Ndicebisa ukuba ufunde okubhaliweyo kwengxelo yokuqala ka-2020 nguGeorgy Rylov "WAL-G: amathuba amatsha kunye nokwandiswa koluntu"
Abagcini bemithombo evulekileyo bajongene nemingeni emininzi njengoko bekhula. Ungabhala njani ngakumbi nangakumbi iimpawu ezifunekayo, ukulungisa imiba emininzi ngakumbi kwaye ulawule ukujonga ngakumbi nangakumbi izicelo zokutsala? Ukusebenzisa i-WAL-G (i-backup-tool ye-PostgreSQL) njengomzekelo, ndiya kukuxelela indlela esizisombulule ngayo ezi ngxaki ngokuqalisa ikhosi kwi-Open-source development kwiyunivesiti, into esiyifumeneyo kunye nalapho siya kuhamba khona ngokulandelayo.
Molweni kwakhona nonke! Ndingumphuhlisi weYandex ovela eYekaterinburg. Kwaye namhlanje ndiza kuthetha nge-WAL-G.
Isihloko sengxelo asizange sichaze ukuba yinto malunga ne-backups. Ngaba ukho umntu owaziyo ukuba yintoni i-WAL-G? Okanye ngaba wonke umntu uyazi? Phakamisa isandla sakho ukuba awazi. I-shit engcwele, uze kwingxelo kwaye awuyazi ukuba yintoni na.
Makhe ndikuxelele okuza kwenzeka namhlanje. Kuyenzeka ukuba iqela lethu lisenza i-backups ixesha elide. Kwaye le yenye ingxelo kuthotho apho sithetha malunga nendlela esigcina ngayo idatha ngokukhuselekileyo, ngokukhuselekileyo, ngokufanelekileyo nangokufanelekileyo.
Kuthotho lwangaphambili bekukho iingxelo ezininzi zikaAndrei Borodin noVladimir Leskov. Sasibaninzi. Kwaye besithetha nge-WAL-G iminyaka emininzi.
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Le ngxelo iza kwahluka kancinci kwezinye kuba ibimalunga necandelo lobuchwephesha, kodwa apha ndiza kuthetha ngendlela esiye sadibana ngayo neengxaki ezinxulumene nokukhula koluntu. Nendlela esize ngayo nombono omncinci osincedayo ukumelana noku.
Kwiminyaka embalwa edlulileyo, i-WAL-G yayiyiprojekthi encinci ngokwaneleyo esiyifumene kwiCitus Data. Kwaye sayithatha nje. Kwaye yaphuhliswa ngumntu omnye.
Kwaye ngu-WAL-G kuphela owayengenayo:
- Ugcino olusuka kwikopi.
- Bekungekho zigcisa zongezwayo.
- Bekungekho zigcino ze-WAL-Delta.
- Kwaye kwakusekho into eninzi engekhoyo.
Kule minyaka imbalwa, i-WAL-G ikhule kakhulu.
Kwaye ngo-2020, zonke ezi zingentla sele zivele. Kwaye kongezwa kule nto sinayo ngoku:
- Ngaphezulu kwe-1 leenkwenkwezi kwi-GitHub.
- 150 iifolokhwe.
- Malunga ne-15 evulekileyo ye-PRs.
- Kwaye abaninzi ngakumbi abanegalelo.
- Kwaye imiba evulekileyo ngalo lonke ixesha. Kwaye oku nangona sihamba ngokoqobo yonke imihla kwaye senze into malunga nayo.
Kwaye safikelela kwisigqibo sokuba le projekthi ifuna ngakumbi ingqalelo yethu, nangona thina ngokwethu akudingeki ukuba siphumeze nantoni na kwinkonzo yethu yeDatha yeDatha kwiYandex.
Kwaye kwindawo ethile ekwindla ka-2018, ingcamango yafika ezingqondweni zethu. Ngokwesiqhelo iqela lineendlela ezininzi zokuphuhlisa ezinye iimpawu okanye ukulungisa iziphene ukuba awunazo izandla zaneleyo. Umzekelo, unokuqesha omnye umthuthukisi kwaye umhlawule imali. Okanye unokuthatha umntu oqeqeshelwa umsebenzi okwethutyana kwaye umhlawule umvuzo othile. Kodwa kusekho iqela elikhulu labantu, abanye babo sele beyazi ngokwenene ukubhala ikhowudi. Awusoloko uyazi ukuba yintoni umgangatho ikhowudi.
