Amanye amanqaku kolu ngcelele:
- Imbali yodluliselo
- Imbali yeekhompyuter ze-elektroniki
- Imbali ye-transistor
- Imbali ye-Intanethi
Ekuqaleni koo-1960, oomatshini bekhompyutha abasebenzisanayo, abasuka kwimbewu yethenda ekhuliswe eLincoln Laboratory naseMIT, ngokuthe ngcembe baqalisa ukusasazeka kuyo yonke indawo, ngeendlela ezimbini ezahlukeneyo. Okokuqala, iikhomputha ngokwazo zandisa ii-tendrils eziye zafikelela kwizakhiwo ezikufutshane, iikhampasi, kunye nezixeko, zivumela abasebenzisi ukuba banxibelelane nabo kumgama, kunye nabasebenzisi abaninzi ngexesha. Ezi nkqubo zintsha zokwabelana ngexesha ziye zakhula zaba ngamaqonga oluntu lokuqala lwe-intanethi. Okwesibini, imbewu yokusebenzisana yasasazeka kuwo wonke amazwe kwaye yathatha iingcambu eCalifornia. Kwaye umntu omnye wayenoxanduva kwesi sithombo sokuqala, isazi sengqondo esigama lingu .
UYosefu "imbewu yeapile"*
*Into ethiyiweyo kumlinganiswa wentsomi waseMelika onikwe igama , okanye "uJohnny Apple Seed," edume ngokutyala ngokusebenzayo kwemithi yama-apile eMbindi-ntshona we-United States (imbewu ye-apile - imbewu ye-apile) / malunga. inguqulelo
UJoseph Carl Robnett Licklider - "Khotha" kubahlobo bakhe-abakhethekileyo , icandelo elinxibelelanisa imeko yengqondo yomntu osezingqondweni, umlinganiselo wenzululwazi yengqondo, kunye nenzululwazi yesandi. Samkhankanya ngokufutshane ngaphambili - wayengumcebisi kwiindibano zeFCC kwiHush-a-Phone ngeminyaka yoo-1950. Wahlonipha izakhono zakhe kwiLebhu yaseHarvard Psychoacoustic ngexesha lemfazwe, ephuhlisa itekhnoloji eyaphucula ukuvakala kosasazo lukanomathotholo kwiibhombu ezinomsindo.
UJoseph Carl Robnett Licklider, owaziwa ngokuba nguLick
Njengezazinzulu ezininzi zaseMelika zesizukulwana sakhe, wafumanisa iindlela zokudibanisa iimfuno zakhe kunye neemfuno zomkhosi emva kwemfazwe, kodwa kungekhona ngenxa yokuba wayenomdla kakhulu kwizixhobo okanye ukukhusela isizwe. Kwakukho imithombo emibini kuphela yenkxaso-mali yoluntu yophando lwezenzululwazi - la yayingamaziko abucala awasekwa zizigebenga zemizi mveliso ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane: iRockefeller Foundation kunye neCarnegie Institution. AmaZiko eSizwe ezeMpilo ayenezigidi ezimbalwa zeerandi kuphela, yaye iNational Science Foundation yasekwa kuphela ngowe-1950, nohlahlo lwabiwo-mali oluncinane ngokulinganayo. Ngeminyaka yee-1950, eyona ndawo ingcono yokujonga inkxaso-mali yeeprojekthi zenzululwazi neteknoloji enomdla yayiliSebe lezoKhuselo.
Ngoko ngo-1950, uLick wajoyina i-MIT Acoustics Laboratory, eqhutywa yi-physicists u-Leo Beranek no-Richard Bolt kwaye bafumana phantse yonke imali yayo kwi-US Navy. Emva koko, amava akhe okudibanisa izivamvo zomntu kwizixhobo ze-elektroniki amenza ukuba abe ngumgqatswa ophambili weprojekthi yokhuselo lomoya yeMIT. Ukuthatha inxaxheba kwiqela lophuhliso "", ebandakanyekayo ekuphunyezweni kwengxelo yokukhusela umoya yeKomiti ye-Valley, uLeake wagxininisa ekubandakanyeni uphando lwezinto zomntu kwiprojekthi, eyabangela ukuba aqeshwe omnye wabalawuli be-radar display development at Lincoln Laboratory.
Apho, ngaxa lithile phakathi kwiminyaka yee-1950, wawela iindlela kunye no-Wes Clark kunye ne-TX-2, kwaye ngoko nangoko wasulelwa kunxibelelwano lwekhompyuter. Wayethabathekile ngumbono wolawulo olupheleleyo kumatshini onamandla, okwaziyo ukusombulula ngoko nangoko nawuphi na umsebenzi owabelwe wona. Waqala ukuphuhlisa ingcamango yokudala "i-symbiosis yomntu kunye nomatshini", intsebenziswano phakathi komntu kunye nekhompyutheni, ekwazi ukunyusa amandla engqondo yomntu ngendlela efanayo njengoko oomatshini bemizi-mveliso baphucula izakhono zakhe zomzimba (it. Kubalulekile ukuqaphela ukuba iLeake ithathele ingqalelo eli nqanaba eliphakathi, kwaye iikhompyuter ziya kuthi emva koko zifunde ukuzicingela zodwa). Waqaphela ukuba i-85% yexesha lakhe lokusebenza
... yayinikezelwe ngokuyinhloko kwimisebenzi yobufundisi okanye yomatshini: ukukhangela, ukubala, ukudweba, ukuguqula, ukugqiba imiphumo enengqiqo okanye eguquguqukayo yesethi yeengcamango okanye iingcamango, ukulungiselela ukwenza isigqibo. Ngaphezu koko, ukhetho lwam malunga noko kwakungafanelekanga kwaye kwakungafanelekanga ukuzama, ukusa kwinqanaba elihlazo, kwakugqitywe ngeengxoxo zamathuba omfundisi kunokuba amandla ongqondo. Imisebenzi ethatha ixesha elininzi ekucingelwa ukuba inikezelwa kwiingcinga zobugcisa inokwenziwa ngcono ngoomatshini kunabantu.
