Molo %igama lomsebenzisi.
Sivuyisana nawe: kwaye ndisaqhubeka ndityhefa ingqondo yakho ngolwazi malunga neentlobo ezininzi zeetyhefu - ezinamandla kwaye azinamandla kangako.
Namhlanje siza kuthetha ngesihloko esithi, njengoko kuvela, sinomdla kuninzi - oku sele kucacile, ngakumbi ekubeni umququzeleli wokhuphiswano wasusa umqhubi osondeleyo wokungahambelani nemigangatho ye-WADA. Ewe, njengesiqhelo, emva kwesicatshulwa kuya kubakho ivoti malunga nokuba kufanelekile ukuqhubeka kwaye yintoni omele uqhubeke ngayo.
Khumbula, %igama lomsebenzisi%, ngoku nguwe kuphela ogqibayo ukuba ndingaqhubeka nokubalisa amabali anje kwaye nokubalisa ngantoni - oku kukureyithwa kwenqaku kunye nelizwi lakho.
Ngoko...
"Imvula etyheli"
Imvula etyheli ibetha eluphahleni,
Kwi-asphalt nakumagqabi,
Ndime ngeraincoat yam ndimanziswa lilize.
-Chizh kunye neCo.
Ibali "lemvula etyheli" libali lokusilela okukhulu. Igama elithi "imvula emthubi" lavela kwiziganeko zaseLaos nakuMntla weVietnam ezaqala ngo-1975, xa oorhulumente ababini ababemanyene nabaxhasa iSoviet Union balwa nabavukeli baseHmong kunye neKhmer Rouge ababesecaleni kweUnited States. Into ehlekisayo kukuba i-Khmer Rouge ikakhulu iqeqeshwe eFransi naseCambodia, kwaye intshukumo yazaliswa ngabakwishumi elivisayo abaneminyaka eyi-12-15, ababephulukene nabazali babo kwaye babathiya abantu basezidolophini "njengabadibanisi baseMelika." Iingcamango zabo zazisekelwe kubuMao, ukugatywa kwayo yonke into yaseNtshona neyanamhlanje. Ewe, %username%, ngo-1975 ukuphunyezwa kwedemokhrasi akwahlukanga kunanamhlanje.
Ngenxa yoko, ngowe-1982, uSosiba weLizwe waseUnited States uAlexander Haig watyhola iSoviet Union ngokunika ityhefu ethile kumazwe angamaKomanisi aseVietnam, eLaos naseKhambodiya ukuze isetyenziswe ekulweni novukelo. Ngokucacileyo, iimbacu zichaze iziganeko ezininzi zokuhlaselwa kweekhemikhali, kubandakanywa ulwelo oluncangathi oluphuzi oluwa kwiinqwelomoya okanye kwiinqwelomoya, ezazibizwa ngokuba "yimvula ephuzi."
"Imvula etyheli" yayithathwa njengetyhefu ye-T-2 - i-trichothecene mycotoxin eveliswa yi-metabolism yetyhefu evela kumngundo we-Fusarium, eyityhefu kakhulu kwizinto eziphilayo ze-eukaryotic - oko kukuthi, yonke into ngaphandle kwebhaktheriya, iintsholongwane kunye ne-archaea. ungakhubeki xa bakubiza ngokuba yi-eukaryote!) . Le toxin ibangela i-lymphatic toxic agranulocytosis kunye neempawu ezininzi zomonakalo welungu xa idibana nolusu, imiphunga, okanye isisu. Izilwanyana nazo zinokuba netyhefu ngexesha elifanayo (ebizwa ngokuba yi-T-2 toxicosis).
Nantsi i-T-2 entle
Ibali lavuthelwa ngokukhawuleza kwaye i-T-2 i-toxins yahlelwa njengee-arhente zebhayoloji ezavunywa ngokusemthethweni njengezikwaziyo ukusetyenziswa njengezixhobo zebhayoloji.
Incwadi yowe-1997 eyakhutshwa liSebe Lezonyango Lomkhosi waseUnited States yathi abantu abangaphezu kwamawaka alishumi babulawa kuhlaselo lwezixhobo zemichiza eLaos, eKhambodiya naseAfghanistan. Iinkcazo zohlaselo zahluka kwaye ziquka iinkonkxa ze-aerosol kunye ne-aerosols, i-booby trap, i-artillery shells, iirokethi kunye ne-grenade ezivelisa amathontsi olwelo, uthuli, umgubo, umsi okanye "i-bug-like" izinto ezazimthubi, zibomvu, ziluhlaza, zimhlophe okanye ziBrown. umbala.
I-Soviets yaphika amabango ase-US, kwaye uphando lokuqala lweZizwe eziManyeneyo aluzange lugqibe. Ngokukodwa, iingcali ze-UN zivavanye iimbacu ezimbini ezithi zithwaxwa yimpembelelo yokuhlaselwa kweekhemikhali, kodwa endaweni yoko zafunyaniswa ukuba zinesifo solusu lomngundo.
Ngo-1983, isazinzulu sebhayoloji saseHarvard kunye neqela elichasayo uMatthew Meselson kunye neqela lakhe baya eLaos kwaye benza uphando olwahlukileyo. Iqela likaMeselson liqaphele ukuba i-trichothecene mycotoxins yenzeka ngokwemvelo kummandla kwaye yabuza ubungqina. Beza nenye ingqikelelo: yokuba imvula emthubi yayilindle lenyosi elingenabungozi. Iqela likaMeselson linike oku kulandelayo njengobungqina:
“Amathontsi emvula atyheli” akwanti afunyanwa emagqabini kwaye “ayemkelwe njengawokwenene” ayebandakanya ubukhulu becala umungu. Ithontsi ngalinye liqulethe umxube ohlukeneyo wembewu ye-pollen-njengoko bekuya kulindeleka ukuba bavela kwiinyosi ezahlukeneyo-kwaye iinkozo zibonise iimpawu ze-pollen egayiweyo (iprotheni ngaphakathi kwe-pollen grain yayiphelile, kodwa igobolondo elingaphandle, elingenakudliwa lihlala) . Ukongeza, umxube we-pollen uvela kwiintlobo zezityalo eziqhelekileyo zendawo apho amathontsi aqokelelwa khona.
