octopus ye-Standard Oil evela kwi-cartoon ye-1904, ngaphambi kokuhlukana
Ngelo xesha, i-telephony, kunye nomboneleli wayo oyintloko u-AT & T, wayekwazile ukugubungela i-telegraphy kunye ne-WU ngokubaluleka kunye nobuchule, kangangokuba ngo-1909 i-AT&T yakwazi ukuthenga umdla olawulayo kwi-WU. UTheodore Vail waba ngumongameli weenkampani ezidityanisiweyo kwaye waqala inkqubo yokuzidibanisa zibe yinto enye. UVail wayekholelwa ngokungagungqiyo ukuba udlamko lwezonxibelelwano lwezonxibelelwano olunobubele luya kunceda ngcono umdla woluntu, kwaye wakhuthaza isilogeni esitsha sale nkampani: "Umgaqo-nkqubo omnye, iNkqubo enye, iNkonzo yokuStop enye." Ngenxa yoko, uVale wayesele elungele ukuhoywa ngabaxhamli bemonopoly.
Theodore Vail, c. 1918
Ukuthathwa kweofisi kukaWoodrow Wilson ngo-1913 kwanika amalungu ayo Eli lixesha elifanelekileyo lokusongela i-anti-monopoly cudgel yakho. Umalathisi weNkonzo yePosi uSidney Burleson wayethanda inkonzo yeposi egcweleyo yeposi ecaleni kwendlela yaseYurophu, kodwa le ngcamango, njengesiqhelo, ayizange ifumane inkxaso. Endaweni yoko, iGqwetha Jikelele uGeorge Wickersham uphakamise ukuba ukuthathwa kwe-AT&T okuqhubekayo kweenkampani zefowuni ezizimeleyo kwaphule uMthetho weSherman. Endaweni yokuya enkundleni, uVail kunye nesekela lakhe, uNathan Kingsbury, bangene kwisivumelwano nenkampani, eyaziwa kwimbali njenge "Kingsbury Agreement," apho i-AT&T ivumile ukuba:
- Yeka ukuthenga iinkampani ezizimeleyo.
- Thengisa isabelo sakho kwi-WU.
- Vumela iinkampani zeefowuni ezizimeleyo ukuba ziqhagamshelane nenethiwekhi yomgama omde.
Kodwa emva kwesi sihlandlo siyingozi kurhulumente, kwabakho ukuzola kwamashumi eminyaka. Inkwenkwezi ezolileyo yolawulo lwamaxabiso inyukile, nto leyo ethetha ubukho bemonopoli yendalo kunxibelelwano. Ekuqaleni kweminyaka yee-1920, isiqabu senziwe kwaye i-AT&T yaphinda yafumana iinkampani ezincinci zeefowuni ezizimeleyo. Le ndlela ifakwe kumthetho we-1934 owaseka iKhomishoni yoNxibelelwano lwe-Federal (FCC), ithathela indawo i-ICC njengomlawuli wezinga lonxibelelwano lwe-wireline. Ngelo xesha, i-Bell System, ngawo nawuphi na umlinganiselo, yayilawula ubuncinane i-90% yeshishini leefowuni laseMelika: i-135 ye-140 yezigidi zeekhilomitha zeengcingo, i-2,1 ye-2,3 yeebhiliyoni zeefowuni zenyanga, i-990 yezigidi zeedola kwinzuzo yonyaka. Nangona kunjalo, eyona njongo iphambili yeFCC yayingekokuhlaziya ukhuphiswano, kodwa “kukwenza ukuba kufumaneke, kangangoko kunokwenzeka kubo bonke abahlali baseUnited States, unxibelelwano olukhawulezayo, olusebenzayo, lwesizwe nolwehlabathi jikelele ngocingo nangomoya, ngokulula okwaneleyo nangexesha elifanelekileyo. ixabiso." Ukuba umbutho omnye unokubonelela ngenkonzo enjalo, makube njalo.