Ingcamango jikelele ayizange ihambe kude nento echazwe nguVannevar Bush ""- iamplifier ekrelekrele, isiphaluka awayeyizobile ngo-1945 kwincwadi ethi As We May Think, nangona endaweni yomxube wezinto ze-electromechanical kunye ne-elektroniki, njengoBush, safika kwiikhomputha zedijithali kuphela. Ikhompyuter enjalo iya kusebenzisa isantya sayo esimangalisayo ukuncedisa kumsebenzi wobufundisi onxulumene nayo nayiphi na iprojekthi yesayensi okanye yezobugcisa. Abantu baya kukwazi ukuzikhulula kulo msebenzi unzima kwaye bachithe yonke ingqalelo yabo ekwenzeni iingqikelelo, ukwakha iimodeli kunye nokwabela iinjongo kwikhompyuter. Ubambiswano olunjalo luya kubonelela ngeenzuzo ezimangalisayo kuzo zombini uphando kunye nokhuselo lwelizwe, kwaye luya kunceda izazinzulu zaseMelika ukodlula ezo zaseSoviet.
I-Memex kaVannevar Bush, ingcamango yokuqala yenkqubo yokubuyisela ulwazi oluzenzekelayo ukwandisa ubukrelekrele.
Kwakamsinyane emva kwale ntlanganiso yokuqala, uLeak weza naye ukuthanda kwakhe iikhomputha ezisebenzisanayo kumsebenzi omtsha kwifemu yokucebisa eqhutywa ngoogxa bakhe bakudala, uBolt noBeranek. Bachitha iminyaka besebenza ixeshana becebisana ecaleni komsebenzi wabo wezifundo zefiziksi; ngokomzekelo, bafunda ngengoma yeholo yemiboniso bhanya-bhanya eHoboken (eNew Jersey). Umsebenzi wokuhlalutya i-acoustics yesakhiwo esitsha se-UN eNew York wabanika umsebenzi omningi, ngoko bagqiba ekubeni bashiye i-MIT kwaye benze ukubonisana ngokusisigxina. Kungekudala badityaniswa neqabane lesithathu, umyili wezakhiwo uRobert Newman, kwaye bazibiza ngokuba yiBolt, Beranek kunye neNewman (BBN). Ngo-1957 babekhule baba yifemu ephakathi kunye nabasebenzi abambalwa, kwaye uBeranek wagqiba ekubeni basengozini yokuhlutha imakethi yophando lwe-acoustic. Wayefuna ukwandisa ubuchwephesha befemu ngaphaya kwesandi, ukugubungela uluhlu olupheleleyo lokusebenzisana kwabantu kunye nendalo eyakhelweyo, ukusuka kwiiholo zekonsathi ukuya kwiimoto, nakuzo zonke iimvakalelo.
Kwaye, ewe, wakhangela umlingane omdala ka-Licklider kwaye wamqesha ngokwesisa njengosekela mongameli omtsha we-psychoacoustics. Nangona kunjalo, uBeranek akazange athathele ingqalelo intshiseko kaLik yasendle kwikhompyuter esebenzayo. Endaweni yengcali ye-psychoacoustics, akazange afumane ingcali yekhompyutha, kodwa umvangeli wekhompyutha onomdla wokuvula amehlo abanye. Kwisithuba esingangonyaka, waqinisekisa uBeranek ukuba akhuphe amashumi amawaka eedola ukuthenga ikhompyuter, isixhobo esincinci, esinamandla aphantsi we-LGP-30 esenziwe ngunokontraka weSebe lezoKhuselo i-Librascope. Ngaphandle kwamava obunjineli, wazisa elinye igqala le-SAGE, u-Edward Fredkin, ukuncedisa ukuseka umatshini. Nangona ikhomputha ubukhulu becala yamphazamisa uLik kumsebenzi wakhe wosuku ngelixa ezama ukufunda inkqubo, emva konyaka onesiqingatha weyisela amaqabane akhe ukuba achithe imali eninzi (i-150 yeedola, okanye malunga ne-000 yezigidi zeedola kwimali yanamhlanje) ukuthenga enamandla ngakumbi. : iPDP-1,25 yamva nje esuka kwiDEC. Ukuvuza kwaqinisekisa i-BBN ukuba ikhompuyutha yedijithali yayilikamva, kwaye ngandlela thile utyalo-mali lwabo kubuchule kule ndawo luya kuhlawula.
Kungekudala emva koko, uLeake, phantse ngengozi, wazifumana ekwimeko ekufaneleyo ukusasaza inkcubeko yonxibelelwano kwilizwe lonke, esiba yintloko yearhente karhulumente entsha yekhompyutha.
Uhadi
Ngexesha leMfazwe Yomlomo, zonke izenzo zaba nentsabelo yazo. Kanye njengoko ibhombu yeathom yokuqala yaseSoviet ikhokelele ekudalweni kwe-SAGE, kunjalo , eyasungulwa yi-USSR ngo-Oktobha 1957, yavelisa ukusabela kurhulumente waseMerika. Le meko yandiswa yinto yokuba nangona i-USSR yayisemva kweminyaka emine emva kwe-United States malunga nomba wokuqhushumba ibhombu yenyukliya, yenze umtsi ukuya phambili kwi-rocketry, phambi kwabantu baseMelika kugqatso lokujikeleza (kwaye kwacaca ukuba malunga neenyanga ezine).