Urhulumente wase-US wacaphuka kakhulu, wacaphuka, waza wasabela kwezi ziphumo, ebanga ukuba i-pollen yongezwa ngenjongo yokwenza into enokuthi ifakwe ngokulula kwaye "ukuqinisekisa ukugcinwa kwee-toxins emzimbeni womntu." UMeselson waphendula kule ngcamango ngokuthi kwakukude ukucinga ukuba umntu uya kuvelisa izixhobo zekhemikhali "ngokuvuna i-pollen egaywe iinyosi." Inyaniso yokuba i-pollen yavela kuMzantsi-mpuma we-Asia yayithetha ukuba i-Soviet Union ayinakukwazi ukuvelisa i-substance ngaphakathi kwaye kuya kufuneka ingenise iitoni ze-pollen evela eVietnam (kwiingqayi ze-Star Balm, ngokucacileyo? Kufuneka inike uMeselson ingcebiso!) . Umsebenzi kaMeselson wachazwa kuhlaziyo oluzimeleyo lwezonyango “njengobungqina obubambekayo bokuba imvula ephuzi inokuba nenkcazo eqhelekileyo yendalo.”
Emva kokuba i-hypothesis yeenyosi yenziwe esidlangalaleni, inqaku langaphambili laseTshayina malunga ne-yellow droppings phenomenon kwiPhondo laseJiangsu ngoSeptemba 1976 ngokukhawuleza (njengesiqhelo) kwakhona. Okumangalisayo kukuba, amaTshayina aphinda asebenzisa igama elithi “imvula emthubi” ukuchaza le nto (yaye athethe ngobutyebi bolwimi lwesiTshayina!). Abemi abaninzi belali babekholelwa ukuba iingqatha ezityheli zisisigidimi senyikima ezayo. Abanye bakholelwa ukuba inkunkuma yayizizixhobo zeekhemikhali ezitshizwe yiSoviet Union okanye iTaiwan. Nangona kunjalo, izazinzulu zaseTshayina zagqiba kwelokuba ilindle liphuma kwiinyosi.
Uvavanyo lweesampulu ezikrokrelekayo zemvula etyheli ngurhulumente wase-Bhritane, wase-French kunye no-Swedish ziqinisekisile ubukho be-pollen kwaye basilela ukuqaphela nayiphi na i-mycotoxins. Uphononongo lweToxicology luthandabuze ukuthembeka kweengxelo zokuba i-mycotoxins yabhaqwa kumaxhoba arhanelekayo ukuya kuthi ga kwiinyanga ezimbini emva kokuba sesichengeni ngenxa yokuba ezi khompawundi azinzanga emzimbeni kwaye zisusiwe egazini kwiiyure nje ezimbalwa.
Ngo-1982, uMeselson watyelela inkampu yeembacu yaseHmong enesampulu zenkunkuma yeenyosi awayeziqokelele eThailand. Uninzi lwamaHmong ekwadliwan' indlebe nawo lathi ezi yayiziisampuli zezixhobo zemichiza abahlaselwa ngazo. Enye indoda yazichaza ngokuchanileyo njengenkunkuma yezinambuzane, kodwa emva kokuba umhlobo wayo eyibeke ecaleni waza wathetha okuthile, yatshintshela kwibali lezixhobo zemichiza.
Isazinzulu somkhosi waseOstreliya uRod Barton watyelela eThailand ngo-1984 waza wafumanisa ukuba abantu baseThailand batyhola imvula emthubi ngenxa yezifo ezahlukahlukeneyo, kuquka ukhwekhwe, njengoko “oogqirha baseMerika eBangkok banikela ingxelo yokuba iUnited States ithatha umdla okhethekileyo kwimvula emthubi kwaye ibonelela ngonyango lwasimahla. uncedo kubo bonke amaxhoba.
Ngo-1987, i-New York Times yavelisa inqaku elichaza indlela izifundo zentsimi eziqhutywe ngo-1983-85 ngamaqela karhulumente wase-US azange zinike ubungqina bokuxhasa amabango okuqala malunga nesixhobo sekhemikhali "yemvula etyheli", kodwa endaweni yoko sathandabuza ukuthembeka kweengxelo zokuqala. Ngelishwa, kwilizwe ledemokhrasi eyoyisayo kunye nenkululeko engazange iviwe, eli nqaku lahlolwa kwaye alivunyelwanga ukuba lipapashwe. Ngo-1989, iJenali ye-American Medical Association yapapasha uhlalutyo lweengxelo zokuqala eziqokelelwe kwiimbacu zaseHmong, eziye zaphawula "ukungahambelani okubonakalayo okujongela phantsi kakhulu ukuthembeka kobungqina": Iqela lomkhosi wase-US ladlan'indlebe kuphela nabo bantu bathi banolwazi lobungqina. ukuhlaselwa ngokusetyenziswa kwezixhobo zeekhemikhali, abaphandi babuza imibuzo ekhokelayo kuphela ngexesha lokuncinwa, njl. Ababhali baphawula ukuba amabali abantu aye atshintsha ngokuhamba kwexesha, ayengavisisani nezinye iingxelo, yaye abantu ababezibanga bengamangqina okuzibonela kamva bathi baye babalisa amabali abanye. Ngamafutshane, ukudideka kubungqina ngendlela ecocekileyo.
