Ezinye izindatshana ochungechungeni:
- Umlando we-relay
- Umlando wamakhompyutha kagesi
- Umlando we-transistor
- Umlando we-inthanethi
Isingeniso
Ekuqaleni kwawo-1970, i-AT&T, inkampani enkulu yezokuxhumana yase-US, yafika ngomnikelo othokozisayo. Ngaleso sikhathi, wayengumqondisi wophiko lwamakhompiyutha lwe-Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), inhlangano eyayisencane kakhulu eMnyangweni Wezokuvikela ebambe iqhaza ocwaningweni lwesikhathi eside, olungekho phansi. Eminyakeni emihlanu eyandulela leli phuzu, u-Roberts wayeqondise ukwakhiwa kwe-ARPANET, eyokuqala yamanethiwekhi amakhulu ekhompyutha axhuma amakhompyutha atholakala ezindaweni ezihlukene ezingu-25 ezweni lonke.
Inethiwekhi ibe yimpumelelo, kodwa ukuba khona kwayo isikhathi eside kanye nawo wonke ama-bureaucracy ahlobene nawo akuzange kuwele ngaphansi kwegunya le-ARPA. U-Roberts wayefuna indlela yokulayisha umsebenzi komunye umuntu. Ngakho-ke wathintana nabaqondisi be-AT&T ukuze abanikeze “okhiye” balolu hlelo. Ngemuva kokucubungula okunikezwayo ngokucophelela, i-AT&T yagcina iwushiyile. Onjiniyela abakhulu benkampani kanye nabaphathi babekholelwa ukuthi ubuchwepheshe obuyisisekelo be-ARPANET abunakwenzeka futhi abuzinzile, futhi babungenayo indawo ohlelweni olwakhelwe ukunikeza isevisi ethembekile neyomhlaba wonke.
I-ARPANET ngokwemvelo yaba inzalo lapho i-Inthanethi yakhanya khona; i-prototype yesistimu yolwazi enkulu ehlanganisa umhlaba wonke, amakhono ayo we-kaleidoscopic angenakwenzeka ukubala. Kungenzeka kanjani ukuthi i-AT&T ingaboni amandla anjalo futhi ibambeke kangaka esikhathini esidlule? U-Bob Taylor, owaqasha u-Roberts ukuthi angamele iphrojekthi ye-ARPANET ngo-1966, kamuva wakubeka ngembaba: “Ukusebenza ne-AT&T kungafana nokusebenza noCro-Magnons.” Kodwa-ke, ngaphambi kokuba sibhekane nokunganaki okunjalo okungenangqondo kwezikhulu zezinkampani ezingaziwa ezinobutha, ake sibuyele emuva. Isihloko sendaba yethu kuzoba umlando we-inthanethi, ngakho-ke okokuqala kuwumqondo omuhle ukuthola umbono ojwayelekile walokho esikhuluma ngakho.
Kuzo zonke izinhlelo zobuchwepheshe ezakhiwe ekupheleni kwekhulu lama-XNUMX, i-inthanethi ngokungangabazeki ibe nomthelela omkhulu emphakathini, emasikweni nasemnothweni wezwe lanamuhla. Isimbangi sayo esiseduze kakhulu kulokhu kungase kube ukuhamba ngendiza. Ngokusebenzisa i-inthanethi, abantu bangakwazi ukwabelana ngokushesha ngezithombe, amavidiyo kanye nemicabango, kokubili okufunwayo noma okungafunwa, nabangane nomndeni emhlabeni jikelele. Intsha ehlala izinkulungwane zamakhilomitha ukusuka komunye nomunye manje ihlale ithandana futhi ize ishade phakathi kwezwe elibonakalayo. Inxanxathela yezitolo engapheli ifinyeleleka nganoma yisiphi isikhathi emini noma ebusuku ngokuqondile ezigidini zamakhaya anethezekile.
