Amanye amanqaku kolu ngcelele:
- Imbali yodluliselo
- Imbali yeekhompyuter ze-elektroniki
- Imbali ye-transistor
- Imbali ye-Intanethi
I-crucible yemfazwe yabeka inqanaba lokufika kwe-transistor. Ukususela ngo-1939 ukuya ku-1945, ulwazi lobugcisa kwintsimi yee-semiconductors lwanda kakhulu. Kwaye kukho isizathu esinye esilula soku: irada. Ithekhnoloji ebaluleke kakhulu yemfazwe, imizekelo equka: ukukhangela ukuhlaselwa komoya, ukukhangela iinqanawa zangaphantsi kwamanzi, ukuqondisa uhlaselo lomoya ebusuku kwiithagethi, ukujolisa kwiinkqubo zokukhusela umoya kunye nemipu yomkhosi. Iinjineli ziye zafunda nendlela yokufaka iirada ezincinci zibe ngamaqokobhe eembumbulu ukuze ziqhume njengoko zibhabha kufutshane nendawo ekujoliswe kuyo - . Noko ke, umthombo wobu bugcisa butsha bomkhosi obunamandla wawukwindawo enoxolo ngakumbi: uhlolisiso lomoya ongasentla ngeenjongo zenzululwazi.
Radar
Ngomnyaka ka-1901, iNkampani ye-Marconi Wireless Telegraph yathumela ngempumelelo umyalezo ongenazingcingo ngaphesheya kweAtlantiki, ukusuka eCornwall ukuya eNewfoundland. Oku kuye kwabangela ukuba inzululwazi yanamhlanje ibhideke. Ukuba usasazo lukanomathotholo luhamba ngendlela ethe ngqo (njengoko bekufanele), olo gqithiso kufuneka lungenzeki. Akukho mgca wokubona ngokuthe ngqo phakathi kweNgilani neCanada ongawuweliyo uMhlaba, ngoko ke umyalezo kaMarconi kwafuneka ubhabhe uye emajukujukwini. Injineli yaseMelika uArthur Kennealy kunye nesazi sefiziksi saseBritani uOliver Heaviside ngaxeshanye kwaye ngokuzimeleyo bacebise ukuba ingcaciso yale nto kufuneka inxulunyaniswe nomaleko wegesi ionized ebekwe kwiatmosfera ephezulu, ekwaziyo ukubonakalisa amaza kanomathotholo abuyele eMhlabeni (uMarconi ngokwakhe wayekholelwa ukuba amaza onomathotholo landela ukugoba komphezulu woMhlaba, nangona kunjalo, iifiziksi azizange ziwuxhase).
Ngeminyaka yee-1920, izazinzulu ziye zavelisa izixhobo ezitsha ezenza ukuba kube lula ukubonisa ubungqina bobukho be-ionosphere kwaye emva koko bafunde ubume bayo. Basebenzisa iityhubhu zokufunxa ukwenza iipulses zerediyo ezimfutshane, ii-eriyali eziya kuthi zizithumele emoyeni kwaye zirekhode i-echoes, kwaye ukubonisa iziphumo. Okukhona ukulibaziseka kokubuya kwe-echo, kokukhona i-ionosphere kufuneka ibe kude. Le teknoloji yayibizwa ngokuba yi-atmospheric sounding, kwaye yabonelela ngesiseko sobugcisa obusisiseko sokuphuhliswa kwe-radar (igama elithi "radar", ukusuka kwi-RAdio Detection And Ranging, ayizange ibonakale kude kube ngo-1940 kwi-US Navy).
Kwaba nje ixesha ngaphambi kokuba abantu abanolwazi olufanelekileyo, izixhobo kunye nenkuthazo baqonde amandla okusetyenziswa komhlaba wezixhobo ezinjalo (ngaloo ndlela imbali yerada ichasene nembali yeteleskopu, eyayijoliswe ekusetyenzisweni komhlaba kuqala) . Kwaye ukubakho kokuqonda okunje kwanda njengoko unomathotholo usasazeka ngakumbi nangakumbi kwiplanethi yonke, kwaye abantu abaninzi baqaphela ukuphazamiseka okuvela kwiinqanawa ezikufutshane, iinqwelomoya kunye nezinye izinto ezinkulu. Ulwazi lwetekhnoloji yesandi somoya ophezulu lusasazeka ngexesha lesibini (1932-1933), xa izazinzulu zaqulunqa imephu ye-ionosphere evela kwizikhululo ezahlukeneyo zeArctic. Kungekudala emva koko, amaqela aseBritani, e-USA, eJamani, eItali, e-USSR nakwamanye amazwe aphuhlisa ezona nkqubo zilula zeradar.