Ngendlela, kukho amaxesha amnandi kweli bali. Ingxelo yeCIA evela kwiminyaka yoo-1960s yabika amabango ngurhulumente waseCambodia ukuba imikhosi yabo yahlaselwa ngezixhobo zekhemikhali ezishiye ngasemva umgubo omthubi. Abantu baseCambodia batyhola iUnited States ngezityholo zohlaselo lwemichiza. Ezinye iisampulu zemvula emthubi ezaqokelelwa eKhambodiya ngo-1983 zavavanywa ukuba zine-CS, into eyayisetyenziswa yi-United States ngexesha leMfazwe yaseVietnam. I-CS luhlobo lwerhasi yokukrazula kwaye ayinayo ityhefu, kodwa inokuchaza ezinye zeempawu ezingenamandla ezixelwe ngabemi baseHmong.
Nangona kunjalo, bekukho ezinye iinyani: uhlolisiso lwesidumbu kumzimba womlwi we-Khmer Rouge ogama lingu-Chan Mann, ixhoba lokuhlaselwa kwemvula etyheli ngo-1982, wafumana umkhondo we-mycotoxins, kunye ne-aflatoxin, iBlackwater fever kunye nemalariya. Ibali lavuthelwa ngokukhawuleza yi-US njengobungqina bokusetyenziswa "kwemvula ephuzi", kodwa isizathu soku sabonakala silula: i-fungi evelisa i-mycotoxins ixhaphake kakhulu kwi-Asia-mpuma ye-Asia, kwaye ityhefu evela kubo ayiqhelekanga. . Umzekelo, ilabhoratri yomkhosi waseKhanada yafumanisa ii-mycotoxins egazini labantu abahlanu abasuka kwindawo abangazange bafumane imvula emthubi kuma-270 avavanyiweyo, kodwa ayifumananga i-mycotoxins kuwo nawaphi na alishumi ekurhaneleka ukuba angamaxhoba ohlaselo lwekhemikhali.
Ngoku iyaqondwa into yokuba ungcoliseko lwe-mycotoxin kwiimveliso ezifana nengqolowa kunye nombona yingxaki eqhelekileyo, ngakumbi kuMzantsi-mpuma Asia. Ukongezelela kubume bayo bemvelo, imfazwe nayo yayenza mandundu le meko, ekubeni iinkozo zaqalisa ukugcinwa kwiimeko ezingafanelekanga ukuze zingabanjwa ngamaqela alwayo.
Uninzi lweencwadi zenzululwazi ngesihloko ngoku luyayichasa ingcamango yokuba "imvula ephuzi" yayiyisixhobo sekhemikhali saseSoviet. Nangona kunjalo, umba uhleli unempikiswano kwaye urhulumente wase-US akakawarhoxisi la mabango. Ngendlela, amaxwebhu amaninzi ase-US aphathelele kwesi siganeko ahlala ehlelwe.
Ewe, ewe, umhlobo wam, uColin Powell wayesaqala umsebenzi wakhe ngaloo minyaka - kodwa ishishini lakhe laqhubeka, ke akukho nto inokuthi ithathelwe ingqalelo ukuba wayila into entsha - njengokuba kungekho sizathu sokukholelwa ukuba iUnited States. iza nohlobo oluthile lobuchwephesha obutsha bokulwela iimfuno zabo.
Ngendlela, ezinye iimeko zembali ze-hysteria "yemvula ephuzi".
- Isiqendu sokukhululwa kwepollen yeenyosi ngowama-2002 eSangrampur, eIndiya, saphakamisa uloyiko olungenasiseko lohlaselo lwezixhobo zekhemikhali, kanti enyanisweni lwalunxulunyaniswa nokufuduka kwenyambalala yeenyosi ezinkulu zaseAsia. Lo mnyhadala uvuselele iinkumbulo zento echazwa yiNew Scientist njenge "Cold War paranoia."
- Ngaphambi kokuhlasela kwe-Iraq ngo-2003, i-Wall Street Journal yathi uSaddam Hussein wayenesixhobo sekhemikhali esibizwa ngokuba "yimvula ephuzi." Ngapha koko, i-Iraqis ivavanye i-T-2 mycotoxins ngo-1990, kodwa yacoca kuphela i-20 ml yento evela kwiinkcubeko zokungunda. Nangona kunjalo, isigqibo esisebenzayo senziwe ukuba nangona i-T-2 inokufaneleka ukusetyenziswa njengesixhobo ngenxa yeempawu zayo ezinobuthi, ayisebenzi, kuba kunzima kakhulu ukuvelisa kwisikali semizi-mveliso.
- NgoMeyi 23, 2015, ngaphambi nje kweholide yelizwe ngoMeyi 24 (uSuku lweBulgarian Literature and Culture), imvula etyheli yawa eSofia, eBulgaria. Wonke umntu wakhawuleza wagqiba kwelokuba isizathu yayikukuba urhulumente waseBulgaria wayegxeka izenzo zaseRashiya eUkraine ngelo xesha. Kancinci kamva, iBulgaria National Academy BAN yachaza esi siganeko njenge-pollen.
Ngamafutshane, ihlabathi lonke liye layeka ukuhleka ngomxholo othi "imvula ephuzi," kodwa iUnited States ayikayeki.