Embindini wenkulungwane yama-XNUMX, abalawuli bonxibelelwano basekhaya kunye norhulumente e-United States baphuhlise inkqubo yenkxaso-mali enemigangatho emininzi ukukhawulezisa uphuhliso lwenkonzo yothungelwano lwelizwe jikelele. Iikhomishini ezilawulayo zibeka amaxabiso asekelwe kwixabiso elibonwayo lenethiwekhi kumthengi ngamnye, kunokuba kwiindleko zokubonelela ngenkonzo kuloo mthengi. Ke ngoko, abasebenzisi beshishini abaxhomekeke kumnxeba ukwenza ishishini bahlawule ngaphezulu kwabantu (ababonelelwe yinkonzo yentlalontle). Abathengi kwiimarike ezinkulu zasezidolophini, kunye nokufikelela ngokulula kwabanye abasebenzisi abaninzi, bahlawule ngaphezu kwabo bakwizixeko ezincinci, ngaphandle kokuphumelela okukhulu kotshintshiselwano lweefowuni ezinkulu. Abasebenzisi bemigama emide bebehlawula kakhulu, nanjengoko ubuchwephesha behlise ngokuthe chu amaxabiso eefowuni eziya kumgama omde kunye nenzuzo yokutshintsha kwasekhaya inyuke. Le nkqubo intsonkothileyo yolwabiwo ngokutsha lwenkunzi yasebenza kakuhle okoko nje kukho umboneleli omnye we-monolithic apho konke oku kunokusebenza.
Itekhnoloji entsha
Siqhelile ukuthathela ingqalelo imonopoly njengamandla abambezelayo adala ubuvila kunye nokutyhafa. Silindele ukuba imonopoly ikhusele ngomona isikhundla sayo kunye nemeko yayo kunokuba isebenze njengenjini yenguqu yezobuchwepheshe, uqoqosho kunye nenkcubeko. Nangona kunjalo, kunzima ukusebenzisa le mbono kwi-AT&T kwincopho yayo, njengoko ikhuphe into entsha emva kokuqamba izinto ezintsha, ilindele kwaye ikhawulezisa impumelelo entsha yonxibelelwano.
Ngokomzekelo, ngowe-1922, i-AT&T yafakela isikhululo sikanomathotholo esirhwebayo kwisakhiwo sayo saseManhattan, kunyaka nje onesiqingatha emva kokuvulwa kweso sikhululo sikhulu, i-KDKA yaseWestinghouse. Kunyaka olandelayo, yasebenzisa uthungelwano lwayo lomgama omde ukusasaza kwakhona intetho kaMongameli uWarren Harding kwizitishi zikanomathotholo ezininzi zasekhaya kwilizwe jikelele. Kwiminyaka embalwa kamva, i-AT & T nayo yafumana indawo kwishishini lefilimu, emva kokuba iinjineli zeBell Labs zenze umatshini odibanisa ividiyo kunye nesandi esirekhodiweyo. Isitudiyo seWarner Brothers sisebenzise le "»ukukhutshwa kwefilimu yokuqala yaseHollywood kunye nomculo ohambelanayo , eyalandelwa yifilim yokuqala ebonisa ubude bexesha esebenzisa ilizwi elihambelanayo "«.
Vitaphone
UWalter Gifford, owaba ngumongameli we-AT&T ngo-1925, wagqiba kwelokuba alahle inkampani yezinto ezinjengosasazo kunye nemifanekiso eshukumayo, ngokuyinxenye ukunqanda uphando lokungathembeki. Nangona iSebe lezoBulungisa lase-US alizange liyigrogrise inkampani ukususela ekuhlalweni kwe-Kingsbury, kwakungafanelanga ukutsala ingqalelo engafanelekanga kwizenzo ezinokubonwa njengelinge lokusebenzisa kakubi isikhundla salo sodwa kwifowuni yokwandisa ngokungenabulungisa kwezinye iimarike. Ke, endaweni yokulungiselela usasazo lwayo lukanomathotholo, i-AT&T yaba ngowona mboneleli wemiqondiso ye-RCA kunye nezinye iinethiwekhi zikanomathotholo, ehambisa iinkqubo ezivela kwizitudiyo zabo zaseNew York kunye nezinye izixeko ezikhulu ukuya kwizitishi zikanomathotholo ezimanyeneyo kwilizwe liphela.