Ngokwengxenye enkulu, konke lokhu kujwayelekile futhi kunjalo impela. Kodwa njengoba umlobi ngokwakhe engafakaza, i-Internet iye yabonakala mhlawumbe iyisiphazamiso esikhulu kunazo zonke, esimosha isikhathi, nomthombo wokonakala kwengqondo emlandweni wesintu, ithelevishini eyedlula zonke—futhi lokho kwakungeyona into elula. Wavumela zonke izinhlobo zezilima, abashisekeli nabathandi bezinkolelo-mbono zozungu ukuba basakaze umbhedo wabo emhlabeni wonke ngesivinini sokukhanya - olunye lwalolu lwazi lungabhekwa njengelingenabungozi, kanti abanye abakwazi. Kuvumele izinhlangano eziningi, ezizimele nezomphakathi, ukuthi ziqongelele kancane kancane, futhi kwezinye izimo zilahlekelwe ngokushesha nangokuyihlazo, izintaba ezinkulu zedatha. Sekukonke, usephenduke isikhulisi sokuhlakanipha nobuwula bomuntu, futhi inani lalokhu lakamuva liyethusa.
Kodwa yini into esiyixoxayo, ukwakheka kwayo ngokomzimba, yonke le mishini evumele lezi zinguquko zezenhlalo namasiko ukuba zenzeke? Iyini i-inthanethi? Ukube besikwazi ngandlela thize ukuhlunga le nto ngokuyibeka esitsheni sengilazi, besiyoyibona ihlakazeka ibe yizingqimba ezintathu. Inethiwekhi yomhlaba wonke yezokuxhumana izofakwa ezansi. Lesi singqimba sandulela i-inthanethi cishe ikhulunyaka, futhi saqala ukwenziwa ngezintambo zethusi noma zensimbi, kodwa kusukela ngaleso sikhathi sathathelwa indawo izintambo eziqinile, iziphindaphinda zama-microwave, i-optical fiber, kanye nezokuxhumana ngomsakazo weselula.
Isendlalelo esilandelayo siqukethe amakhompuyutha axhumana wodwa ngale sistimu esebenzisa izilimi ezivamile, noma izivumelwano. Phakathi kwezinto ezibaluleke kakhulu kulezi yi-Internet Protocol (IP), Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), kanye ne-Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). Lona umnyombo we-inthanethi ngokwayo, futhi isisho sayo esiphathekayo siza njengenethiwekhi yamakhompyutha akhethekile abizwa ngokuthi amarutha, anesibopho sokuthola indlela yomlayezo ongahamba usuka kukhompyutha engumthombo uye kukhompyutha okuyiwa kuyo.
Okokugcina, phezulu kunezinhlelo zokusebenza ezihlukahlukene abantu nemishini ezisebenzisayo ukuze basebenze futhi bazidlale ku-inthanethi, eziningi zazo ezisebenzisa izilimi ezikhethekile: iziphequluli zewebhu, izinhlelo zokusebenza zokuxhumana, imidlalo yevidiyo, izinhlelo zokusebenza zokuhweba, njll. Ukuze usebenzise i-inthanethi, uhlelo lokusebenza ludinga kuphela ukufaka umlayezo ngefomethi amarutha angayiqonda. Umlayezo ungaba ukuhamba kwe-chess, ingxenye encane ye-movie, noma isicelo sokudlulisa imali isuka ku-akhawunti yasebhange iye kwenye - amarutha awakhathali futhi azoyiphatha ngendlela efanayo.
Indaba yethu izohlanganisa le micu emithathu ukuxoxa indaba ye-Inthanethi. Okokuqala, inethiwekhi yomhlaba wonke yezokuxhumana. Ekugcineni, bonke ubukhazikhazi bezinhlelo ezihlukahlukene ezivumela abasebenzisi bamakhompyutha ukuthi bajabule noma benze okuthile okuwusizo phezu kwenethiwekhi. Ndawonye axhunywe ubuchwepheshe namaphrothokholi avumela amakhompyutha ahlukene ukuthi axhumane. Abadali balobu buchwepheshe nezivumelwano babesekelwe ezinzuzweni zesikhathi esidlule (inethiwekhi) futhi babenombono ongacacile wekusasa ababephumputha kulo (izinhlelo zesikhathi esizayo).