ngerada yakhe ka-1935
Kwandula ke kwabakho imfazwe, yaye ukubaluleka kweerada kumazwe—kunye nezixhobo zokuziphuhlisa—kwanda ngokuphawulekayo. EUnited States, ezi zixhobo ziqokelelene malunga nombutho omtsha owasekwa ngo-1940 eMIT, eyaziwa ngokuba (yathiywa ngokuthe ngqo ukulahlekisa iintlola zamazwe angaphandle kunye nokudala ingcamango yokuba i-radioactivity yayiphononongwa elabhoratri - ngelo xesha bambalwa abantu ababekholelwa kwiibhombu zeathom). Iprojekthi yeRad Lab, engazange idume njengeProjekthi yeManhattan, nangona kunjalo yaqesha iingcali zefiziksi ezibalaseleyo nezinetalente ezivela kulo lonke elase-United States ukuya kumanqanaba ayo. Abahlanu kubasebenzi bokuqala belabhoratri (kubandakanywa и ) emva koko wafumana amaBhaso eNobel. Ekupheleni kwemfazwe, malunga nama-500 oogqirha besayensi, izazinzulu kunye neenjineli zasebenza kwilebhu, kwaye abantu abangama-4000 bebonke basebenza. Isiqingatha sesigidi seedola-esithelekiseka nayo yonke ibhajethi ye-ENIAC-yachithwa kwi-Radiation Laboratory Series yodwa, irekhodi elingamashumi amabini anesixhenxe kulo lonke ulwazi olufunyenwe kwibhubhoratri ngexesha lemfazwe (nangona inkcitho karhulumente wase-US kwi-radar teknoloji yayingaphelelanga." kwibhajethi yeRad Lab; ngexesha lemfazwe urhulumente wathenga iirada ezixabisa iibhiliyoni ezintathu zeerada).
I-MIT Building 20, apho iRad Lab yayikhona
Enye yezona ndawo ziphambili zophando lweRad Lab yayiyirada yefrikhwensi ephezulu. Iirada zangaphambili zasebenzisa ubude bobude obulinganiswa ngeemitha. Kodwa imiqadi enezandi eziphakamileyo ezinobude obulinganiswe ngeesentimitha-ii-microwaves-ezivunyelweyo kwii-eriyali ezixineneyo kwaye bezisasazeke kancinci kumgama omde, zithembisa iinzuzo ezinkulu kuluhlu kunye nokuchaneka. Iirada zeMicrowave zinokungena empumlweni yenqwelomoya kwaye zibone izinto ezilingana neperiscope yenkwili.
Owokuqala ukusombulula le ngxaki yaba liqela leengcali zefiziksi zaseBrithani ezivela kwiYunivesithi yaseBirmingham. Ngowe-1940 bavelisa "", esebenza njenge "mpempe" ye-electromagnetic, ijika i-pulse engacwangciswanga yombane ibe ngumqadi onamandla kunye olungiswe ngokuchanekileyo wee-microwaves. Le microwave transmitter ibinamandla aphindwe kaliwaka kunoyena okhuphisana naye okufutshane; yavula indlela yokusasaza irada esebenza ngamaza aphezulu. Nangona kunjalo, wayefuna iqabane, umamkeli okwaziyo ukubona amaza aphezulu. Kwaye ngeli xesha sibuyela kwimbali yee-semiconductors.
Magnetron cross-icandelo
Ukuza kwesibini kwe-whisker yekati
Kuye kwavela ukuba iityhubhu zevacuum zazingafanelekanga kwaphela ukufumana iimpawu ze-microwave radar. I-gap phakathi kwe-cathode eshushu kunye ne-anode ebandayo yenza i-capacitance, ebangela ukuba isiphaluka sinqabe ukusebenza kwiifrikhwensi eziphezulu. Itekhnoloji engcono kakhulu ekhoyo yeradar ejikelezayo yayiyeyakudala ""- iqhekeza elincinci locingo elicinezelwe kwikristale ye-semiconductor. Abantu abaliqela bayifumene le nto ngokuzimeleyo, kodwa eyona nto ikufutshane kwibali lethu yinto eyenzekayo eNew Jersey.
Kwi-1938, i-Bell Labs inkontileka kunye ne-Navy ukuphuhlisa i-radar yokulawula umlilo kwi-40 cm ububanzi-ifutshane kakhulu, kwaye ngoko ke iphakamileyo kwi-frequency, kunee-radars ezikhoyo kwixesha le-pre-resonant magnetron. Umsebenzi ophambili wophando waya kwicandelo leebhubhoratri eHolmdel, emazantsi eStaten Island. Akuzange kuthathe xesha lide ukuba abaphandi bafumanise ukuba yintoni abaya kuyidinga kwi-high-frequency receiver, kwaye kungekudala injineli uGeorge Southworth wayegqogqa iivenkile zikanomathotholo eManhattan ekhangela izixhobo zakudala ze-cat-whisker. Njengoko bekulindelekile, isebenze ngcono kakhulu kunesixhobo sokujonga isibane, kodwa yayingazinzanga. Ngoko u-Southworth wafuna i-electrochemist egama linguRussell Ohl waza wamcela ukuba azame ukuphucula ukufana kwempendulo ye-crystal point detector.