"I-Agent Orange"
"I-Agent Orange" nayo iyasilela, kodwa ngelishwa ayimnandi. Kwaye akusayi kuhleka apha. Uxolo, %igama lomsebenzisi
Ngokubanzi, imichiza yokutshabalalisa ukhula, okanye i-defoliants njengoko yayibizwa njalo, yaqala ukusetyenziswa ngexesha lokusebenza kweMalaya yiGreat Britain ekuqaleni kweminyaka yoo-1950. Ukususela ngoJuni ukuya kuOktobha 1952 I-1,250 yeehektare zezityalo zasehlathini zatshizwa nge-defoliant. I-Chemical giant Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), evelise i-defoliant, yachaza iMalaya "njengenkalo yovavanyo enengeniso."
Ngo-Agasti 1961, phantsi koxinzelelo lweCIA kunye nePentagon, uMongameli wase-US uJohn Kennedy wagunyazisa ukusetyenziswa kweekhemikhali ukutshabalalisa izityalo eMzantsi Vietnam. Injongo yokutshiza yayikukutshabalalisa uhlaza lwasehlathini, nto leyo eyayiza kwenza kube lula ukubhaqa amajoni aseMntla weVietnam kunye nabanqolobi.
Ekuqaleni, ngeenjongo zovavanyo, iinqwelomoya zaseMzantsi Vietnam phantsi kolawulo lomkhosi waseMelika zasebenzisa ukutshiza ngokucofa iifoliant kwiindawo ezincinci ezinamahlathi kwindawo yaseSaigon (ngoku eyiHo Chi Minh City). Ngomnyaka we-1963, indawo enkulu kwiSingasiqithi saseCa Mau (iPhondo laseCa Mau lanamhlanje) yanyangwa ngamagqabi. Emva kokufumana iziphumo eziyimpumelelo, umyalelo waseMelika waqala ukusetyenziswa okukhulu kwee-defoliants.
Ngendlela, ngokukhawuleza kwakungasekho malunga nehlathi kuphela: umkhosi wase-US waqala ukujolisa kwizityalo zokutya ngo-Okthobha 1962. Ngo-1965, ama-42% azo zonke izitshizi zokutshabalalisa ukhula zazijoliswe kwizityalo zokutya.
Kwi-1965, amalungu e-US Congress axelelwa ukuba "ukutshatyalaliswa kwezityalo kuqondwa njengeyona njongo ibaluleke kakhulu ... kodwa kwiimbekiselo zoluntu kwinkqubo ugxininiso kukuchithwa kwehlathi." Amajoni axelelwa ukuba atshabalalisa izityalo kuba kusithiwa aza kondla amahlakani ngesivuno. Kamva kwafunyaniswa kwaza kwangqinwa ukuba phantse konke ukutya okwatshatyalaliswa ngumkhosi akuzange kuveliswe abo bavukeli; enyanisweni, yayikhuliswe kuphela ukuxhasa abemi basekuhlaleni. Ngokomzekelo, kwiphondo laseQuang Ngai, i-1970% yendawo yezityalo yatshatyalaliswa ngo-85 kuphela, ishiya amakhulu amawaka abantu abalambileyo.
Njengenxalenye ye-Operation Ranch Hand, zonke iindawo zaseMzantsi Vietnam kunye neendawo ezininzi zaseLaos naseCambodia zavezwa ukuhlaselwa kweekhemikhali. Ukongeza kwiindawo zamahlathi, amasimi, izitiya kunye nezityalo zerubha zalinywa. Ukususela ngo-1965, i-defoliants iye yafafazwa phezu kwamasimi aseLaos (ingakumbi kwiindawo ezisemazantsi nasempuma), ukususela ngo-1967 - kwindawo esemantla ye-demilitarized zone. NgoDisemba 1971, uMongameli uNixon wayalela ukuba kuyekwe ukusetyenziswa kwemichiza yokutshabalalisa ukhula, kodwa ukusetyenziswa kwayo kwakuvunyelwe kude nokufakwa komkhosi waseMelika kunye neendawo ezinkulu ezinabemi.
Lilonke, phakathi kuka-1962 no-1971, umkhosi wase-US watshiza malunga neelitha ezingama-20 (000 cubic metres) zeekhemikhali ezahlukeneyo.
Imikhosi yaseMelika yayisebenzisa iindlela ezine zokutshabalalisa ukhula: ezimfusa, eziorenji, ezimhlophe kunye neblue. Amacandelo abo aphambili: i-2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), i-2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T), i-picloram kunye ne-cacodylic acid. Ukwakhiwa kwe-orenji (ngokuchasene namahlathi) kunye noluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka (nxamnye nerayisi kunye nezinye izityalo) zazisetyenziswa kakhulu - kodwa ngokubanzi kwakukho "ii-arhente" ezaneleyo: ukongeza kwi-orenji, ipinki, imfusa, eluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka, emhlophe kunye eluhlaza yayisetyenziswa - umahluko. yayikumlinganiselo wezithako kunye nemigca yombala emgqomeni. Ukusasaza kakuhle imichiza, i-kerosene okanye i-diesel fuel yongezwa kubo.
Ukuphuhliswa kwekhompawundi ngendlela elungele ukusetyenziswa ngobuchule kubalelwa kumacandelo aselebhu eDuPont Corporation. Ukwabizwa ngokuba nenxaxheba ekufumaneni izivumelwano zokuqala zokubonelela nge-tactical herbicides, kunye neMonsanto kunye neDow Chemical. Ngendlela, imveliso yeli qela lemichiza iyinxalenye yemveliso eyingozi, ngenxa yoko izifo ezihambelanayo (ezihlala zibulala) zenzeke phakathi kwabasebenzi beefektri zeenkampani zokuvelisa ezikhankanywe ngasentla, kunye nabahlali beendawo zokuhlala. ngaphakathi kwemida yesixeko okanye kwindawo apho izibonelelo zemveliso zazigxininiswe .