Ngokungeziwe kulaba badali, omunye wabalingisi abaqhubekayo endabeni yethu kuzoba yisimo. Lokhu kuzoba yiqiniso ikakhulukazi ezingeni lamanethiwekhi ezokuxhumana, okungenzeka ukuthi ayeqhutshwa uhulumeni noma ayengaphansi kokuqondisa okuqinile kukahulumeni. Okusibuyisela ku-AT&T. Njengoba babekuzonda ukukuvuma, isiphetho sikaTaylor, uRoberts kanye nozakwabo be-ARPA sasiboshelwe ngokungenathemba kubaqhubi bezokuxhumana, ungqimba oluyinhloko lwekusasa le-inthanethi. Ukusebenza kwamanethiwekhi abo kwakuncike ngokuphelele kumasevisi anjalo. Siyichaza kanjani inzondo yabo, inkolelo yabo yokuthi i-ARPANET imele umhlaba omusha owawuphikisana ngokwemvelo nabaphathi be-retrograde abasebenzisa ezokuxhumana?
Eqinisweni, la maqembu amabili awahlukaniswanga ngokwesikhashana, kodwa ngokuhlukana kwefilosofi. Abaqondisi nonjiniyela be-AT&T bazibona njengabanakekeli bomshini omkhulu futhi oyinkimbinkimbi ohlinzeka ngezinsizakalo zokuxhumana ezithembekile nezivamile ukusuka kumuntu oyedwa kuya komunye. I-Bell System yayinesibopho sayo yonke imishini. Abaklami be-ARPANET babuke uhlelo njengomzila wezingcezu ezithile zedatha, futhi bakholelwa ukuthi abaqhubi bayo akufanele baphazamise indlela leyo datha edaleka futhi isetshenziswe ngayo kuzo zombili iziphetho zocingo.
Ngakho-ke kufanele siqale ngokusho ukuthi, ngamandla kahulumeni wase-US, lokhu kungaboni ngaso linye mayelana nemvelo yezokuxhumana kweMelika kwaxazululwa kanjani.
Uhlelo olulodwa, isevisi yendawo yonke?
I-Intanethi yazalelwa endaweni ethile yezokuxhumana ngezingcingo zaseMelika - e-United States abahlinzeki bezingcingo kanye nefoni baphathwa ngendlela ehluke kakhulu emhlabeni wonke - futhi kukhona zonke izizathu zokukholelwa ukuthi le ndawo ibambe iqhaza ekuthuthukisweni nasekubunjweni. womoya we-inthanethi yesikhathi esizayo. Ngakho ake sihlolisise ukuthi kwenzeka kanjani konke lokhu. Ukwenza lokhu, sizobuyela emuva ekuzalweni kwe-telegraph yaseMelika.
I-American anomaly
In 1843 Ngonyaka nabalingani bakhe bakholisa iCongress ukuthi ichithe u-$30 ukuze yenze ulayini wetelegraph phakathi kweWashington D.C. kanye neBaltimore. Babekholelwa ukuthi lesi kuzoba isixhumanisi sokuqala ochungechungeni lwezintambo zocingo oludaleka ngemali kahulumeni ezosabalala ezwenikazi lonke. Encwadini ayibhalele iNdlu yabaMeli, u-Morse uphakamise ukuthi uhulumeni athenge wonke amalungelo kumalungelo akhe obunikazi be-telegraph bese esebenzisa izinkampani ezizimele ukuthi zakhe izingxenye zenethiwekhi, kuyilapho egcina imigqa ehlukene yokuxhumana okusemthethweni. Kulokhu, uMorse wabhala: “Ngeke kuthathe isikhathi eside ngaphambi kokuba lonke izwe lalelizwe ligcwale lezi zinzwa, okuzothi, ngesivinini somcabango, zisakaze ulwazi lwayo yonke into eyenzekayo emhlabeni, iguqule izwe lonke. endaweni eyodwa enkulu.”