U-Ol wayengumntu ongaqhelekanga, owayethathela ingqalelo uphuhliso lwetekhnoloji njengekamva lakhe, kwaye wayethetha malunga nokuqonda kwamaxesha athile kunye nemibono yekamva. Ngokomzekelo, wathi emva phayaa ngowe-1939 wayesazi ngokuyilwa kwexesha elizayo kwe-silicon amplifier, kodwa elo lishwa lalimiselwe ngomnye umntu ukuba liyilwe. Emva kokufunda uninzi lwezinto anokukhetha kuzo, wazinza kwisilicon njengeyona nto ilungileyo yabamkeli baseSouthworth. Ingxaki yayikukwazi ukulawula imixholo yezinto zokulawula iimpawu zayo zombane. Ngelo xesha, i-ingots ye-silicon ye-industrial yayixhaphakile; zazisetyenziswa kwii-mills zensimbi, kodwa kwimveliso enjalo akukho mntu wayekhathazwa, uthi, umxholo we-1% ye-phosphorus kwi-silicon. Ecela uncedo lweqela leengcali zemetallurgists, uOl wazimisela ukufumana izikhewu ezicocekileyo kunangaphambili.
Njengoko babesebenza, bafumanisa ukuba ezinye iikristale zabo zilungisa okwangoku kwicala elinye, ngelixa ezinye zilungisa okwangoku kwelinye. Bazibiza ngokuba yi "n-type" kunye ne "p-type". Uhlalutyo olongezelelweyo lubonise ukuba iindidi ezahlukeneyo zokungcola zazijongene nezi ntlobo. I-silicon ikwikholamu yesine yetheyibhile yeperiodic, oku kuthetha ukuba ineelektroni ezine kwiqokobhe layo elingaphandle. Kwindawo engenanto yesilicon ecocekileyo, nganye kwezi electron ziya kudibanisa nommelwane. Ukungcola okuvela kwikholamu yesithathu, ithi i-boron, ene-electron enye encinci, yenza "umngxuma," indawo eyongezelelweyo yokuhamba kwangoku kwi-crystal. Isiphumo yaba yi-p-type semiconductor (kunye neentlawulo ezigqithisileyo). Izinto ezivela kwikholomu yesihlanu, ezifana ne-phosphorus, zinikeze ii-electron ezongezelelweyo zamahhala ukuthwala okwangoku, kwaye i-semiconductor ye-n-type yafunyanwa.
Ubume be-crystal ye-silicon
Lonke olu phando lwalunomdla kakhulu, kodwa ngo-1940 u-Southworth kunye no-Ohl babengasondeli ekudaleni iprototype esebenzayo ye-radar ephezulu-frequency. Kwangaxeshanye, urhulumente waseBhritane wafuna iziphumo ezisebenzayo ezikhawulezileyo ngenxa yesoyikiso esivela kwiLuftwaffe, eyayisele yenze izixhobo zokujonga i-microwave esele zilungele ukuveliswa ezisebenza ngokuhambelana nee-magnetron transmitters.
Nangona kunjalo, ibhalansi yenkqubela phambili yetekhnoloji kungekudala iya kuthi gqi kwicala elingasentshona leAtlantiki. UChurchill wagqiba ekubeni atyhile zonke iimfihlo zobugcisa zaseBrithani kumaMerika ngaphambi kokuba angene emfazweni (ekubeni wayecinga ukuba oku kuya kwenzeka). Wayekholelwa ukuba kwakufanelekile umngcipheko wokuvuza kolwazi, ekubeni ngoko onke amandla oshishino e-United States aya kuphoswa ekusombululeni iingxaki ezifana nezixhobo zeathom kunye neeradar. IMishini yeNzululwazi kunye neTekhnoloji yaseBritane (eyaziwa ngcono njenge ) wafika eWashington ngoSeptemba 1940 waza weza nomthwalo wakhe isipho esikwimo yemimangaliso yetekhnoloji.