2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)
2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T)
I-picloram
Cacodylic acid
Isiseko sokudala ukubunjwa kwe "agents" yayingumsebenzi we-botanist yaseMelika u-Arthur Galston, owathi emva koko wafuna ukuvalwa kokusetyenziswa komxube, yena ngokwakhe owawuthatha njengesixhobo sekhemikhali. Ekuqaleni kweminyaka yoo-1940, umfundi oselula ophumelele kwiYunivesithi yase-Illinois, u-Arthur Galston, wafunda imichiza kunye neempawu zebhayoloji ze-auxins kunye nephysiology yezityalo zesoya; wafumanisa isiphumo se-2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid ekudubuleni. inkqubo yolu didi lwezityalo. Waseka kwibhubhoratri ukuba ekugxininiseni okuphezulu le asidi ikhokelela ekubeni buthathaka kweefayili ze-cellulose ekudibaneni kwesiqu kunye namagqabi, okukhokelela ekuchithekeni kwamagqabi (ukuchithwa). UGalston wayithethelela inkcazo yakhe ngomxholo awukhethileyo ngowe-1943. kwaye uzinikele kwiminyaka emithathu ezayo kuphando lomsebenzi wokuveliswa kweemveliso zerabha kwiimfuno zomkhosi. Ngeli xesha, ulwazi malunga nokufunyanwa kwesazinzulu esincinci, ngaphandle kolwazi lwakhe, lwalusetyenziswa ngabancedisi selabhoratri yasemkhosini kwisiseko seCamp Detrick (iziko eliyintloko lenkqubo yaseMelika yophuhliso lwezixhobo zebhayoloji) ukumisela amathuba okusetyenziswa kokulwa. i-defoliants yekhemikhali yokusombulula iingxaki zobuchule (kungoko igama elisemthethweni lezi zinto zaziwa ngokuba "yi-tactical defoliants" okanye "i-tactical herbicides") kwithiyetha yePasifiki yokusebenza, apho imikhosi yaseMelika yajongana nokuchaswa okuqatha kwemikhosi yaseJapan ithatha ithuba lehlathi elishinyeneyo. . UGalston wothuka xa, ngowe-1946. Iingcali ezimbini eziphambili ezivela kwiCamp Detrick zeza kuye kwiZiko laseCalifornia leTekhnoloji kwaye zamxelela ukuba iziphumo zethisisi yakhe zisebenze njengesiseko sophuhliso lwangoku lomkhosi (yena, njengombhali, wayenelungelo lokufumana ibhaso likarhulumente). Emva koko, xa iinkcukacha zongenelelo lomkhosi waseMelika eVietnam ngeminyaka yoo-1960. egutyungelwe kumaphephandaba, uGalston, eziva enoxanduva lokuphuhliswa kweAgent Orange, wafuna ukuba ukutshizwa kwento kumazwe e-Indochina Peninsula kuyekwe. Ngokutsho kwesazinzulu, ukusetyenziswa kwesi sidakamizwa eVietnam "kwashukumisa inkolelo yakhe enzulu kwindima eyakhayo yesayensi kwaye yamkhokelela ekuchaseni ngokusebenzayo umgaqo-nkqubo osemthethweni wase-US." Ngokukhawuleza ukuba ulwazi malunga nokusetyenziswa kweziyobisi lufikelele kwisazinzulu ngo-1966, uGalston wakhawuleza wayila intetho yentetho yakhe kwingqungquthela yonyaka yesayensi ye-American Society of Plant Physiologists, kwaye xa ikomiti yesigqeba soluntu yala ukumvumela ukuba athathe amanyathelo alula. thetha, uGalston ngasese waqala ukuqokelela iisignesha ezivela koosonzululwazi phantsi kwesibongozo kuMongameli wase-US uLyndon Johnson. Izazinzulu ezilishumi elinesibini zibhale kwisibongozo iingcinga zabo malunga nokungamkeleki kokusetyenziswa kwe "arhente" kunye neziphumo ezinokuthi zibekho kwimihlaba kunye nabemi beendawo ezitshiziweyo.
Ukusetyenziswa okukhulu kweekhemikhali ngamajoni aseMelika kukhokelele kwiziphumo ezibi. Amahlathi eMangrove (ama-500 amawaka ehektare) aphantse atshatyalaliswa ngokupheleleyo, i-60% (malunga ne-1 yezigidi zeehektare) yehlathi kunye ne-30% (ngaphezu kwe-100 yeehektare zamawaka) yamahlathi aphantsi achaphazelekayo. Ukusukela ngo-1960, izivuno zokulima irabha zehle ngama-75%. Imikhosi yaseMelika yatshabalalisa ukusuka kwi-40 ukuya kwi-100% yezityalo zebhanana, irayisi, iitapile, ipapaya, iitumato, i-70% yamasimi ekhokhonathi, i-60% ye-hevea, i-110 yeehektare ezingamawaka e-casuarina.
Ngenxa yokusetyenziswa kweekhemikhali, ibhalansi yendalo yaseVietnam itshintshe kakhulu. Kwiindawo ezichaphazelekayo, kwiintlobo zeentaka ezili-150, kwasala kuphela i-18, izilwanyana ezihlala emanzini kunye nezinambuzane ziphantse zanyamalala ngokupheleleyo, kwaye inani leentlanzi emilanjeni lehla. Ukubunjwa kwe-microbiological yomhlaba kwaphazamiseka kwaye izityalo zinetyhefu. Inani leentlobo zemithi kunye nezihlahla kwihlathi lemvula liye lancipha kakhulu: kwiindawo ezichaphazelekayo kuphela iintlobo ezimbalwa zemithi kunye neentlobo ezininzi zeengca ezinameva, ezingafanelekanga ukutya kwemfuyo, zihlala.