Sacinga ngayo saza sagqiba kwelokuba sizame ukutsala abafundi. Kodwa abafundi abayi kuthatha inxaxheba kuyo yonke into kunye nathi. Baya kwenza inxalenye ethile yomsebenzi kuphela. Kwaye baya, umzekelo, ukubhala iimvavanyo, ukulungisa iziphene, ukuphumeza iimpawu ezingachaphazeli umsebenzi oyintloko. Umsebenzi ophambili kukwenza ii-backups kunye nokubuyisela ii-backups. Ukuba senza impazamo ekudaleni i-backup, siya kuba nelahleko yedatha. Kwaye akukho mntu ufuna oku, kunjalo. Wonke umntu ufuna ukuba yonke into ikhuseleke kakhulu. Ke ngoko, ewe, asifuni kuvumela ikhowudi esiyithembayo ngaphantsi kweyethu. Oko kukuthi, nayiphi na ikhowudi engabalulekanga yinto esingathanda ukuyifumana kubasebenzi bethu abongezelelweyo.
Kuphantsi kwaziphi iimeko apho umfundi PR wamkelwa?
- Kufuneka bavale ikhowudi yabo ngeemvavanyo. Yonke into kufuneka yenzeke kwiCI.
- Kwaye siphinde sihambe ngophononongo olu-2. Omnye nguAndrey Borodin kunye nomnye ngam.
- Kwaye ukongeza, ukujonga ukuba oku akuyi kwaphula nantoni na enkonzweni yethu, ndilayisha ngokwahlukeneyo indibano ngesi sibophelelo. Kwaye sijonga kwiimvavanyo zokuphela-to-ekupheleni ukuba akukho nto ingaphumeleliyo.
Ikhosi eyodwa kwi-Open Source
Kancinci malunga nokuba kutheni le nto ifuneka kwaye kutheni le nto ibonakala kum, ingumbono opholileyo.
Kithina, inzuzo iyabonakala:
- Sifumana izandla ezongezelelweyo.
- Kwaye sijonge abaviwa kwiqela phakathi kwabafundi abakrelekrele ababhala ikhowudi ehlakaniphile.
Iyintoni inzuzo kubafundi?
Basenokungabonakali, kuba abafundi, ubuncinci, abafumani imali kwikhowudi abayibhalayo, kodwa bafumana amabakala kuphela kwiirekhodi zabo zabafundi.
Ndababuza ngalento. Kwaye ngamazwi abo:
- Amava omnikeli kuMthombo oVulekileyo.
- Fumana umgca kwiCV yakho.
- Zibonakalise kwaye uphumelele udliwano-ndlebe kwiYandex.
- Yiba lilungu le-GSoC.
- +1 ikhosi ekhethekileyo kwabo bafuna ukubhala ikhowudi.
Andiyi kuthetha ngendlela eyakhiwe ngayo ikhosi. Ndiza kuthi i-WAL-G yayiyeyona projekthi iphambili. Siphinde sabandakanya iiprojekthi ezifana ne-Odyssey, i-PostgreSQL kunye ne-ClickHouse kule khosi.
Kwaye abazange banike iingxaki kuphela kule khosi, kodwa banikezela iidiploma kunye nezifundo.
Kuthekani ngenzuzo kubasebenzisi?
Ngoku masiqhubele phambili siye kweyona ndawo unomdla kuyo. Ikunceda ngantoni lento? Inqaku lelokuba abafundi balungise iibhugi ezininzi. Kwaye senze iimpawu zesicelo osicele ukuba sizenze.
Kwaye mandikuxelele ngezinto ekudala uzifuna kwaye eziye zazaliseka.
Inkxaso yeendawo zetafile. Iindawo zetafile kwi-WAL-G zilindeleke mhlawumbi ukususela ekukhululweni kwe-WAL-G, kuba i-WAL-G ilandela esinye isixhobo sokugcina i-WAL-E, apho i-database egciniweyo eneendawo zetafile zixhaswa.
Makhe ndikukhumbuze ngokufutshane ukuba yintoni kwaye kutheni iyimfuneko yonke. Ngokuqhelekileyo, yonke idatha yakho yePostgres ithatha ulawulo olunye kwindlela yefayile, ebizwa ngokuba sisiseko. Kwaye olu lawulo sele luqulathe zonke iifayile kunye ne-subdirectories ezifunwa yi-Postgres.
Izithuba zeetheyibhile zizalathisi eziqulathe idatha yePostgres, kodwa azikho ngaphandle koluhlu lwesiseko. Isilayidi sibonisa ukuba i-tablespacs ibekwe ngaphandle kovimba wesiseko.