Ukufunyanwa kwamandla angakholelekiyo e-resonant magnetron kunye nokusebenza kwe-British crystal detectors ekufumaneni umqondiso wayo uvuselele uphando lwaseMelika kwii-semiconductors njengesiseko se-radar ephezulu-frequency. Wawumninzi umsebenzi ofanele wenziwe, ngakumbi kwinzululwazi yezixhobo. Ukuhlangabezana nemfuno, iikristale zesemiconductor “kwafuneka ziveliswe ngezigidi, ngaphezulu lee kunangaphambili. Kwakuyimfuneko ukuphucula ukulungiswa, ukunciphisa uvakalelo lokothuka kunye nokutshisa ngaphakathi, kunye nokunciphisa umahluko phakathi kweebhetshi ezahlukeneyo zeekristale. "
Isilungisi soQhagamshelwano leSilicon Point
I-Rad Lab ivule amasebe ophando amatsha ukuba afunde iipropathi ze-semiconductor crystals kunye nendlela enokuguqulwa ngayo ukuze kwandiswe iipropati ezixabisekileyo zabamkeli. Izinto ezithembisayo kakhulu zaziyi-silicon kunye ne-germanium, ngoko i-Rad Lab yagqiba ekubeni idlale ngokukhuselekileyo kwaye iqalise iinkqubo ezihambelanayo zokufunda zombini: i-silicon kwiYunivesithi yasePennsylvania kunye ne-germanium e-Purdue. Iingxilimbela zemizi-mveliso ezifana neBell, iWestinghouse, iDu Pont, kunye neSylvania zaqala ezazo iinkqubo zophando lwesemiconductor kwaye zaqala ukuphuhlisa amaziko amatsha okuvelisa ii-crystal detectors.
Ngemizamo edibeneyo, ukucoceka kwe-silicon kunye ne-germanium crystals kuphakanyiswe ukusuka kwi-99% ekuqaleni ukuya kwi-99,999% - oko kukuthi, kwi-particle enye yokungcola kwi-athomu ye-100. Kwinkqubo, i-cadre yezazinzulu kunye neenjineli ziye zaqhelana ngokusondeleyo kunye neempawu ezingabonakaliyo ze-germanium kunye ne-silicon kwaye zasebenzisa iteknoloji yokulawula: ukunyibilika, ukukhula kweekristale, ukongeza ukungcola okuyimfuneko (okufana ne-boron, eyandisa i-conductivity).
Yaphela ke imfazwe. Imfuno ye-radar yanyamalala, kodwa ulwazi kunye nezakhono ezifunyenwe ngexesha lemfazwe zahlala, kwaye iphupha le-solid-state amplifier alizange lilibale. Ngoku ugqatso lwalukukudala isandisi-lizwi esinjalo. Kwaye ubuncinane amaqela amathathu ebekwimeko entle yokuphumelela eli bhaso.
West Lafayette
Eyokuqala yayiyiqela elivela kwiYunivesithi yasePurdue ekhokelwa yingcali yefiziksi yase-Austrian egama linguCarl Lark-Horowitz. Wazisa yedwa isebe lefiziksi yeyunivesithi ngaphandle kokufihlakala ngenxa yetalente yakhe kunye neempembelelo kwaye waphembelela isigqibo seRad Lab sokuphathisa ilabhoratri yakhe ngophando lwegermanium.
UCarl Lark-Horowitz ngowe-1947, kwiziko, ephethe umbhobho
Ekuqaleni kweminyaka yee-1940, i-silicon yayithathwa njengeyona nto ilungileyo yokulungisa irada, kodwa imathiriyeli engaphantsi kwayo kwitheyibhile yeperiodic nayo yayikhangeleka ikufanele ukuqhubela phambili nokuqhubeka. I-Germanium yayinenzuzo ebonakalayo ngenxa yeqondo eliphantsi lokunyibilika, okwenza kube lula ukusebenza kunye: malunga ne-940 degrees, xa kuthelekiswa ne-1400 degrees ye-silicon (phantse ifana nentsimbi). Ngenxa yenqanaba eliphezulu lokunyibilika, kwakunzima kakhulu ukwenza into engenanto engayi kuvuza kwisilicon etyhidiweyo, iyingcolise.
Ngoko ke, uLark-Horowitz kunye noogxa bakhe bachitha yonke imfazwe befunda imichiza, umbane kunye neempawu zomzimba zegermanium. Owona mqobo ubalulekileyo wawuyi-"reverse voltage": i-germanium rectifiers, kwi-voltage ephantsi kakhulu, yayeka ukulungisa umsinga kwaye yavumela ukuba ihambe kwelinye icala. I-pulse yangoku eguqukayo yatshisa amacandelo asele e-radar. Omnye wabafundi abathweswe izidanga bakaLark-Horowitz, uSeymour Benzer, wafunda le ngxaki isithuba esingaphezu konyaka, kwaye ekugqibeleni waphuhlisa isongezo esekwe kwitoti esathi samisa umva ukubetha kombane kumakhulu eevolthi. Kungekudala emva koko, iWestern Electric, i-Bell Labs 'icandelo lokuvelisa, laqala ukukhupha i-Benzer yokulungisa ukusetyenziswa emkhosini.