Ebudeni belo xesha, ngowe-1927, inkonzo yonxibelelwano ngerediyo yasasazeka ngaphesheya kweAtlantiki, yaqalisa ngombuzo nje omncinane owabuzwa nguGifford kummeli wakhe ovela kwinkonzo yeposi yaseBritani: “Injani imozulu eLondon?” Kambe ke, oku asikuko ukuba “Yiloo nto uThixo ayenzayo!” [ibinzana lokuqala elithunyelwe ngokusemthethweni kwikhowudi yeMorse ngetelegraph / malunga. transl.], kodwa isaphawula isiganeko esibalulekileyo, ukuvela kwamathuba eencoko zamazwekazi kumashumi eminyaka aliqela phambi kokufakwa kweentambo zemfonomfono ezingaphantsi kolwandle, nangona oko kwakuxabisa kakhulu kunye nomgangatho ophantsi.
Nangona kunjalo, olona phuhliso lubalulekileyo kwimbali yethu lubandakanya ukuhanjiswa kweedatha ezininzi kumgama omde. I-AT & T yayisoloko ifuna ukunyusa i-traffic kuthungelwano lomgama omde, osebenze njengenzuzo enkulu yokhuphiswano kwiinkampani ezimbalwa ezizimeleyo ezisaphilayo, kunye nokubonelela ngenzuzo enkulu. Eyona ndlela ilula yokutsala abathengi yayikukuphuhlisa ubuchwephesha obutsha obanciphisa amaxabiso othumelo - ngokuqhelekileyo oku kwakuthetha ukukwazi ukucinezela iincoko ezininzi kwiingcingo okanye kwiintambo ezifanayo. Kodwa, njengoko sele sibonile, izicelo zonxibelelwano lomgama omde zidlulele ngaphaya kwemiyalezo yocingo kunye nemiyalezo yomnxeba ukusuka komnye umntu ukuya komnye. Uthungelwano lukanomathotholo lwalufuna ezazo iitshaneli, kwaye nomabonwakude wayesele esondele, enezicelo ezikhulu ngakumbi ze-bandwidth.
Eyona ndlela ithembisayo yokwanelisa amabango amatsha yayikukubeka intambo ye-coaxial eyenziwe ngeesilinda zetsimbi ezixineneyo [i-coaxial, i-co-axial - ene-axis eqhelekileyo / malunga. inguqulelo ]. Iipropati zomqhubi onjalo zafundwa emva kwekhulu le-1920 yizigebenga ze-classical physics: uMaxwell, uHeaviside, uRayleigh, uKelvin noThomson. Yayineengenelo ezinkulu zethiyori njengentambo yothumelo, kuba inokuhambisa umqondiso we-wideband, kwaye isakhiwo sayo siyikhusele ngokupheleleyo ekuthetheni ngokunqamlezayo kunye nokuphazamiseka kwemiqondiso yangaphandle. Ukusukela oko uphuhliso lukamabonakude lwaqala ngeminyaka yoo-1936s, akukho teknoloji ikhoyo inokubonelela nge-megahertz (okanye ngaphezulu) i-bandwidth efunekayo yokusasazwa komgangatho ophezulu. Ke iinjineli zeBell Labs zizimisele ukuguqula iingenelo zethiyori zentambo zibe ngumda osebenza umgama omde kunye nomgca wokuhambisa ibroadband, kubandakanya nokwakha zonke izixhobo ezincedisayo zokuvelisa, ukukhulisa, ukufumana, kunye nokunye ukusetyenzwa komqondiso. Kwi-160, i-AT & T, ngemvume evela kwi-FCC, yenza iimvavanyo zentsimi ezingaphezu kweekhilomitha ezili-27 zentambo ukusuka eManhattan ukuya ePhiladelphia. Emva kokuvavanya okokuqala le nkqubo ngeesekethe zelizwi ezingama-1937, iinjineli zafunda ngempumelelo ukusasaza ividiyo ngasekupheleni kowe-XNUMX.
Ngelo xesha, kwaqala ukuvela esinye isicelo sonxibelelwano olude olunomthamo ophezulu, unxibelelwano lwerediyo. I-Radiotelephony, eyasetyenziswa ngo-1927 kunxibelelwano lwe-Atlantiki, yasebenzisa iperi yemiqondiso yerediyo yosasazo kwaye yenza ijelo lelizwi elineendlela ezimbini phezu kwe-shortwave. Ukunxulumanisa oonomathotholo ababini kunye nabamkeli usebenzisa yonke ibhendi yefrikhwensi kwincoko yomnxeba enye bekungekho nto isebenzayo ngokwezoqoqosho ngokwembono yonxibelelwano olusemhlabeni. Ukuba bekunokwenzeka ukuba kugxininiswe iincoko ezininzi kwirediyo enye, ibiya kuba yincoko eyahlukileyo. Nangona isitishi sikanomathotholo ngasinye besiya kuxabisa kakhulu, ikhulu lezikhululo ezinjalo beziya kukwanela ukusasaza imiqondiso kulo lonke elaseUnited States.