Ingaba oku kujongeka njani kwiPostgres ngokwayo? Kukho uvimba weefayili owahlukileyo pg_tblspc kuluhlu lwesiseko. Kwaye iqulethe ii-symlink kubalawuli abaqulathe idatha yePostgres ngaphandle kwesiseko solawulo.
Xa usebenzisa konke oku, ke kuwe le miyalelo inokujongeka ngolu hlobo. Oko kukuthi, wenza itafile kwindawo ethile yetafile kwaye ubone ukuba iphi ngoku. Le yimigca emibini yokugqibela, imiyalelo emibini yokugqibela ebizwa. Kwaye apho kucacile ukuba kukho indlela ethile. Kodwa enyanisweni, le asiyondlela yokwenyani. Lo ngumendo omiselweyo ukusuka kulawulo olusisiseko ukuya kwindawo yetafile. Kwaye ukusuka apho ihambelana ne-symlink ekhokelela kwidatha yakho yokwenyani.
Asiyisebenzisi yonke le nto kwiqela lethu, kodwa isetyenziswe ngabanye abasebenzisi abaninzi be-WAL-E abasibhalela ukuba bafuna ukufudukela kwi-WAL-G, kodwa oku kwabamisa. Oku kuyaxhaswa ngoku.
Enye inkalo esiziswe yikhosi yethu ekhethekileyo kukuhamba kakuhle. Abantu ekusenokwenzeka ukuba basebenze ngakumbi nge-Oracle kunePostgres bayazi malunga nokubamba.
Ngokufutshane malunga nokuba yintoni. Itopology yeqela kwinkonzo yethu inokujongeka ngolu hlobo. Sinenkosi. Kukho i-replica ehambisa ilog yokubhala phambili ukusuka kuyo. Kwaye ikopi ixelela inkosi ukuba yeyiphi i-LSN ekhoyo ngoku. Kwaye kwindawo ethile ngokuhambelana nale nto, ilogi ingagcinwa. Kwaye ukongeza kugcino lwelogi, ii-backups zikwathunyelwa efini. Kwaye i-delta backups ithunyelwe.
Inokuba yintoni ingxaki? Xa unesiseko sedatha esikhulu ngokwaneleyo, kunokuvela ukuba ikopi yakho iqala ukushiyeka emva kwenkosi. Kwaye usemva kakhulu kangangokuba akanakuze amfumane. Le ngxaki idla ngokufuna ukusonjululwa ngandlelβ ithile.
Kwaye eyona ndlela ilula kukukhupha i-replica kwaye uphinde uyilayishe kwakhona, kuba ayiyi kuphinda ibambe, kwaye ingxaki kufuneka ijongwe. Kodwa eli lixesha elide kakhulu, kuba ukubuyisela yonke i-10 TB yogcino lwedatha lixesha elide kakhulu. Kwaye sifuna ukwenza konke oku ngokukhawuleza kangangoko ukuba iingxaki ezinjalo zivela. Kwaye yiloo nto kanye i-catchup yenzelwe.
I-Catchup ikuvumela ukuba usebenzise i-delta backups, ezigcinwe efini ngale ndlela. Utsho ukuba yeyiphi i-LSN i-replica exegayo ekhoyo ngoku kwaye uyichaze kumyalelo wokubambisa ukuze wenze ugcino lwe-delta phakathi kwe-LSN kunye ne-LSN apho iqela lakho likhona ngoku. Kwaye emva koko ubuyisela olu gcino kwi-replica ebisele ngasemva.
Ezinye iziseko
Abafundi nabo basiphathele izinto ezininzi ngexesha elinye. Ekubeni kwi-Yandex asipheki kuphela i-Postgres, sinayo i-MySQL, i-MongoDB, i-Redis, i-ClickHouse, ngexesha elithile sasidinga ukukwazi ukwenza i-backups nge-point-in-time recovery ye-MySQL, kwaye ukuze kubekho ithuba lokulayisha. baye efini.
Kwaye besifuna ukuyenza ngendlela efanayo nale yenziwa yi-WAL-G. Kwaye sagqiba ekubeni sizame kwaye sibone ukuba kuya kujongeka njani konke.