Ukufundwa kwegermanium ePurdue kwaqhubeka emva kwemfazwe. NgoJuni 1947, uBenzer, owayesele engunjingalwazi, wachaza i-anomaly engaqhelekanga: kwezinye iimvavanyo, i-oscillations ephezulu-frequency ibonakala kwiikristale zegermanium. Kwaye umlingane wakhe uRalph Bray waqhubeka nokufunda "ukuchasana kwe-volumetric" kwiprojekthi eqalwe ngexesha lemfazwe. Ukuchasana nomthamo kuchaze indlela umbane ohamba ngayo kwikristale yegermanium kwindawo yoqhagamshelwano yomlungisi. UBray ufumanise ukuba amandla ombane aphezulu anciphisa kakhulu ukuxhathisa kwe-n-type germanium kule misinga. Engazi, wabona into ekuthiwa. "abancinci" bahlawulisa abathwali. Kwi-n-type semiconductors, intlawulo embi egqithisileyo isebenza njengomphathi wentlawulo eninzi, kodwa "imingxuma" ekhangayo inokuthwala okwangoku, kwaye kulo mzekelo, ii-pulses eziphezulu ze-voltage zidale imingxuma kwisakhiwo segermanium, ebangela ukuba kubonakale abathwali bentlawulo encinci. .
UBray kunye noBenzer beza ngokumangalisayo kufutshane ne-germanium amplifier ngaphandle kokuqaphela. UBenzer wabamba uWalter Brattain, isazinzulu seBell Labs, kwinkomfa ngoJanuwari 1948 ukuxoxa nge-volumetric drag naye. Wacebisa ukuba uBrattain abeke enye ingongoma yoqhagamshelwano ecaleni kweyokuqala enokuqhuba umsinga, baze ke babe nako ukuqonda okwenzeka ngaphantsi komhlaba. UBrattain wavuma ngokuzolileyo kwesi siphakamiso waza wahamba. Njengoko siza kubona, wayesazi kakuhle ukuba olo vavanyo lwalunokutyhila ntoni.
U-Oney-sous-Bois
Iqela lePurdue lalinazo zombini itekhnoloji kunye nesiseko sethiyori ukwenza umtsi ukuya kwi-transistor. Kodwa babenokukhubeka kuyo ngamabona-ndenzile. Babenomdla kwiimpawu ezibonakalayo zezinto eziphathekayo, kwaye kungekhona ekufuneni uhlobo olutsha lwesixhobo. Imeko ehluke kakhulu yayikhona e-Aunes-sous-Bois (eFransi), apho abaphandi ababini be-radar baseJamani, uHeinrich Welker noHerbert Mathare, bakhokela iqela elinenjongo yokudala izixhobo ze-semiconductor yezoshishino.
UWelker waqala wafunda waza emva koko wafundisa i-physics kwiYunivesithi yaseMunich, eqhutywa yingcali yethiyori edumileyo uArnold Sommerfeld. Ukususela ngo-1940, washiya indlela yethiyori kwaye waqala ukusebenza kwi-radar yeLuftwaffe. UMathare (wemvelaphi yaseBelgium) wakhulela eAachen, apho wafunda khona iphysics. Wajoyina isebe lophando kwisikhululo sikanomathotholo saseJamani iTelefunken ngo-1939. Ngexesha lemfazwe, wawususa umsebenzi wakhe eBerlin ngasempuma ukuya kwi-abbey eSilesia ukunqanda uhlaselo lomoya we-Allied, emva koko wabuyela ngasentshona ukunqanda ukuqhubela phambili koMkhosi oBomvu, ekugqibeleni wawela ezandleni zomkhosi waseMelika.
Njengabakhuphisana nabo kwi-Anti-Hitler Coalition, amaJamani ayesazi ngeminyaka yee-1940s ukuba i-crystal detectors yayingabamkeli abafanelekileyo be-radar, kwaye i-silicon kunye ne-germanium yayizezona zinto zithembisayo ekudalweni kwazo. UMathare kunye no-Welker bazama ngexesha lemfazwe ukuphucula ukusetyenziswa kakuhle kwezi zixhobo kwi-rectifiers. Emva kwemfazwe, bobabini babephantsi kokuncinwa ngamaxesha athile malunga nomsebenzi wabo wasemkhosini, kwaye ekugqibeleni bafumana isimemo esivela kwigosa lezobuntlola laseFransi eParis ngo-1946.
I-Compagnie des Freins & Signaux ("inkampani yeziqhoboshi kunye nemiqondiso"), icandelo lesiFrentshi laseWestinghouse, lifumene ikhontrakthi evela kugunyaziwe womnxeba waseFransi ukwenza i-rectifiers eqinile kwaye yafuna izazinzulu zaseJamani ukuba zibancede. Umanyano olunjalo lweentshaba zamva nje lusenokubonakala lungaqhelekanga, kodwa eli lungiselelo liye lawalungelelanisa omabini amacala. AmaFrentshi, oyiswa ngowe-1940, ayengakwazi ukufumana ulwazi kwintsimi yee-semiconductors, kwaye ayezifuna ngamandla izakhono zamaJamani. AmaJamani awakwazanga ukwenza uphuhliso kuwo nawaphi na amasimi obuchwepheshe obuphezulu kwilizwe elihlaselweyo nelidlakazwe yimfazwe, ngoko batsibela ithuba lokuqhubeka nokusebenza.