Iibhendi ezimbini zefrikhwensi zikhuphisane nelungelo lokusebenzisa kwinkqubo enjalo: i-ultra-high frequencies (amaza e-decimeter) UHF kunye neemicrowaves (amaza obude beesentimitha). Ii-microwaves ezixhaphake kakhulu zithembisa ukuphumelela okukhulu, kodwa zikwabonisa ubunzima obukhulu betekhnoloji. Ngeminyaka yoo-1930, uluvo lwe-AT&T olunoxanduva lwayame kukhetho olukhuselekileyo lwe-UHF.
Nangona kunjalo, itekhnoloji ye-microwave yathatha umtsi omkhulu phambili ngexesha leMfazwe yesibini yeHlabathi ngenxa yokusetyenziswa kakhulu kwiradar. I-Bell Labs ibonise ukusebenza kwerediyo ye-microwave kunye ne-AN / TRC-69, inkqubo yeselula ekwazi ukuhambisa iintambo zefowuni ezisibhozo kwenye i-eriyali ye-line-of-sight. Oku kwavumela ikomkhulu lomkhosi ukuba libuyisele ngokukhawuleza unxibelelwano lwezwi emva kokufuduswa, ngaphandle kokulinda ukuba kubekwe iintambo (kwaye ngaphandle komngcipheko wokushiywa ngaphandle konxibelelwano emva kokusika intambo, mhlawumbi ngengozi okanye njengenxalenye yesenzo sotshaba).
Isikhululo sikanomathotholo esisasazwe kwi-microwave AN/TRC-6
Emva kwemfazwe, uHarold T. Friis, igosa laseDanish le-Bell Labs, wakhokela uphuhliso lwe-microwave radio relay communications. Umgca wolingo ongama-350 km ukusuka eNew York ukuya eBoston wavulwa ngasekupheleni kuka-1945. Amaza atsiba iikhilomitha ezingama-50 ubude phakathi kweenqaba ezisekelwe emhlabeni - esebenzisa umthetho-siseko ofana nqwa netelegraphy yokukhanya, okanye umtya wezibane zomqondiso. Ukunyuka umlambo ukuya kwi-Hudson Highlands, ukutyhubela iinduli zeConnecticut, ukuya kwiNtaba yaseAshnebamskit esentshona Massachusetts, emva koko ukuya eBoston Harbour.
I-AT&T yayingeyiyo kuphela inkampani enomdla kunxibelelwano lwe-microwave kunye nokufumana amava asemkhosini ekulawuleni imiqondiso ye-microwave. UPhilco, uMbane Jikelele, uRaytheon, kunye nabasasazi bakamabonakude bakha okanye bacwangcisa ezabo iinkqubo zovavanyo kwiminyaka yasemva kwemfazwe. UPhilco wabetha i-AT&T ngokwakha ikhonkco phakathi kweWashington nePhiladelphia ngentwasahlobo ka-1945.
Isikhululo sikanomathotholo se-AT&T serediyo eCreston (eWyoming), inxalenye yomgca wokuqala we-transcontinental, ngo-1951.
Ngaphezulu kweminyaka engama-30, i-AT&T ithintele iingxaki ngabalawuli be-antitrust kunye nabanye abalawuli bakarhulumente. Uninzi lwayo lwakhuselwa ngumbono wendalo yodwa-umbono wokuba kuya kuba kungasebenzi kakuhle ukudala iinkqubo ezininzi ezikhuphisanayo nezinganxulumananga eziqhuba iingcingo zabo kwilizwe liphela. Unxibelelwano lweMicrowave yayiyeyona ndawo iphambili kwesi sikrweqe, ivumela iinkampani ezininzi ukuba zibonelele ngonxibelelwano lomgama omde ngaphandle kweendleko ezingeyomfuneko.