Kuye kwabonakala sengathi lolu hlelo lwezokuxhumana olubaluleke kangaka lusiza umphakathi, ngakho-ke lwalungena ngaphansi kokukhathazeka kukahulumeni. Ukunikeza ukuxhumana phakathi kwezifundazwe ezimbalwa ngezinkonzo zeposi kwakungomunye wemisebenzi eminingana kahulumeni wobumbano ephawulwe ngokuqondile kuMthethosisekelo wase-US. Nokho, izisusa zakhe zazinganqunywa ngokuphelele ukukhonza umphakathi. Ukulawula kukahulumeni kwanikeza uMorse nabasekeli bakhe ithuba lokuqeda ibhizinisi labo ngempumelelo - ukuthola inkokhelo eyodwa, kodwa ebalulekile evela emalini yomphakathi. Ngo-1845, uCave Johnson, uPostmaster General wase-U.S. ngaphansi kukaMongameli we-11 wase-U.S., uJames Polk, wamemezela ukusekela kwakhe isimiso socingo somphakathi esahlongozwa uMorse: “Ukusetshenziswa kwethuluzi elinamandla kangaka, elihle noma elibi, ukuze kuphephe abantu. ayikwazi ukushiywa ezandleni zangasese.” abantu,” kubhala yena. Nokho, kulapho kwaphelela khona konke. Amanye amalungu okuphatha kukaPolk's Democratic ayengafuni lutho ngocingo lomphakathi, njengoba kwenza iDemocratic Congress. Iqembu alizange liwathande amacebo , ephoqelela uhulumeni ukuba asebenzise imali “ekuthuthukisweni kwangaphakathi” - bacabangela lezi zinhlelo ukuze bakhuthaze ukukhetha, ukunganaki kanye nenkohlakalo.
Ngenxa yokungathandi kukahulumeni ukuthatha isinyathelo, omunye wamalungu eqembu likaMorse, u-Amos Kendal, waqala ukwakha uhlelo lwenethiwekhi yocingo ngokusekelwa ngabaxhasi abazimele. Kodwa-ke, i-patent kaMorse yayinganele ukuvikela ukuzimela kwezokuxhumana nge-telegraph. Ngokuhamba kweminyaka eyishumi, kwavela izimbangi eziningi, ukuthenga amalayisense obunye ubuchwepheshe be-telegraph (ikakhulukazi i-Royal House yokuphrinta i-telegraph) noma bavele bazibandakanye ebhizinisini elisemthethweni ngezizathu zomthetho ezintengantengayo. Amacala afakwa ngobuningi, ingcebo yamaphepha yakhuphuka futhi yanyamalala, futhi izinkampani ezihlulekayo zawa noma zadayiselwa izimbangi ngemuva kokwenyusa amanani amasheya ngokungemthetho. Kuzo zonke lezi zinxushunxushu, umdlali oyedwa omkhulu wavela ngasekupheleni kwawo-1860: iWestern Union.
Igama elethukile elithi "monopoly" laqala ukusabalala. I-telegraph yayisivele ibalulekile ezicini eziningana zempilo yaseMelika: ezezimali, izitimela, namaphephandaba. Akukaze kube khona noma iyiphi inhlangano ezimele ekhule yaze yafika kuleli zinga. Isiphakamiso sokulawulwa kukahulumeni kwe-telegraph sithole impilo entsha. Eminyakeni eyishumi eyalandela iMpi Yombango, amakomidi eposi e-congressional eza nezinhlelo ezihlukahlukene zokuletha i-telegraph ku-orbit ye-Postal Service. Kuvele izinketho ezintathu eziyisisekelo: 1) isevisi yeposi ixhasa enye imbangi ye-Western Union, inikeze ukufinyelela okukhethekile emahhovisi eposi kanye nemigwaqo emikhulu, njengembuyiselo yokubeka imingcele yentela. 2) I-Post Service yethula i-telegraph yayo ukuze iqhudelane ne-WU kanye nabanye opharetha abazimele. 3) Uhulumeni uzofaka izwe lonke ihhovisi le-telegraph, alibeke ngaphansi kokulawulwa yinkonzo yeposi.
Izinhlelo ze-telegraph yeposi zathola abalandeli abambalwa abaqinile kuCongress, kuhlanganise no-Alexander Ramsay, usihlalo weKomidi Leposi LeSigele. Kodwa-ke, amandla amaningi omkhankaso ahlinzekwa ngabasekeli bangaphandle, ikakhulukazi u-Gardiner Hubbard, owayenolwazi emsebenzini womphakathi njengomhleli wezinhlelo zokukhanyisa amanzi edolobha kanye negesi eCambridge (kamuva waba ngumnikezeli omkhulu ku-Alexander Bell kanye nomsunguli wenhlangano. I-National Geographic Society). U-Hubbard nabasekeli bakhe baphikisene ngokuthi uhlelo lomphakathi luzohlinzeka ngokusatshalaliswa kolwazi okufanayo okuwusizo njengoba kwenza i-mail mail ngenkathi kugcinwa amanani ephansi. Bathe le ndlela ingase isebenzele umphakathi kangcono kunohlelo lwe-WU, okuhloswe ngalo kwabasezingeni eliphezulu kwezamabhizinisi. I-WU, ngokwemvelo, yaphikisa ukuthi izindleko zamatelegramu zinqunywa izindleko zawo, nokuthi uhlelo lomphakathi olwehlisa amanani ngokuzenzela luyoba nezinkinga futhi aluzuzuzisa muntu.