Kwaye ekuqaleni, ngaphandle kokwabelana ngale ngqiqo nangayiphi na indlela, babhala ikhowudi kwifolokhwe. Babona ukuba sinohlobo oluthile lwemodeli yokusebenza kwaye inokubhabha. Emva koko sacinga ukuba uluntu lwethu oluphambili ngabapostgresists, basebenzisa i-WAL-G. Kwaye ke ngoko kufuneka sahlule la malungu ngandlel' ithile. Oko kukuthi, xa sihlela ikhowudi ye-Postgres, asaphuli i-MySQL; xa sihlela i-MySQL, asaphuli i-Postgres.
Ingcamango yokuqala malunga nendlela yokwahlula oku yayiyingcamango yokusebenzisa indlela efanayo esetyenziswa kwizandiso zePostgreSQL. Kwaye, eneneni, ukwenza i-MySQL backup kufuneka ufake uhlobo oluthile lwethala leencwadi eliguqukayo.
Kodwa apha i-asymmetry yale ndlela ibonakala ngokukhawuleza. Xa ugcina i-Postgres, ubeka i-backup eqhelekileyo ye-Postgres kuyo kwaye yonke into ilungile. Kwaye kwi-MySQL kuye kwavela ukuba ufaka i-backup ye-Postgres kwaye ufake ilayibrari eguqukayo ye-MySQL yayo. Ivakala ingaqhelekanga. Nathi sacinga njalo saza sagqiba kwelokuba eso yayisisisombululo esisidingayo.
Ulwakhiwo olwahlukeneyo lwePostgres, MySQL, MongoDB, Redis
Kodwa oku kwasivumela, kubonakala ngathi, ukuba sifike kwisigqibo esifanelekileyo - ukwaba iindibano ezahlukeneyo kwiziseko ezahlukeneyo. Oku kwenze ukuba kube nokwenzeka ukwahlula ingqiqo ebotshelelwe kwii-backups zedatabase ezahlukeneyo eziza kufikelela kwi-API eqhelekileyo ephunyezwa yi-WAL-G.
Eli licandelo esilibhale ngokwethu - phambi kokunika abafundi iingxaki. Oko kukuthi, le nxalenye kanye apho banokwenza khona into engalunganga, ngoko sigqibe ekubeni kungcono senze into enje kwaye yonke into iya kulunga.
Emva koko siye sakhupha iingxaki. Zakhutshwa ngoko nangoko. Abafundi bacelwa ukuba baxhase iziseko ezithathu.
Le yiMySQL, ebesiyixhasa ngokusebenzisa i-WAL-G ngale ndlela ngaphezu konyaka.
Kwaye ngoku i-MongoDB isondela kwimveliso, apho bayigqiba ngefayile. Enyanisweni, sibhale isakhelo sayo yonke le nto. Emva koko abafundi babhala izinto ezinokusetyenzwa. Kwaye ke sibazisa kwimeko esinokuyamkela kwimveliso.
Ezi ngxaki azikhange zibukeke ngathi abafundi kufuneka babhale izixhobo ezipheleleyo zogcino lwedatha nganye kwezi nkcukacha. Khange sibenayo ingxaki enjalo. Ingxaki yethu yayikukuba sifuna ukuphinda sibuyelwe lixesha kwaye sifuna ukugcina ibackup efini. Kwaye bacela abafundi ukuba babhale ikhowudi eya kusombulula oku. Abafundi basebenzise izixhobo zogcino esele zikhona, ezithi ngandlelβ ithile zithathe ii-backups, ze emva koko zincamathelise zonke kunye ne-WAL-G, ethe yazithumela zonke efini. Kwaye bongeze kwakhona ukubuyiswa kwexesha-ngexesha kule nto.
Yintoni enye abaze nayo abafundi? Bazise inkxaso yeLibsodium encryption kwi-WAL-G.
Sikwanazo nemigaqo-nkqubo yokugcina. Ngoku ii-backups zinokuphawulwa njengezisisigxina. Kwaye ngandlela ithile kulungele ngakumbi ukuba inkonzo yakho izenzele inkqubo yokuzigcina.
Waba yintoni umphumo wolu vavanyo?
Bangaphezu kwe-100 abantu ababhalisele le khosi ekuqaleni. Ekuqaleni andizange ndithi eyunivesithi eYekaterinburg - Ural Federal University. Sabhengeza yonke into apho. 100 abantu ababhalisiweyo. Enyanisweni, bambalwa kakhulu abantu abaqala ukwenza into, malunga nama-30 abantu.
Bambalwa abantu abagqibe ikhosi, kuba bekuyimfuneko ukubhala iimvavanyo zeekhowudi esele zikhona. Kwaye ulungise ibug okanye wenze uphawu oluthile. Kwaye abanye abafundi basavala ikhosi.