Utshintsho kwizilwanyana zaseVietnam lubangele ukufuduswa kolunye uhlobo lweempuku ezimnyama ngezinye iintlobo ezithwala isibetho eMzantsi-mpuma Asia. Amakhalane athwala izifo eziyingozi avele kwiintlobo zamakhalane. Utshintsho olufanayo lwenzekile kwiintlobo zokubunjwa kweengcongconi: endaweni yeengcongconi ezingenabungozi, iingcongconi ezithwala i-malaria ziye zavela.
Kodwa konke oku akuchanekanga ngenxa yempembelelo ebantwini.
Inyaniso kukuba kumacandelo amane "e-arhente," eyona tyhefu yi-cacodylic acid. Uphando lokuqala lwe-cacodyles lwenziwa nguRobert Bunsen (yup, i-Bunsen burner ihloniphekile) kwiYunivesithi yaseMarburg: "ivumba lalo mzimba libangela ukutshotshozela kweengalo nemilenze ngokukhawuleza. ukuba nesiyezi nokungabi namvakalelo... Kuyaphawuleka ukuba xa umntu ethe wachanabeka kwivumba lale mixube kubangela ukuba ulwimi lugqunywe ngengubo emnyama, naxa kungekho miphumo mibi.” I-Cacodylic acid inetyhefu kakhulu xa ityiwe, irhoxiwe, okanye idibana nolusu. Ibonakaliswe kwiimpuku njenge-teratogen, ehlala ibangela inkalakahla ecandekileyo kunye nokufa komntwana ongekazalwa kwiidosi eziphezulu. Kuye kwaboniswa ukubonisa iimpawu ze-genotoxic kwiiseli zomntu. Nangona ingekho i-carcinogen eyomeleleyo, i-cacodylic acid iphakamisa umphumo wezinye i-carcinogens kwizitho ezifana nezintso kunye nesibindi.
Kodwa ezi nazo ziintyatyambo. Inyaniso kukuba, ngenxa yeskimu sokudibanisa, i-2,4-D kunye ne-2,4,5-T ihlala iqulethe ubuncinane i-20 ppm ye-dioxin. .
Urhulumente waseVietnam uthi i-4 yezigidi zabemi bayo baye bavezwa kwi-Agent Orange kwaye abaninzi njengezigidi ezi-3 baye bahlupheka ngenxa yokugula. I-Vietnam Red Cross iqikelela ukuba ukuya kuthi ga kwi-1 yezigidi zabantu abakhubazekileyo okanye baneengxaki zempilo ngenxa ye-Agent Orange. Malunga nama-400 abantu baseVietnam babulawa yityhefu yeAgent Orange. Urhulumente waseUnited States uyawaphikisa la manani njengangathembekanga.
Ngokutsho kophando olwenziwe nguGqr. Nguyen Viet Ngan, abantwana kwiindawo apho i-Agent Orange yayisetyenziswa khona baneengxaki ezahlukeneyo zempilo, eziquka i-cleft palates, ukukhubazeka kwengqondo, i-hernias, kunye neminwe eyongezelelweyo kunye neenzwane. Ngeminyaka yee-1970, amanqanaba aphezulu e-dioxin afunyanwa kubisi lwebele lwabasetyhini baseVietnam kunye nasegazini labasebenzi basemkhosini base-US ababesebenza eVietnam. Ezona ndawo zichaphazeleka kakhulu ziintaba ezikufutshane neTruong Son (Iintaba Ezinde) kunye nomda ophakathi kweVietnam neKhambodiya. Abahlali abachaphazelekayo kule mimandla bathwaxwa zizifo ezahlukeneyo zemfuza.
Cofa apha ukuba ufuna ngokwenene ukubona iziphumo zeAgent Orange emntwini. Kodwa ndiyalumkisa: ayifanelekanga.
Zonke iziseko zomkhosi zangaphambili zase-US eVietnam apho imichiza yokutshabalalisa ukhula yayigcinwa kwaye ilayishwe kwinqwelomoya isenokuba namanqanaba aphezulu eedioxins emhlabeni, ebeka isoyikiso sempilo kuluntu olungqongileyo. Uvavanyo olubanzi lokungcoliseka kwe-dioxin lwenziwa kwiindawo zangaphambili zomoya zase-US eDa Nang, kwiSithili sePho Cat naseBien Haa. Eminye imihlaba kunye nentlenga inamazinga aphezulu kakhulu edioxin efuna ukucocwa. Kwi-Da Nang Air Base, ungcoliseko lwe-dioxin ngamaxesha angama-350 aphezulu kunemigangatho yamazwe ngamazwe. Umhlaba ongcolileyo kunye ne-sediment iyaqhubeka nokuchaphazela abantu baseVietnam, ukutyhefa kwikhonkco lokutya kunye nokubangela ukugula, iimeko ezinzulu zesikhumba kunye neentlobo ezahlukeneyo zomhlaza kwimiphunga, i-larynx kunye ne-prostate.
(Ngendlela, ngaba usasebenzisa i-Vietnamese balm? Ewe, ndingathini ...)