Enye impendulo ekuveleni kwe-Sputnik 1 kwi-1958 yayiyi-Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Ngokuchasene nexabiso elincinci elibekelwe isayensi yabemi, i-ARPA ifumene uhlahlo lwabiwo-mali lwe-520 yezigidi zeedola, ngokuphindwe kathathu inkxaso-mali yeSizwe seSayensi yeSayensi, yona ngokwayo iphindwe kathathu ekuphenduleni i-Sputnik 1.
Nangona i-Arhente inokusebenza kuluhlu olubanzi lwazo naziphi na iiprojekthi ezinqamlekileyo uNobhala wezoKhuseleko azibona zifanelekile, ekuqaleni kwakujoliswe ekugxininiseni yonke ingqalelo kwi-rocketry kunye nendawo - le yayiyimpendulo ecacileyo kwi-Sputnik 1. I-ARPA ibike ngokuthe ngqo kuNobhala wezoKhuselo kwaye ngoko ke yakwazi ukuphakama ngaphezu kokhuphiswano oluchasene nolunemveliso kunye neshishini-lokunciphisa ukuvelisa isicwangciso esisodwa, esivakalayo sokuphuhliswa kwenkqubo yendawo yaseMelika. Nangona kunjalo, eneneni, zonke iiprojekthi zakhe kule ndawo zathi zathatyathelwa ngokukhawuleza ngabachasi: i-Air Force ayizukuyeka ukulawula i-rocketry yomkhosi, kwaye i-National Aeronautics and Space Act, esayinwe ngoJulayi 1958, yenza i-arhente entsha yoluntu. eyathatha yonke imiba enxulumene nendawo, ingachukumisi izixhobo. Nangona kunjalo, emva kokudalwa kwayo, i-ARPA yafumana izizathu zokusinda njengoko ifumene iiprojekthi zophando ezinkulu kwiindawo zokukhusela imijukujelwa kunye nokufunyanwa kovavanyo lwenyukliya. Nangona kunjalo, iye yaba liqonga elisebenzayo leeprojekthi ezincinci ezifunwa zii-arhente zomkhosi ezahlukeneyo. Ngoko endaweni yenja, ulawulo lwaba ngumsila.
Iprojekthi yokugqibela ekhethiweyo yaba “", i-spacecraft ene-nuclear pulse injini ("inqwelomoya eqhumayo"). I-ARPA yayeka ukuyixhasa ngemali ngo-1959 ngenxa yokuba yayingayiboni njengenye into ngaphandle kweprojekthi yasekuhlaleni ewela phantsi kwe-NASA. I-NASA ayizange ifune ukungcolisa igama layo elicocekileyo ngokubandakanyeka kwizixhobo zenyukliya. Umkhosi womoya wawuthandabuza ukuphosa imali ukuze ugcine iprojekthi iqhubela phambili, kodwa ekugqibeleni yafa emva kwesivumelwano sika-1963 esavala uvavanyo lwezixhobo zenyukliya emoyeni okanye emkhathini. Kwaye ngelixa le ngcamango yayinomdla kakhulu, kunzima ukucinga ukuba nawuphi na urhulumente onika ukukhanya okuluhlaza ekusunguleni i-rocket ezaliswe ngamawaka eebhombu zenyukliya.
I-ARPA yokuqala yokungena kwiikhompyuter yavela nje ngenxa yesidingo sento yokulawula. Ngo-1961, i-Air Force yayinempahla ezimbini ezingasebenziyo ezandleni zayo ezazifuna ukulayishwa ngento ethile. Njengoko amaziko okuqala okubona i-SAGE esondela ekuhanjisweni, i-Air Force yaqesha i-RAND Corporation yaseSanta Monica, eCalifornia, ukuqeqesha abasebenzi kunye nokuxhobisa amaziko okhuselo lomoya angamashumi amabini angaqhelekanga aneenkqubo zokulawula. Ukwenza lo msebenzi, i-RAND ivelise iziko elitsha ngokupheleleyo, i-Systems Development Corporation (SDC). Amava esoftware efunyenwe yi-SDC yayixabisekile kuMkhosi woMoya, kodwa iprojekthi ye-SAGE yayiphela kwaye kwakungekho nto ingcono yokwenza. I-asethi yesibini engasebenziyo yayiyintsalela exabisa kakhulu i-AN/FSQ-32 yekhompyuter eyayifunwa kwi-IBM yeprojekthi ye-SAGE kodwa kamva yabonwa njengengeyomfuneko. I-DoD yalungisa zombini iingxaki ngokunika i-ARPA uthumo olutsha lophando olunxulumene namaziko omyalelo kunye ne-6 yezigidi zeerandi zesibonelelo se-SDC sokufunda iingxaki zeziko lomyalelo usebenzisa i-Q-32.
Kungekudala i-ARPA yagqiba ekubeni ilawule le nkqubo yophando njengenxalenye yeCandelo loPhando loPhando loLwazi olutsha. Ngexesha elifanayo, isebe lafumana isabelo esitsha - ukudala inkqubo kwinkalo yesayensi yokuziphatha. Akukacaci ngoku ukuba zeziphi izizathu, kodwa abaphathi bagqibe kwelokuba baqeshe iLicklider njengomlawuli wazo zombini iinkqubo. Mhlawumbi yayiyingcamango kaGene Fubini, umlawuli wophando kwiSebe lezoKhuselo, owayeyazi iLeake emsebenzini wakhe kwi-SAGE.