UWelker noMathare baseka ikomkhulu kwindlu enemigangatho emibini kwihlomela-dolophu laseParis laseAunes-sous-Bois, yaye ngoncedo lweqela lamagcisa, baqalisa ngempumelelo izixhobo zokulungisa igermanium ekupheleni kowe-1947. Emva koko baguqukela ekubeni nzulu ngakumbi. amabhaso: Welker wabuyela umdla wakhe superconductors, kunye Mathare ukuba amplifiers.
Herbert Mathare ngo-1950
Ngexesha lemfazwe, iMathare yazama ngamanqaku amabini okuphinda-phinda okunxibelelana - "i-duodeodes" - ngelinge lokunciphisa ingxolo yesiphaluka. Waphinda waqalisa ukulinga kwakhona kwaye kwakamsinya wafumanisa ukuba ibhovu lekati yesibini, elikwi-1/100 lesigidi semitha ukusuka kweyokuqala, ngamanye amaxesha linokulinganisa langoku eliqukuqelayo kwibhovu lokuqala. Wenze isandisi-lizwi esiqinileyo, nangona singenamsebenzi. Ukufezekisa ukusebenza okuthembekileyo, waphendukela ku-Welker, owayefumene amava amaninzi esebenza ngeekristale zegermanium ngexesha lemfazwe. Iqela le-Welker lakhula, iisampulu ezicocekileyo ze-germanium crystals, kwaye njengoko umgangatho wezinto uphuculwa, i-Mathare point contact amplifiers ziye zathenjwa ngoJuni ka-1948.
Umfanekiso weX-ray we "transistron" esekwe kwisekethe yeMathare, enamanqaku amabini okunxibelelana negermanium.
UMathare wade waba nemodeli yethiyori yento eyenzekayo: wayekholelwa ukuba unxibelelwano lwesibini lwenze imingxunya kwigermanium, isantya sokuhamba kwangoku ngoqhagamshelwano lokuqala, ukubonelela abathwali beentlawulo ezincinci. UWelker akazange avumelane naye, kwaye wayekholelwa ukuba okwenzekayo kuxhomekeke kuhlobo oluthile lwesiphumo sentsimi. Nangona kunjalo, ngaphambi kokuba basebenzise isixhobo okanye ithiyori, bafunde ukuba iqela labantu baseMelika liphuhlise ingcamango efanayo - iamplifier yegermanium enamanqaku amabini oqhagamshelwano- kwiinyanga ezintandathu ngaphambili.
Murray Hill
Ekupheleni kwemfazwe, uMervyn Kelly waguqula iqela le-Bell Labs 'lophando lwe-semiconductor elikhokelwa nguBill Shockley. Le projekthi yakhula, yafumana inkxaso-mali eyongezelelekileyo, kwaye yasuka kwisakhiwo sayo selebhu yokuqala eManhattan yaya kwikhampasi eyandayo eMurray Hill, eNew Jersey.
Ikhampasi yaseMurray Hill, ca. 1960
Ukuze aqhelane neesemiconductors eziphambili (emva kwexesha lakhe kuphando lwemisebenzi ngexesha lemfazwe), uShockley watyelela ilabhoratri kaRussell Ohl yaseHolmdel ngentwasahlobo yowe-1945. U-Ohl wachitha iminyaka yemfazwe esebenza kwi-silicon kwaye akazange achithe ixesha. Wabonisa uShockley iamplifier ekrwada yolwakhiwo lwakhe, awayibiza ngokuba “sisilahlisi.” Wathatha i-silicon point contact rectifier wathumela i-current kwibhetri ngayo. Kuyabonakala ukuba, ubushushu obuvela ebhetri bunciphise ukuchasana kwindawo yokunxibelelana, kwaye yajika into elungisayo ukuba ibe sisikhulisi esikwaziyo ukuhambisa imiqondiso yerediyo engenayo kwisekethe enamandla ngokwaneleyo ukunika amandla isithethi.