Okwangoku, ngeli xesha lekhosi, abafundi balungise imiba eli-14 kwaye benza iimpawu ezili-10 ezinobukhulu obahlukeneyo. Kwaye, kubonakala kum, olu lutshintsho olupheleleyo lophuhlisi omnye okanye ababini.
Phakathi kwezinye izinto, sakhupha iidiploma nomsebenzi wezifundo. Kwaye abali-12 bafumana iidiploma. Aba-6 kubo sele bezikhusele ku-"5". Abo baseleyo babengekafumani khuseleko, kodwa ndicinga ukuba yonke into iya kubalungela nabo.
Izicwangciso zekamva
Ziziphi izicwangciso esinazo ngekamva?
Ubuncinci ezo zicelo zenqaku esele sizivile kubasebenzisi kwaye sifuna ukuzenza. Oku:
- Ukubeka esweni ukuchaneka kokulandelela ixesha kwindawo yokugcina yeqela leHA. Ungakwenza oku nge-WAL-G. Kwaye ndicinga ukuba siya kuba nabafundi abaza kuwuthatha lo mbandela.
- Sele sinomntu onoxanduva lokudlulisa ii-backups kunye ne-WAL phakathi kwamafu.
- Kwaye kutshanje sipapashe imbono yokuba sinokuyikhawulezisa i-WAL-G nangakumbi ngokukhupha ii-backups ezongeziweyo ngaphandle kokubhala kwakhona amaphepha kunye nokuphucula oovimba esibathumela apho.
Ungabelana ngazo apha
Yayisenzela ntoni le ngxelo? Ngaphezu koko, ngoku, ukongeza kubantu aba-4 abaxhasa le projekthi, sinezandla ezongezelelweyo, apho zininzi kakhulu. Ngokukodwa ukuba ubabhalela kumyalezo wobuqu. Kwaye ukuba ugcina idatha yakho kwaye uyenze usebenzisa i-WAL-G okanye ungathanda ukuya kwi-WAL-G, ngoko sinokuyivumela ngokulula iminqweno yakho.
Le yikhowudi yeQR kunye nekhonkco. Ungahamba kuzo kwaye ubhale yonke iminqweno yakho. Umzekelo, asilungisi ibug. Okanye ngenene ufuna into ethile, kodwa ngesizathu esithile ayikabikho kulo naluphi na ugcino, kuquka neyethu. Qinisekisa ukubhala malunga noku.
Imibuzo yakho
Mholo! Enkosi ngengxelo! Umbuzo malunga ne-WAL-G, kodwa hayi malunga nePostgres. I-WAL-G igcina i-MySQL kwaye ibiza i-backup eyongezelelweyo. Ukuba sithatha ufakelo lwangoku kwi-CentOS kwaye ukuba wenza i-yum yokufaka i-MySQL, i-MariDB iya kufakwa. Ukusuka kwinguqulo ye-10.3 eyongezelelweyo yokugcina i-backup ayixhaswanga, i-backup ye-MariDB iyaxhaswa. Uqhuba njani ngalento?
Okwangoku asizamanga ukugcina iMariDB. Siye saba nezicelo zenkxaso ye-FoundationDB, kodwa ngokubanzi, ukuba kukho isicelo esinjalo, ngoko sinokufumana abantu abaya kuyenza. Ayinde okanye inzima njengoko ndicinga.
Mholo Enkosi ngengxelo! Umbuzo malunga nezinto ezintsha ezinokubakho. Ngaba ukulungele ukwenza i-WAL-G isebenze ngeeteyiphu ukuze ukwazi ukugcina iikhasethi?
Ugcino kwiteyiphu yokugcina ngokucacileyo kuthetha?
Ewe.
Kukho u-Andrei Borodin, onokuphendula lo mbuzo kangcono kunam.
(Andrey) Ewe, enkosi ngombuzo! Sasinesicelo sokudlulisa i-backup kwi-tape kwisitoreji samafu. Kwaye oku ukudluliselwa phakathi kwamafu. Ngenxa yokuba ukuhanjiswa kwelifu ukuya kwilifu yinguqulelo eqhelekileyo yokuhanjiswa kweteyiphu. Ukongeza, sinoyilo olwandisiweyo ngokwemiqathango yoGcino. Ngendlela, ezininzi zeStoroges zabhalwa ngabafundi. Kwaye ukuba ubhala Ukugcinwa kwiteyiphu, ngoko ke, ngokuqinisekileyo, iya kuxhaswa. Sikulungele ukuqwalasela izicelo zotsalo. Apho kufuneka ubhale ifayile, ufunde ifayile. Ukuba wenza ezi zinto kwi-Go, udla ngokuphela ngemigca engama-50 yekhowudi. Kwaye ke tape iya kuxhaswa kwi-WAL-G.