NjengoBeranek ngemihla yakhe, uJack Ruina, owayengumphathi we-ARPA, wayengazi ukuba yintoni eyayiza kwenzeka kuye xa wamema uLik kudliwano-ndlebe. Wayekholelwa ukuba ufumana ingcali yokuziphatha ngolwazi oluthile lwesayensi yekhompyutha. Endaweni yoko, wadibana namandla apheleleyo eembono zesymbiosis yekhompyuter yomntu. ULeake waxoxa ngelithi iziko lolawulo lwekhompyutha liya kufuna iikhomputha ezisebenzisanayo, kwaye ke ngoko oyena mqhubi wenkqubo yophando ye-ARPA kuya kufuneka ibe yinkqubela phambili yekompuyutha esebenzisanayo. Kwaye kuLik oku kuthetha ukwabelana ngexesha.
Ukwahlula ixesha
Iinkqubo zokwabelana ngexesha zivele kumgaqo ofanayo osisiseko njenge-Wes Clark's TX series: iikhompyutha kufuneka zisebenziseke lula. Kodwa ngokungafaniyo noClark, abaxhasi bokwabelana ngexesha bakholelwa ukuba umntu omnye akanakukwazi ukusebenzisa ngokufanelekileyo ikhompyuter yonke. Umphandi unokuhlala imizuzu emininzi efunda imveliso yenkqubo ngaphambi kokuba enze utshintsho oluncinci kuyo kwaye ayiqhube kwakhona. Kwaye ngeli xesha lekhefu, ikhomputha ayinanto yokwenza, amandla ayo amakhulu aya kuba engasebenzi, kwaye iya kuba yindleko. Nkqu nezithuba phakathi kwezitshixo zamakhulu eemillisecond zabonakala njengenzonzobila enkulu yexesha lekhompyuter elichithweyo apho bekunokwenziwa ukubalo kwamawakawaka.
Onke loo mandla ekhompyuter akufuneki ukuba achitheke ukuba anokwabelwana ngawo phakathi kwabasebenzisi abaninzi. Ngokwahlulahlula ingqalelo yekhompyutha ukuze ikwazi ukunceda umsebenzisi ngamnye ngokulandelelana kwayo, umyili wekhompyutha unokubulala iintaka ezimbini ngelitye elinye—ebonisa inkohliso yekhompyutha esebenzisanayo ngokupheleleyo phantsi kolawulo lwabasebenzisi ngaphandle kokuchitha amandla amaninzi okulungisa izinto zehardware ezibizayo.
Lo mbono wabekwa phantsi kwi-SAGE, enokusebenzela abasebenzi abaninzi abahlukeneyo ngaxeshanye, kwaye ngamnye kubo ebeka iliso kwicandelo lakhe lendawo yomoya. Ekudibaneni noClark, uLeake wabona kwangoko amandla okudibanisa ukwahlukana komsebenzisi we-SAGE kunye nenkululeko esebenzisanayo ye-TX-0 kunye ne-TX-2 ukwenza umxube omtsha, onamandla owakha isiseko sobhengezo lwakhe lwe-symbiosis yekhompyuter yomntu, leyo. wanikezela kwiSebe lezoKhuselo kwiphepha lakhe lika-1957. Inkqubo elumke ngokwenene, okanye Phambili kumatshini oxubileyo / iinkqubo zokucinga zabantu "[isiNgesi esilumkileyo. -Isilumko / malunga. guqulela.]. Kulo phepha wachaza inkqubo yekhompyutheni yenzululwazi efana kakhulu nesakhiwo kwi-SAGE, kunye negalelo ngokusebenzisa umpu okhanyayo, kunye "nokusetyenziswa kwangaxeshanye (ukwabelana ngexesha elikhawulezayo) kwi-computing kunye nokugcinwa kwamandla omatshini ngabantu abaninzi."
Nangona kunjalo, uLeake ngokwakhe wayengenazo izakhono zobunjineli ukuyila okanye ukwakha inkqubo enjalo. Wafunda iziseko zeprogram kwi-BBN, kodwa yayibubungakanani bamandla akhe. Umntu wokuqala ukusebenzisa ithiyori yokwabelana ngexesha nguJohn McCarthy, ingcali yezibalo eMIT. UMcCarthy wayefuna ukufikelela rhoqo kwikhompyutha ukuze enze izixhobo kunye neemodeli zokusebenzisa ingqiqo yemathematika—amanyathelo okuqala, wayekholelwa ukuba, abhekisele kubukrelekrele bokwenziwa. Ngo-1959, wakha iprototype equka imodyuli yonxibelelwano ebotshelelwe kwi-batch-processing ye-IBM 704 yekhompyutha yeyunivesithi. Okumangalisayo kukuba, "isixhobo sokuqala sokwabelana ngexesha" sasinekhonsoli enye kuphela esebenzisanayo - iFlexowriter teletypewriter.
Kodwa ekuqaleni kweminyaka yoo-1960, icandelo lobunjineli be-MIT lalifike kwisidingo sokutyala imali eninzi kwikhompyuter esebenzisanayo. Wonke umfundi kunye nomfundisi-ntsapho owayenomdla kwiprogramu wabanjwa kwiikhompyutha. Ukusetyenzwa kwedatha yeBatch kusetyenziswe ixesha lekhompyuter ngokufanelekileyo, kodwa kuchithe ixesha elininzi labaphandi-ixesha eliphakathi lokucubungula umsebenzi kwi-704 lalingaphezulu kosuku.