Usasazo lweMicrowave lwehlise ngokunzulu umqobo ekungeneni kwabo banokubakho okhuphisana nabo. Ekubeni iteknoloji yayifuna kuphela ikhonkco lezitishi eziqelelene ngeekhilomitha ezingama-50, ukudala inkqubo eluncedo akuzange kufune ukuthengwa kwamawaka eekhilomitha zomhlaba kunye nokugcina amawaka eekhilomitha zentambo. Ngaphaya koko, i-bandwidth yee-microwaves yayinkulu kakhulu kuneentambo ezidityanisiweyo zemveli, kuba isitishi ngasinye sokuhanjiswa besinokusasaza amawaka eencoko zomnxeba okanye usasazo oluninzi lukamabonakude. Uncedo olukhuphisanayo lwenkqubo ekhoyo ye-AT&T yentambo yomgama omde yayikhukuliswa.
Nangona kunjalo, i-FCC ikhusele i-AT & T kwimiphumo yokhuphiswano olunjalo iminyaka emininzi, ikhupha izigqibo ezibini kwi-1940 kunye ne-1950. Ekuqaleni, ikhomishini yalile ukukhupha iilayisenisi, ngaphandle kwezexeshana kunye nezokulinga, kubaboneleli abatsha bonxibelelwano abangakhange babonelele ngeenkonzo zabo kubo bonke abantu (kodwa, umzekelo, babonelele ngonxibelelwano ngaphakathi kwishishini elinye). Ke ngoko, ukungena kule ntengiso kusongela ukuphulukana nelayisenisi. Abakomishinala babenexhala malunga nengxaki efanayo eyayithwaxa usasazo kwiminyaka engamashumi amabini ngaphambili kwaye yakhokelela ekudalweni kweFCC ngokwayo: i-cacophony yophazamiseko oluvela kwii-transmitters ezininzi ezahlukeneyo ezingcolisa i-bandwidth elinganiselwe yerediyo.
Isigqibo sesibini siphathelene nokusebenza kwe-intanethi. Khumbula ukuba iSivumelwano saseKingsbury sifuna i-AT&T ivumele iinkampani zefowuni zasekhaya ukuba ziqhagamshelane nenethiwekhi yomgama omde. Ngaba ezi mfuno bezisebenza kunxibelelwano lwe-microwave radio relay? I-FCC igwebe ukuba zisebenza kuphela kwiindawo apho unxibelelwano olufanelekileyo lwenkqubo yonxibelelwano lungekhoyo. Ke nawuphi na umntu okhuphisanayo wokwakha inethiwekhi yengingqi okanye yasekhaya usengozini yokunqunyulwa ngequbuliso kwilizwe xa i-AT&T igqibe kwelokuba ingene kumhlaba wayo. Ekuphela kwendlela yokugcina unxibelelwano yayikukudala uthungelwano olutsha lwesizwe, nto leyo eyayisoyikisa ukuyenza phantsi kwelayisensi yovavanyo.
Ngasekupheleni kwee-1950s, bekukho umdlali omnye kuphela ophambili kwimakethi yonxibelelwano lomgama omde: AT&T. Inethiwekhi yayo ye-microwave ithwele iintambo zefowuni ezingama-6000 ngendlela nganye, zifikelela kwilizwekazi ngalinye.
Inethiwekhi yerediyo yerediyo ye-AT&T ngo-1960
Nangona kunjalo, umqobo wokuqala obalulekileyo kulawulo olupheleleyo nolupheleleyo lwe-AT&T kuthungelwano lonxibelelwano luvela kwicala elahluke ngokupheleleyo.
Yintoni enye ekufuneka uyifunde
- UGerald W. Brock, Ishishini lezoNxibelelwano (ngo-1981) Ishishini lothungelwano: ulwakhiwo lwemarike / uGerald W. Brock
- UJohn Brooks, uMnxeba: Ikhulu lokuqala leminyaka (1976)
- M. D. Fagen, ed., Imbali yobuNjineli kunye neSayensi kwi-Bell System: iTekhnoloji yoThutho (1985)
- UJoshua D. Wolff, i-Western Union kunye nokuDalwa kwe-American Corporate Order (2013)
umthombo: www.habr.com