Isiphumo sasikrwada kwaye singathembekanga, singafanelekanga ukuthengiswa. Nangona kunjalo, kwakwanele ukuqinisekisa uluvo lukaShockley ukuba kwakunokwenzeka ukudala i-amplifier ye-semiconductor, kwaye oku kufuneka kube yinto ephambili kuphando kwintsimi ye-electronics state solid. Yayikwayile ntlanganiso kunye neqela lika-Ola elaqinisekisa uShockley ukuba isilicon kunye negermanium kufuneka ifundwe kuqala. Babonisa iipropati zombane ezinomtsalane, kunye nee-metallurgists zika-Ohl uJack Skaff noHenry Theurer baphumelele impumelelo emangalisayo ekukhuleni, ekucoceni, nasekudongeni ezi crystals ngexesha lemfazwe, bedlula bonke ubugcisa obukhoyo kwezinye izinto ze-semiconductor. Iqela likaShockley lalingayi kuphinda lichithe ixesha kwi-amplifiers ye-copper oxide yangaphambi kwemfazwe.
Ngoncedo lukaKelly, uShockley waqalisa ukudibanisa iqela elitsha. Abadlali abaphambili baquka uWalter Brattain, owanceda uShockley ngomzamo wakhe wokuqala kwi-solid-state amplifier (ngo-1940), kunye noJohn Bardeen, i-physicist encinci kunye nomsebenzi omtsha weBell Labs. UBardeen mhlawumbi wayenolwazi olubanzi kakhulu lwefiziksi yesimo esiqinileyo kulo naliphi na ilungu leqela-i-dissertation yakhe ichaza amanqanaba amandla eelektroni kwisakhiwo sesinyithi sesodium. Kwakhona wayengomnye umkhuseli kaJohn Hasbrouck Van Vleck, njengo-Atanasov noBrattain.
Kwaye njengo-Atanasov, uBardeen noShockley wafuna izibalo ezintsonkothileyo. Kwakufuneka basebenzise ithiyori ye-quantum mechanical ye-semiconductors, echazwe ngu-Alan Wilson, ukubala ulwakhiwo lwamandla ezinto usebenzisa i-Monroe's desktop calculator. Ngokuncedisa ekudaleni i-transistor, enyanisweni, babe negalelo ekusindiseni abafundi abaphumeleleyo kwixa elizayo kulo msebenzi.
Indlela yokuqala kaShockley kwi-solid-state amplifier ixhomekeke kwinto eyathi kamva yabizwa ngokuba "". Waxhoma ipleyiti yesinyithi phezu kwe-semiconductor yohlobo lwe-n (kunye nokugqithisa kweentlawulo ezimbi). Ukufaka intlawulo evumayo kwipleyiti kutsale ii-electron ezingaphezulu kumphezulu wekristale, kudala umlambo weentlawulo ezingalunganga apho umsinga wombane unokuhamba ngokulula. Isignali ekhulisiwe (emelwe yinqanaba lentlawulo kwi-wafer) ngale ndlela inokumodareyitha isiphaluka esiphambili (idlula phezu kwendawo ye-semiconductor). Ukusebenza kwesi sikimu kwacetyiswa kuye ngolwazi lwakhe lwethiyori yefiziksi. Kodwa, ngaphandle kwemifuniselo emininzi kunye nemifuniselo, inkqubo ayizange isebenze.
Ngo-Matshi 1946, uBardeen wayedale ithiyori ephuhliswe kakuhle eyachaza isizathu soku: umphezulu we-semiconductor kwinqanaba le-quantum liziphatha ngendlela eyahlukileyo ngaphakathi kwayo. Iintlawulo ezingalunganga ezitsalwa kumphezulu zibanjiswa "kwiimo ezingaphezulu" kwaye zivale indawo yombane ekungeneni kwipleyiti kwizinto eziphathekayo. Iqela lonke lifumene olu hlalutyo lunyanzelekile, kwaye lasungula inkqubo entsha yophando ngeendlela ezintathu:
- Ngqina ubukho belizwe.
- Funda ngeempawu zabo.
- Khangela indlela yokuboyisa kwaye uyenze isebenze .
Emva konyaka onesiqingatha wophando novavanyo, ngoNovemba 17, 1947, uBrattain wenza inkqubela. Ufumanise ukuba xa ebeka ulwelo oluzaliswe yi-ion, njengamanzi, phakathi kwe-wafer kunye ne-semiconductor, ibala lombane elisuka kwi-wafer liya kutyhala ii-ion kwi-semiconductor, apho ziya kuthi zinciphise iintlawulo ezivaleleke kwiindawo ezingaphezulu. Ngoku wayenokulawula ukuziphatha kombane kweqhekeza le-silicon ngokutshintsha intlawulo kwi-wafer. Le mpumelelo yanika uBardeen umbono wendlela entsha yokudala iamplifier: rhangqa indawo yokunxibelelana ye-rectifier ngamanzi e-electrolyte, kwaye emva koko usebenzise ucingo lwesibini emanzini ukulawula iimeko zomhlaba, kwaye ngaloo ndlela ulawule umgangatho wokuqhuba kweyona nto iphambili. uqhagamshelwano. Ngoko uBardeen noBrattain bafikelela entanjeni.