Ukufunda izicwangciso zexesha elide ukuhlangabezana neemfuno ezikhulayo zezixhobo zekhompyutha, i-MIT yabiza ikomiti yeyunivesithi elawulwa ngabameli bexesha lokwabelana. UClark waxoxa ukuba ukufudukela kwintsebenziswano akuthethi ukwabelana ngexesha. Ngokwezinto ezisebenzayo, wathi, ukwabelana ngexesha kwakuthetha ukuphelisa imiboniso yevidiyo edibeneyo kunye nexesha langempela-izinto ezibalulekileyo zeprojekthi awayesebenza kuyo kwi-MIT Biophysics Lab. Kodwa kwinqanaba elibaluleke ngakumbi, uClark ubonakala echasene nentanda-bulumko enzulu kumbono wokwabelana ngendawo yakhe yokusebenza. Ukuza kuthi ga ngowe-1990, akazange avume ukuqhagamshela ikhompyutha yakhe kwi-Intanethi, esithi uthungelwano “luyimpazamo” kwaye “alusebenzi.”
Yena nabafundi bakhe baye benza “i-subculture,” ihlumelo elincinane kwinkcubeko yemfundo esele igxile kwikhompyutha esebenzisanayo. Nangona kunjalo, iingxoxo zabo zeendawo zokusebenzela ezincinci ezingafuneki kwabelwana ngazo nabani na azizange zibaqinisekise oogxa babo. Xa kujongwa iindleko zekhompyuter enye ngelo xesha, le ndlela yayibonakala ingekho sikweni kwezoqoqosho kwezinye iinjineli. Ngaphezu koko, abaninzi ngelo xesha babekholelwa ukuba iikhomputha—izityalo zamandla ezikrelekrele zexesha elizayo leNgcaciso—ziya kuzuza kuqoqosho lwesikali, kanye njengoko oomatshini bombane bazuzayo. Ngentwasahlobo ka-1961, ingxelo yokugqibela yekomiti yagunyazisa ukudalwa kweenkqubo ezinkulu zokwabelana ngexesha njengenxalenye yophuhliso lwe-MIT.
Ngelo xesha, uFernando Corbato, owaziwa ngokuba ngu "Corby" koogxa bakhe, wayesele esebenzela ukunyusa ukulinga kukaMcCarthy. Wayeyingcali yefiziksi ngoqeqesho, kwaye wafunda malunga neekhompyuter ngelixa esebenza kwiWhirlwind ngo-1951, ngelixa wayesengumfundi ophumelele isidanga eMIT (okuphela kwakhe kubo bonke abathathi-nxaxheba kweli bali ukuba baphile - ngoJanuwari 2019 wayeneminyaka engama-92). Emva kokugqiba isidanga sakhe sobugqirha, waba ngumlawuli kwiziko elitsha le-MIT Computing Centre, elakhiwe kwi-IBM 704. UCorbato kunye neqela lakhe (ekuqaleni uMarge Merwin noBob Daly, abadwelisi benkqubo abaphezulu beziko) babiza inkqubo yabo yokwabelana ngexesha le-CTSS ( Inkqubo ehambelanayo yokwabelana ngeXesha, "inkqubo yokwabelana ngexesha elihambelanayo") - kuba inokuqhuba ngaxeshanye ne-704 yesiqhelo sokuhamba komsebenzi, ithatha ngokuzenzekelayo imijikelo yekhompyuter yabasebenzisi njengoko kufuneka. Ngaphandle koku kuhambelana, le projekthi yayingeke yenzeke, kuba uCorby wayengenayo imali yokuthenga ikhompyutha entsha apho kwakhiwe inkqubo yokwabelana ngexesha ukusuka ekuqaleni, kwaye imisebenzi ekhoyo yokucubungula ibhetshi ayikwazanga ukuvalwa.
Ekupheleni kuka-1961, i-CTSS inokuxhasa iitheminali ezine. Ngo-1963, i-MIT yabeka iikopi ezimbini ze-CTSS kumatshini we-IBM 7094 we-transistorized oxabisa i-3,5 yezigidi zeedola, malunga namaxesha ali-10 amandla ememori kunye namandla eprosesa ye-704s yangaphambili. Isoftware yokubeka iliso ibhayisekile kubasebenzisi abasebenzayo, isebenzela umntu ngamnye isiqingatha sesibini ngaphambi kokudlulela kwesinye. Abasebenzisi banokugcina iinkqubo kunye nedatha yokusetyenziswa kamva kwindawo yabo ekhuselweyo ngegama eliyimfihlo yokugcina idiski.
UCorbato enxibe iqhina lakhe lokutyikitya kwisaphetha kwigumbi lekhompyutha ene-IBM 7094
UCorby ucacisa indlela okusebenza ngayo ukwabiwa kwamaxesha, kubandakanya umgca okwimigangatho emibini, kusasazo lukamabonakude luka-1963.
Ikhompyutha nganye inokusebenzela malunga neetheminali ezingama-20. Oku kwakwanela kungekuphela nje ukuxhasa amagumbi amancinci amancinci, kodwa nokuhambisa ukufikelela kwikhompyuter kuyo yonke iCambridge. UCorby kunye nezinye iinjineli eziphambili zineetheminali zazo eofisini, kwaye ngaxa lithile iMIT yaqala ukubonelela ngeetheminali zasekhaya kubasebenzi bezobugcisa ukuze basebenze kwinkqubo emva kweeyure ngaphandle kokuya emsebenzini. Zonke iitheminali zangaphambili beziquka umatshini wokuchwetheza oguqulelweyo okwaziyo ukufunda idatha kwaye uyikhuphe ngocingo lwefowuni, kwaye ubethelwe ngenqindi kwiphepha lesondlo. Iimodem zidibanise iitheminali zefowuni kwi-switchboard yangasese kwi-MIT campus, apho babenokunxibelelana nekhompyutha ye-CTSS. Ngaloo ndlela ikhompyutha yandisa izivamvo zayo ngefowuni kunye nemiqondiso eyatshintshayo ukusuka kwidijithali ukuya kwi-analog nokubuya kwakhona. Eli yaba linqanaba lokuqala lokudityaniswa kweekhompyutha kunye nothungelwano lonxibelelwano. Udibaniso luququzelelwe yi-AT&T yolawulo olunempikiswano. Uthungelwano olungundoqo lwalusalawulwa, kwaye inkampani yayifuneka ukuba ibonelele ngemigca eqeshiswayo kumaxabiso amiselweyo, kodwa izigqibo ezininzi zeFCC ziye zatshabalalisa ulawulo lwenkampani phezu komda, kwaye inkampani yayingenalo ilizwi elincinane ekudibaniseni izixhobo kwimigca yayo. Ke ngoko, iMIT ayifuni mvume yeetheminali.