Kufuneka sibe nenjongo kwaye sithi umkhosi wase-US eVietnam nawo wabandezeleka: abazange baziswe ngengozi, kwaye ke baqinisekile ukuba imichiza ayinabungozi kwaye ayizange ithathe amanyathelo okhuseleko. Ukubuyela ekhaya, amagqala aseVietnam aqala ukukrokrela okuthile: impilo yabaninzi yayinkenenkene, abafazi babo babesiya bephunyelwa zizisu, kwaye abantwana bazalwa beneziphene. Amagqala aqalisa ukufaka amabango ngo-1977 kwiSebe leMicimbi yamagqala eentlawulo zokukhubazeka kwiinkonzo zonyango ababekholelwa ukuba zinxulumene nokuvezwa kwi-Agent Orange, okanye ngakumbi ngakumbi i-dioxin, kodwa amabango abo akhanyelwa. bebesenkonzweni okanye kunyaka omnye emva kokugxothwa (imiqathango yokunikezelwa kwezibonelelo). Thina, kwilizwe lethu, siqhelene kakhulu nale nto.
NgoAprili ka-1993, iSebe leMicimbi yamagqala lalihlawule imbuyekezo kumaxhoba angama-486 kuphela, nangona lalifumene amabango okukhubazeka kumajoni angama-39 aye achanabeka kwi-Agent Orange ngelixa esebenza eVietnam.
Ukususela kwi-1980, kuye kwenziwa iinzame zokufumana imbuyekezo ngokumangalelana, kubandakanywa neenkampani ezivelisa ezi zinto (iDow Chemical kunye neMonsanto). Ebudeni betyala lakusasa ngoMeyi 7, 1984, kwisimangalo esasiziswe yimibutho yamagqala aseMerika, amagqwetha eenkampani zeMonsanto kunye neDow Chemical akwazi ukulungisa isimangalo senkundla ngaphandle kweeyure ezimbalwa ngaphambi kokuba kuqaliswe ukukhethwa kwejaji. Iinkampani zivumile ukuhlawula i-180 yezigidi zeerandi njengembuyekezo ukuba amagqala alahlile onke amabango ngakuzo. Amagqala amaninzi awayengamaxhoba ayenomsindo kukuba ityala lisonjululwe endaweni yokuya enkundleni: ayeziva engcatshiwe ngamagqwetha awo. “Iingxoxo Zobulungisa” zaqhutyelwa kwizixeko ezihlanu ezikhulu zaseMerika, apho amagqala emfazwe neentsapho zawo axubusha ngendlela asabela ngayo kwesi sicombululo aza azigxeka izenzo zamagqwetha neenkundla, efuna ukuba eli tyala lichotshelwe ngoontanga bawo. Umgwebi we-Federal uJack B. Weinstein wakhaba izibheno, esithi ukulungiswa "kwakulungile kwaye kulungile." Ngo-1989, uloyiko lwamagqala lwaqinisekiswa xa kwakugqitywa ukuba imali iza kuhlawulwa njani na: kangangoko (ewe, kanye kanye. ngokugqithiseleyo!) Igqala laseVietnam elikhubazekileyo linokufumana ubuninzi be-$12, ehlawulwa ngezavenge kwiminyaka eyi-000. Ukongezelela, ngokwamkela ezi ntlawulo, amagqala akhubazekileyo asenokungafanelwanga ukufumana izibonelelo ezininzi zikarhulumente ezibonelela ngenkxaso yemali eninzi, njengezitampu zokutya, uncedo lukarhulumente, kunye nemali yomhlalaphantsi karhulumente.
Kwi-2004, umkhulumeli weMonsanto uJill Montgomery wathi iMonsanto yayingeyena uxanduva lokulimala okanye ukufa okubangelwa "ii-arhente": "Sivelana nabantu abakholelwa ukuba baye benzakele kwaye baqonda inkxalabo yabo kunye nomnqweno wokufumana isizathu, kodwa sinokuthenjwa" kwezeNzululwazi. ubungqina bubonisa ukuba i-Agent Orange ayibangeli imiphumo emibi yempilo yexesha elide. "
I-Vietnam Association of Victims of Agent Orange kunye ne-Dioxin Poisoning (VAVA) yafaka isimangalo "somntu wokwenzakala, uyilo lwekhemikhali kunye noxanduva lokuvelisa" kwiNkundla yeSithili saseMelika kwiSithili esiseMpuma saseNew York eBrooklyn ngokuchasene neenkampani ezininzi zase-US, zityhola ukuba ukusetyenziswa "iiarhente" kwaphula 1907 Hague Convention on Land Wars, 1925 Geneva Protocol kunye 1949 Geneva Conventions. I-Dow Chemical kunye neMonsanto yayingabavelisi ababini abakhulu "bee-arhente" zomkhosi wase-US kwaye bathiywa kwisimangalo kunye nezinye iinkampani ezininzi (i-Diamond Shamrock, i-Uniroyal, i-Thompson Chemicals, i-Hercules, njl.). Ngomhla we-10 kuMatshi, i-2005, iJaji uJack B. Weinstein weSithili saseMpuma (kwalowo uchophele ityala le-1984 US Veterans class action) wayichitha isimangalo, egweba ukuba akukho ukuma kumabango. Wagqiba ekubeni i-Agent Orange yayingathathwa njengetyhefu phantsi komthetho wamazwe ngamazwe ngexesha lokusetyenziswa kwayo e-United States; I-US yayingathintelwanga ekusebenziseni njengeyeza lokutshabalalisa ukhula; kwaye iinkampani ezivelisa izinto bezingenaxanduva kwindlela urhulumente ayisebenzisa ngayo. UWeinstein wasebenzisa umzekelo