Umbono kaBardeen wasebenza, kodwa ukukhulisa kwakubuthathaka kwaye kwasebenza kumaza aphantsi kakhulu angenakufikeleleka endlebeni yomntu - ke yayingenamsebenzi njengefowuni okanye isandisi serediyo. UBardeen ucebise ukuba utshintshele kwi-germanium engaguqukiyo-voltage-resistant eveliswe ePurdue, ekholelwa ukuba iintlawulo ezimbalwa ziya kuqokelela kumphezulu wayo. Ngequbuliso bafumana ulwando olunamandla, kodwa kwicala elahlukileyo koko bekulindelwe. Baye bafumanisa isiphumo sokuthwala esincinci - endaweni yee-electron ezilindelekileyo, langoku elihamba ngegermanium landiswa yimingxuma evela kwi-electrolyte. Umsinga ocingweni kwi-electrolyte udale umaleko we-p (ummandla weentlawulo ezilungileyo ezigqithisileyo) kumphezulu we-n-type germanium.
Iimvavanyo ezalandelayo zabonisa ukuba akukho electrolyte efunekayo konke konke: ngokubeka nje iindawo zoqhagamshelwano ezimbini ezikufutshane kumphezulu wegermanium, kwakunokwenzeka ukumodareyitha yangoku ukusuka kwenye yazo ukuya kokwangoku kwenye. Ukuzisondeza kangangoko, uBrattain wasongela iqhekeza lefoyile yegolide kwiqhekeza leplastiki elingunxantathu emva koko wayisika ngononophelo ifoyile ekugqibeleni. Emva koko, usebenzisa i-spring, wacinezela unxantathu kwi-germanium, ngenxa yoko imiphetho emibini yokusikwa yathinta indawo yayo kumgama we-0,05 mm. Oku kwanika iBell Labs 'transistor prototype imbonakalo yayo eyahlukileyo:
Iprototype yeBrattain kunye neBardeen transistor
Njengesixhobo seMathare kunye ne-Welker, yayiyi-classic "i-whisker yekati", nje ngamanqaku amabini oqhagamshelwano endaweni enye. NgoDisemba 16, ivelise ukwanda okukhulu kwamandla kunye nombane, kunye nokuphindaphinda kwe-1000 Hz kuluhlu oluvakalayo. Kwiveki kamva, emva kophuculo olungephi, uBardeen noBrattain baye banyusa amandla ombane ngama-100 kunye namandla ngamaxesha angama-40, kwaye babonisa abalawuli beBell ukuba isixhobo sabo sinokuvelisa intetho evakalayo. UJohn Pierce, elinye ilungu leqela lophuhliso lombuso oqinileyo, waqamba igama elithi "transistor" emva kwegama leBell's copper oxide rectifier, i-varistor.
Kwiinyanga ezintandathu ezilandelayo, ilabhoratri yagcina indalo entsha iyimfihlo. Abaphathi bafuna ukuqiniseka ukuba banentloko ephambili ekurhwebeni nge-transistor ngaphambi kokuba nabani na abe nezandla kuyo. Inkomfa noonondaba yayicwangciselwe umhla wama-30 kuJuni, 1948, kanye ngexesha elifanelekileyo ukuze kupheliswe amaphupha kaWelker noMathare obungafi. Ngeli xesha, iqela lophando lwe-semiconductor lithe cwaka lawa. Emva kokuva ngezinto eziphunyezwe nguBardeen noBrattain, umphathi wabo, uBill Shockley, waqalisa ukusebenza ukuze azithathele lonke uzuko. Kwaye nangona wadlala indima yokuqwalasela kuphela, u-Shockley wafumana ukupapashwa okulinganayo, ukuba akukho ngaphezulu, kupapasho lukawonke-wonke-njengoko kubonisiwe kulo mfanekiso wakhe ukhutshiweyo ebunzimeni besenzo, kanye ecaleni kwebhentshi yaselebhu:
Ngo-1948 ifoto yopapasho-uBardeen, uShockley noBrattain
Nangona kunjalo, udumo olulinganayo lwalunganelanga kuShockley. Kwaye ngaphambi kokuba nabani na ongaphandle kweBell Labs azi malunga ne-transistor, wayexakeke ngokuyiqambela eyakhe. Kwaye esi yayisisihlandlo sokuqala kuphela kwizinto ezininzi ezihlaziyiweyo.
Yintoni enye ekufuneka uyifunde
- URobert Buderi, Imveliso eyatshintsha ihlabathi (1996)
- UMichael Riordan, "Indlela iYurophu Iphose ngayo iTransistor," IEEE Spectrum (Nov. 1, 2005)
- UMichael Riordan kunye noLillian Hoddeson, iCrystal Fire (1997)
- UArmand Van Dormael, "UmFrentshi" Transistor, (1994)
umthombo: www.habr.com