Itheminali yekhompyuter eqhelekileyo phakathi koo-1960: IBM 2741.
Eyona njongo iphambili kaLicklider, uMcCarthy, noCorbato yayikukwandisa ukufumaneka kwamandla ekhompyutha kubaphandi ngabanye. Bakhetha izixhobo zabo kunye nokwahlula ixesha ngenxa yezizathu zoqoqosho: akukho mntu unokucinga ukuthenga ikhompyuter yakhe kuye wonke umphandi kwi-MIT. Nangona kunjalo, olu khetho lukhokelele kwiziphumo ebezingalindelekanga ebezingayi kufezekiswa kwi-Clark's one-man, enye-computer paradigm. Inkqubo yefayile ekwabelwana ngayo kunye neereferensi ezinqamlezileyo zeeakhawunti zabasebenzisi zabavumela ukuba babelane, basebenzisane, kwaye bancedisane nomsebenzi womnye nomnye. Ngowe-1965, uNoel Morris noTom van Vleck bakhawulezisa intsebenziswano kunye nonxibelelwano ngokudala inkqubo ye-MAIL, eyavumela abasebenzisi ukuba batshintshe imiyalezo. Xa umsebenzisi ethumela umyalezo, inkqubo yabela kwifayile ekhethekileyo yebhokisi yeposi kwindawo yefayile yomamkeli. Ukuba le fayile ibingenanto, inkqubo ye-LOGIN izakubonisa umyalezo "UNAYO MAIL." Imixholo yomatshini yaba luphawu lwezenzo zoluntu lwabasebenzisi, kwaye lo mba wentlalo wokwabelana ngexesha eMIT waxatyiswa kakhulu njengombono wokuqala wokusetyenziswa kwekhompyuter.
Imbewu Elahliweyo
Ukuvuza, ukwamkela ukunikezelwa kwe-ARPA kunye nokushiya i-BBN ukuba ibe yiNtloko ye-ARPA entsha ye-Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) kwi-1962, ngokukhawuleza yaqalisa ukwenza oko akuthembisileyo: igxininise imizamo yophando lwe-computing yenkampani ekusasazeni nasekuphuculeni i-hardware yokwabelana ngexesha kunye nesofthiwe. Wawuyeka umkhwa oqhelekileyo wokucubungula iziphakamiso zophando eziza kuza kwidesika yakhe kwaye wangena endle ngokwakhe, ecenga iinjineli ukuba zenze iziphakamiso zophando angathanda ukuzivuma.
Inyathelo lakhe lokuqala yayikukumisela kwakhona iprojekthi yophando yeziko lomyalelo weSDC ekhoyo eSanta Monica. Kwaphuma umyalelo ovela kwi-ofisi kaLick e-SDC wokunciphisa iinzame zolu phando kwaye ugxininise ekuguquleni ikhompyutha ye-SAGE engafunekiyo ibe yinkqubo yokwabelana ngexesha. ULeake wayekholelwa ukuba isiseko sokwabelana ngexesha lokusebenzelana noomatshini kufuneka sibekwe kuqala, kwaye amaziko omyalelo aya kuza kamva. Into yokuba oko kubekwa phambili kungqamene nomdla wakhe wentanda-bulumko kwaba yingozi nje eyolisayo. UJules Schwartz, igqala leprojekthi ye-SAGE, wayevelisa inkqubo entsha yokwabelana ngexesha. Njenge-CTSS yayo yangoku, yaba yindawo yokuhlangana enenyani, kwaye imiyalelo yayo ibandakanya umsebenzi we-DIAL wokuthumela imiyalezo ebhaliweyo yabucala ukusuka komnye umsebenzisi ukuya komnye - njengakulo mzekelo ulandelayo wotshintshiselwano phakathi kukaJon Jones kunye ne-ID yomsebenzisi 9.
DIAL 9 LO NGU-JOHN JONES, NDIFUNA I-20K UKUZE NDIlayishe INKQUBO YAM
UKUSUKA 9 SINOKUKUFUMANA NGEMIZUZU emi-5.
UKUSUKA 9 QHUBEKA PHAMBILI UZE Ulayishe
DIAL 9 LO NGU-JOHN JONES NDIFUNA I-20K UKUQALA INKQUBO
UKUSUKA 9 SINOKUZINIKELA KUWE NGEMIZUZU emi-5
UKUSUKA 9 UKUQHUBEKA PHAMBILI
Emva koko, ukufumana inkxaso-mali kwiiprojekthi zokwabelana ngexesha elizayo kwi-MIT, uLicklider wafumana uRobert Fano ukuba akhokele iprojekthi yakhe ye-flagship: Iprojekthi ye-MAC, eyasinda kwiminyaka yee-1970 (i-MAC yayinezifinyezo ezininzi - "imathematika kunye nokubala", "ikhompyutheni yokufikelela ezininzi" , "ukuqonda ngoncedo lomatshini" [iMathematika kunye neKhompyutha, iKhompyutha yoFikelelo oluninzi, iCognition eNceda ngomatshini]). Nangona abaphuhlisi benethemba lokuba inkqubo entsha iya kukwazi ukuxhasa ubuncinci abasebenzisi be-200 ngexesha elifanayo, abazange bathathele ingqalelo ukuntsonkotha okuhlala kusanda kwesoftware yomsebenzisi, ethatha ngokulula lonke uphuculo kwisantya kunye nokusebenza kakuhle kwehardware. Xa yaphehlelelwa eMIT ngo-1969, le nkqubo inokuxhasa malunga nabasebenzisi abangama-60 besebenzisa iiyunithi zayo ezimbini zokusetyenzwa, ezazilinani elifanayo labasebenzisi kwiprosesa nganye njenge-CTSS. Nangona kunjalo, inani elipheleleyo labasebenzisi likhulu kakhulu kunomthwalo ophezulu onokwenzeka - ngoJuni 1970, abasebenzisi abangama-408 sele bebhalisiwe.