Enkosi ngengxelo! Inkqubo yophuhliso enomdla. Ugcino liqhekeza elinzulu lomsebenzi ekufuneka ligutyungelwe kakuhle luvavanyo. Xa uphumeza ukusebenza kumaziko edatha amatsha, ngaba abafundi nabo bazibhala iimvavanyo, okanye uzibhale ngokwakho ezo mvavanyo emva koko uphumeze abafundi?
Abafundi nabo babhala iimvavanyo. Kodwa abafundi babhale ngakumbi kwiimpawu ezinje ngoovimba beenkcukacha ezintsha. Babhala iimvavanyo zokudibanisa. Kwaye babhala iimvavanyo zeyunithi. Ukuba udibaniso luyadlula, oko kukuthi, okwangoku, esi siskripthi osenzayo ngesandla okanye une-cron uyenza, umzekelo. Oko kukuthi, iskripthi apho sicace kakhulu.
Abafundi abanamava angako. Ngaba ukuphonononga kuthatha ixesha elininzi?
Ewe, uphononongo luthatha ixesha elininzi kakhulu. Oko kukuthi, ngokuqhelekileyo, xa abajikijeli abaninzi beza ngaxeshanye bathi ndikwenzile oku, ndiyenzile le nto, kufuneka ucinge kwaye ubeke bucala malunga nesiqingatha sosuku ukufumanisa ukuba babhale ntoni apho. Kuba ikhowudi kufuneka ifundwe ngononophelo. Abazange babe nodliwano-ndlebe. Asibazi kakuhle, ngoko ke kuthatha ixesha elininzi.
Enkosi ngengxelo! Ngaphambili, u-Andrey Borodin wathi i-archive_command kwi-WAL-G kufuneka ibizwe ngokuthe ngqo. Kodwa kwimeko yolunye uhlobo lwekhatriji yeqela, sifuna ingqiqo eyongezelelweyo ukumisela indawo ekuza kuthunyelwa kuyo i-shafts. Uyisombulula njani le ngxaki ngokwakho?
Yintoni ingxaki yakho apha? Masithi une-synchronous replica owenza ngayo ugcino? Okanye yintoni?
(Andrey) Inyani yeyokuba ngenene i-WAL-G yenzelwe ukusetyenziswa ngaphandle kwemibhalo yeqokobhe. Ukuba kukho into engekhoyo, ngoko masidibanise ingqiqo ekufuneka ibe ngaphakathi kwe-WAL-G. Ngokuphathelele apho ugcino lweenkcukacha ezibalulekileyo kufuneka luvele phi, sikholelwa ukuba ugcino lweenkcukacha kufuneka luphume kumphathi wangoku kwiqela. Ukugcina ugcino olusuka kwikopi luluvo olubi. Kukho iimeko ezahlukeneyo ezinokubakho ngeengxaki. Ngokukodwa, iingxaki ngogcino lwamaxesha kunye naluphi na ulwazi olongezelelweyo. Enkosi ngombuzo!
(Ingcaciso: Sizishiyile izikripthi zeqokobhe )
Mholo ngokuhlwa nje! Enkosi ngengxelo! Ndinomdla kuphawu lokubamba othethe ngalo. Sasijongene nemeko apho i-replica yayisemva kwaye ingakwazi ukubamba. Kwaye andizange ndifumane inkcazelo yeli nqaku kumaxwebhu e-WAL-G.
I-Catchup ivele ngokwenyani nge-20 kaJanuwari ka-2020. Amaxwebhu angafuna umsebenzi othe chatha. Sizibhalela ngokwethu kwaye asiyibhali kakuhle kakhulu. Kwaye mhlawumbi kufuneka siqalise ukufuna abafundi ukuba bayibhale.
Ngaba sele ikhululiwe?
Isicelo sokutsala sele sifile, oko kukuthi ndisijongile. Ndizame oku kwiqela lovavanyo. Ukuza kuthi ga ngoku asikabi nayo imeko apho sinokukuvavanya oku kumzekelo wokulwa.
Silindele nini?
Andaz. Yima inyanga, siza kujonga ngokuqinisekileyo.
umthombo: www.habr.com