waseBhritane ukunceda ukoyisa amabango: “Ukuba abantu baseMelika babenetyala lolwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe ngokusebenzisa iAgent Orange eVietnam, ke amaBritane ayakuba netyala lolwaphulo-mthetho lwemfazwe kuba yayililizwe lokuqala ukusebenzisa imichiza yokutshabalalisa ukhula kunye ne-defoliants. imfazwe." kwaye wazisebenzisa ngomlinganiselo omkhulu kulo lonke ixesha lokusebenza kweMalaya. Kuba bekungekho luqhanqalazo oluvela kwamanye amazwe ekuphenduleni ukusetyenziswa kweBhritane, i-US yabona oko njengokumisela umzekelo wokusetyenziswa kwemichiza yokutshabalalisa ukhula kunye ne-defoliants kwimfazwe yasehlathini. " Urhulumente wase-US naye wayengathathi cala kwisimangalo ngenxa yokunganyangeki, kwaye inkundla yagweba ukuba iinkampani zeekhemikhali, njengeekontraki zikarhulumente wase-US, zazinokhuseleko olufanayo. Ityala labhena laza lagqitywa yiNkundla yesiBheno yesiBini yeSekethe eManhattan ngoJuni 18, 2007. Iijaji ezintathu zeNkundla yesiBheno yesiBini yesiThili ziye zasixhasa isigqibo sikaWeinstein sokulichitha ityala. Balawula ukuba nangona imichiza yokutshabalalisa ukhula ine<em>dioxin (ityhefu eyaziwayo), ayenzelwanga ukuba isetyenziswe njengetyhefu ebantwini. Ke ngoko, ii-defoliants azithathwa njengezixhobo zeekhemikhali kwaye ke aziphuli mthetho wamazwe ngamazwe. Ukuqwalaselwa ngakumbi kwetyala liqela elipheleleyo leejaji zeNkundla yesiBheno nako kwasingqina esi sigqibo. Amagqwetha amaxhoba afaka isicelo kwiNkundla Ephakamileyo yaseUnited States ukuba imamele eli tyala. NgoMatshi 2, 2009, iNkundla Ephakamileyo ayizange ivume ukuhlolisisa isigqibo seNkundla Yezibheno.
Ngomhla wama-25 kuMeyi, 2007, uMongameli Bush watyikitya umthetho obonelele ngezigidi ezi-3 zeerandi ngokukodwa ukuxhasa ngezimali iinkqubo zokulungisa iziza ze-dioxin kwiindawo ezazisakuba yimikhosi yase-U.S., kunye neenkqubo zempilo yoluntu kuluntu olungqongileyo. Kufuneka kuthiwe ukutshatyalaliswa kwe-dioxins kufuna ukushisa okuphezulu (ngaphezu kwe-1000 ° C), inkqubo yokutshatyalaliswa inamandla amakhulu, ngoko ke ezinye iingcali zikholelwa ukuba kuphela isiseko somoya sase-US e-Da Nang siya kufuna i-14 yezigidi zeedola ukucoca, kunye nokucoca ezinye iziseko zase-US ezazisakuba ngumkhosi waseVietnam ezinamazinga aphezulu ongcoliseko kuya kufuna enye i-60 yezigidi zeedola.
Unobhala welizwe u-Hillary Clinton uthe ngexesha lokutyelela e-Hanoi ngo-Oktobha 2010 ukuba urhulumente wase-US uza kuqala umsebenzi wokucoca ukungcola kwe-dioxin kwi-Da Nang Air Base.
NgoJuni 2011, umsitho wabanjwa kwisikhululo seenqwelomoya saseDa Nang ukuphawula ukuqala kwe-US-mali ye-decontamination ye-dioxin hotspots eVietnam. Ukuza kuthi ga ngoku, iCongress yase-US yabele i-32 yezigidi zeedola ukuxhasa le nkqubo.
Ukunceda abo bachaphazelekayo yi-dioxin, urhulumente waseVietnam uye wadala "iidolophana zoxolo", nganye iqulethe i-50 kumaxhoba e-100 afumana inkxaso yezonyango kunye nengqondo. Ukususela ngo-2006, kukho iilali ezinjalo ezili-11. Amagqala eMfazwe yaseVietnam yaseMelika kunye nabantu abaziyo nabavelana namaxhoba eAgent Orange baye baxhasa ezi nkqubo. Iqela lamazwe ngamazwe lamagqala eMfazwe yaseVietnam avela e-United States kunye namahlakani ayo, kunye notshaba lwabo lwangaphambili, amagqala oMbutho weVeterans waseVietnam, baseke iLali yoBuhlobo baseVietnam ngaphandle kweHanoi. Eli ziko libonelela ngokhathalelo lwezonyango, ukubuyisela kwisimo sangaphambili kunye noqeqesho lomsebenzi kubantwana kunye namagqala aseVietnam achatshazelwe yidioxin.
Urhulumente waseVietnam ubonelela ngemali encinci yenyanga ukuya ngaphezu kwe-200 yaseVietnam ekutyholwa ukuba ichatshazelwa yi-herbicides; ngo-000 kuphela, le mali yayiyi-$2008 yezigidi. I-Vietnam Red Cross ikhulise ngaphezu kwe-40,8 yezigidi zeedola ukunceda abagulayo okanye abakhubazekileyo, kwaye iziseko ezininzi zase-US, ii-arhente ze-UN, oorhulumente baseYurophu kunye nemibutho engekho phantsi kukarhulumente baye banikela malunga ne-22 yezigidi zeedola zokucoca, ukutshalwa kwehlathi, ukhathalelo lwempilo kunye nezinye iinkonzo. .
Funda ngakumbi malunga nokuxhasa amaxhoba eAgent Orange .
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