Isoftware yenkqubo yeprojekthi, ebizwa ngokuba yiMultics, yaqhayisa ngophuculo olukhulu, ezinye zazo zisajongwa njengeyona nto iphambili kwiinkqubo zokusebenza zanamhlanje: inkqubo yefayile emiswe ngomthi enemigangatho eneefolda ezinokuqulatha ezinye iifolda; Ukwahlulwa kokwenziwa komyalelo kumsebenzisi nakwinkqubo kwinqanaba le-hardware; unxulumaniso oluguqukayo lweenkqubo kunye nokulayishwa kweemodyuli zenkqubo ngexesha lokwenziwa njengoko kufuneka; ukukwazi ukongeza okanye ukususa ii-CPU, iibhanki zememori okanye iidiski ngaphandle kokuvala inkqubo. UKen Thompson kunye noDennis Ritchie, abadwelisi benkqubo kwiprojekthi yeMultics, kamva benza i-Unix OS (egama layo libhekisa kumanduleli wayo) ukuzisa ezinye zezi ngqikelelo kwiinkqubo ezilula, ezincinci zekhompyuter [Igama elithi "UNIX" (ekuqaleni "Unics" ) yathathwa kwi "Multics". U-"U" kwi-UNIX umele u-"Uniplexed" ngokuchasene ne-"Multiplexed" ephantsi kwegama le-Multics, ukuqaqambisa iinzame zabadali be-UNIX zokusuka kubunzima benkqubo ye-Multics ukuvelisa indlela elula nesebenzayo.] .
ULick watyala imbewu yakhe yokugqibela eBerkeley, kwiYunivesithi yaseCalifornia. Yaqalwa ngo-1963, iProjekthi Genie12 yavelisa iBerkeley Timesharing System, ikopi encinci, ejoliswe kurhwebo yeProjekthi yeMAC. Nangona yayiqhutywa ngamalungu amaninzi eeyunivesithi, yayiqhutywa ngumfundi uMel Peirtle, ngoncedo oluvela kwabanye abafundi-ngokukodwa uChuck Tucker, uPeter Deutsch, kunye noButler Lampson. Abanye babo babesele beyibambile intsholongwane yokusebenzisana eCambridge ngaphambi kokuba bafike eBerkeley. Deutsch, unyana we-MIT uprofesa wefiziksi kunye ne-computer prototyping enthusiast, wasebenzisa ulwimi lweprogram ye-Lisp kwi-Digital PDP-1 njengomntwana osemtsha ngaphambi kokuba abe ngumfundi eBerkeley. ULampson ucwangcise iPDP-1 kwiCambridge Electron Accelerator ngelixa engumfundi eHarvard. U-Pairtle kunye neqela lakhe benza inkqubo yokwabelana ngexesha kwi-SDS 930 eyenziwe yi-Scientific Data Systems, inkampani entsha yekhompyutheni eyasungulwa eSanta Monica ngo-1961 (inkqubela phambili yobugcisa eyenzeka eSanta Monica ngelo xesha ingaba ngumxholo ohlukeneyo. Inqaku, amagalelo kubuchwephesha bekhompyuter kwiminyaka yoo-1960s enziwe yiRAND Corporation, iSDC, kunye neSDS, zonke zazizinze apho).
I-SDS idibanise isoftware yeBerkeley kuyilo lwayo olutsha, iSDS 940. Yaba yenye yezona nkqubo zekhompyuter ezaziwa kakhulu ekupheleni kweminyaka yoo-1960. I-Tymshare kunye neComshare, ezithengisa ukwabelana kwexesha ngokuthengisa iinkonzo zekhompyutheni ezikude, zathenga ezininzi ze-SDS 940. UPyrtle kunye neqela lakhe bagqiba ekubeni bazame isandla sabo kwimarike yorhwebo kwaye baseka iBerkeley Computer Corporation (BCC) ngo-1968, kodwa ngexesha lokudodobala koqoqosho. yowe-1969-1970 yafaka isicelo sokubhanga. Uninzi lweqela likaPeirtle laphelela eXerox's Palo Alto Research Centre (PARC), apho uTucker, Deutsch, kunye noLampson bafake isandla kwiiprojekthi eziphawulekayo eziquka indawo yokusebenza yeAlto, uthungelwano lwengingqi, kunye nomshicileli welaser.
UMel Peirtle (ophakathi) ecaleni kweSistim yeBerkeley Timesharing System
Ewe, ayizizo zonke iiprojekthi zokwabelana ngexesha ukusuka ngo-1960s ezazinombulelo kuLicklider. Iindaba zezinto ezazisenzeka eMIT naseLincoln Laboratories zasasazeka ngoncwadi lobugcisa, iinkomfa, unxibelelwano lwezemfundo, kunye notshintsho lomsebenzi. Ngenxa yala mijelo, ezinye iimbewu, ezithwalwa ngumoya, zamila iingcambu. KwiYunivesithi yase-Illinois, uDon Bitzer wathengisa inkqubo yakhe ye-PLATO kwiSebe lezoKhuselo, okwakufanele linciphise iindleko zoqeqesho lobugcisa kubasebenzi bezempi. UClifford Shaw udale i-Air Force exhaswa ngezimali yi-JOHNNIAC Open Shop System (JOSS) ukuphucula isakhono sabasebenzi be-RAND ukwenza uhlalutyo lwamanani ngokukhawuleza. Inkqubo yokwabelana ngexesha le-Dartmouth yayinxulumene ngokuthe ngqo neziganeko e-MIT, kodwa ngaphandle koko yayiyiprojekthi ekhethekileyo ngokupheleleyo, exhaswa ngemali ngokupheleleyo ngabemi beSizwe seSayensi Foundation phantsi kwengcinga yokuba amava ekhompyutheni aya kuba yinxalenye eyimfuneko yemfundo yeenkokeli zase-US. kwisizukulwana esilandelayo.
Phakathi kwiminyaka yoo-1960, ukwabelana ngexesha kwakungekayithathi ngokupheleleyo inkqubo ye-ecosystem. Amashishini emveli okulungisa ibhetshi alawula kuzo zombini iintengiso kunye nokuthandwa, ngakumbi kwiikhampasi zasekholejini. Kodwa isayifumana i-niche yayo.
Iofisi kaTaylor
Ngehlobo lika-1964, malunga neminyaka emibini efikile e-ARPA, uLicklider watshintsha imisebenzi kwakhona, ngeli xesha esiya kwiziko lophando le-IBM kumantla eNew York. Uthuswe ngokulahlekelwa yiProjekthi ye-MAC yekhontrakthi kwi-computer ephikisanayo nomenzi we-General Electric emva kweminyaka yobudlelwane obuhle kunye ne-MIT, uLeake kwafuneka anike i-IBM amava akhe okuqala kwindlela ebonakala ngathi idlula inkampani. KuLeake, umsebenzi omtsha unike ithuba lokuguqula isiseko sokugqibela sokusetyenzwa kwebhetshi yemveli ibe lukholo olutsha lokusebenzisana (kodwa ayizange isebenze - iLeake yatyhalelwa ngasemva, kwaye umfazi wakhe wabandezeleka, eyedwa eYorktown Heights. Watshintshela kwi-ofisi yaseCambridge ye-IBM, emva koko wabuyela eMIT ngo-1967 ukuba abe yintloko yeProjekthi ye-MAC).
Watshintshwa njengentloko ye-IPTO ngu-Ivan Sutherland, ingcali emizobo yekhompyuter encinci, eyathi yatshintshwa ngo-1966 nguRobert Taylor. Iphepha lika-Lick lika-1960 elithi "Symbiosis of Man and Machine" lajika u-Taylor ukuba abe likholwa kwi-computing esebenzayo, kwaye isincomo sikaLick samzisa kwi-ARPA emva kokusebenza ngokufutshane kwinkqubo yophando kwi-NASA. Ubuntu bakhe namava amenza wafana noLeake kuneSutherland. Isazi ngengqondo ngoqeqesho, wayengenalo ulwazi lobugcisa kwinkalo yeekhomputha, kodwa wahlawula ngenxa yokuswela kwakhe ngomdla kunye nobunkokeli obuqinisekileyo.
Ngenye imini, ngelixa uTaylor ese-ofisini yakhe, intloko entsha ye-IPTO yaba nombono. Wahlala kwidesika eneetheminali ezintathu ezahlukeneyo ezimvumela ukuba anxibelelane neenkqubo ezintathu zokwabelana ngexesha le-ARPA ezifumaneka eCambridge, eBerkeley naseSanta Monica. Ngelo xesha, abazange badityaniswe omnye komnye - ukwenzela ukudlulisa ulwazi ukusuka kwelinye inkqubo ukuya kwelinye, kwafuneka ayenze ngokwakhe, ngokwenyama, esebenzisa umzimba kunye nengqondo.
Imbewu ejulwe nguLicklider yavelisa isiqhamo. Wakha uluntu lwentlalo yoluntu lwabasebenzi be-IPTO olwakhula lwaba ngamanye amaziko amaninzi ekhompyutheni, ngalinye lidale uluntu oluncinci lweengcali zekhompyutheni eziqokelelwe kwindawo yekhompyutheni yokwabelana ngexesha. UTaylor wacinga ukuba lixesha lokudibanisa la maziko. Izakhiwo zabo zentlalo kunye nezobugcisa, xa zidibene, ziya kukwazi ukwenza uhlobo lwe-superorganism, i-rhizomes eya kusasazeka kulo lonke ilizwekazi, ivelise kwakhona inzuzo yentlalo yokwabelana kwexesha kwinqanaba eliphezulu. Kwaye ngale ngcamango yaqala iimfazwe zobugcisa kunye nezopolitiko ezikhokelela ekudalweni kwe-ARPANET.
Yintoni enye ekufuneka uyifunde
- URichard J. Barber Associates, i-Arhente yeeProjekthi zoPhando oluPhezulu, ngo-1958-1974 (1975)
- UKatie Hafner kunye noMatthew Lyon, apho iiWizards zihlala khona emva kwexesha: Imvelaphi ye-Intanethi (1996)
- I-Severo M. Ornstein, i-Computing kwi-Middle Ages: Umbono ovela kwi-Trenches, i-1955-1983 (2002)
- M. Mitchell Waldrop, uMtshini wePhupha: JCR Licklider kunye neRevolution eyenza iComputing Personal (2001)
umthombo: www.habr.com