Kunoma yikuphi, i-telegraph yeposi ayizange ithole ukwesekwa okwanele ukuze ibe indaba yenkundla yempi kuCongress. Yonke imithetho ehlongozwayo yafa buthule. Umthamo we-monopoly awukafinyeleli emazingeni anjalo anganqoba ukwesaba ukuxhashazwa kukahulumeni. Amademokhrasi aphinde alawula iCongress ngo-1874, umoya wokwakha kabusha izwe ngesikhathi sangemva kweMpi Yombango wathuliswa, futhi imizamo yokuqala ebuthaka yokwenza ucingo lweposi yaphazamiseka. Umqondo wokubeka i-telegraph (futhi kamuva nocingo) ngaphansi kokulawulwa kukahulumeni wavela ngezikhathi ezithile eminyakeni eyalandela, kodwa ngaphandle kwezikhathi ezimfushane (eziqanjiwe) zokulawula ucingo kukahulumeni ngesikhathi sempi ngo-1918, akukho lutho olwake lwakhula.
Lokhu kunganakwa kukahulumeni kwe-telegraph nocingo kwaba yindida emhlabeni jikelele. E-France, i-telegraph yenziwa izwe ngisho nangaphambi kokuba ifakwe ugesi. Ngo-1837, lapho inkampani yangasese izama ukufaka i-telegraph optical (isebenzisa imibhoshongo yesignali) eduze nesistimu ekhona elawulwa uhulumeni, iphalamende laseFrance laphasisa umthetho ovimbela ukuthuthukiswa kocingo olungagunyaziwe nguhulumeni. EBrithani, i-telegraphy yangasese yavunyelwa ukukhula amashumi eminyaka ambalwa. Nokho, ukunganeliseki komphakathi nge-duopoly eyaba umphumela kwaholela ekulawuleni kukahulumeni isimo ngo-1868. Kulo lonke elaseYurophu, ohulumeni babeka izingcingo nezingcingo ngaphansi kokulawula kweposi likahulumeni, njengoba uHubbard nabasekeli bakhe babehlongoze. [eRussia, ibhizinisi likahulumeni "Central Telegraph" yasungulwa ngo-Okthoba 1, 1852 / approx. transl.].
Ngaphandle kweYurophu naseNyakatho Melika, iningi lomhlaba lalilawulwa yiziphathimandla zamakholoni ngakho-ke lalingenalo izwi ekuthuthukisweni nasekulawuleni i-telegraphy. Lapho kwakukhona khona ohulumeni abazimele, babevame ukudala izinhlelo ze-telegraph zombuso kumodeli yaseYurophu. Lezi zinhlelo ngokuvamile zazingenayo imali yokukhula ngesilinganiso esibonakala e-United States nasemazweni aseYurophu. Isibonelo, inkampani ye-telegraph yombuso waseBrazil, esebenza ngaphansi kwephiko loMnyango Wezolimo, Wezohwebo Nezabasebenzi, yayinemigqa ye-telegraph engamakhilomitha angama-1869 kuphela ngo-2100, ngenkathi ise-USA, endaweni efanayo, lapho kwakuhlala abantu abaningi izikhathi ezi-4, ngo-1866 kwase kunwetshiwe kakade amakhilomitha angu-130.
Idili elisha
Kungani i-United States yathatha indlela eyingqayizivele kangaka? Umuntu angaletha kulokhu uhlelo lwasendaweni lokwabiwa kwezikhundla zikahulumeni phakathi kwabalandeli beqembu eliphumelele ukhetho, olwaba khona kwaze kwaba yiminyaka yokugcina yekhulu le-XNUMX. Iziphathimandla zikahulumeni, kuze kufike kubaphathi beposi, zazihlanganisa ukuqokwa kwezombangazwe okwakungavuzwa ngakho abasekeli abathembekile. Womabili la maqembu abengafuni ukudala imithombo emisha yokuxhasa abaphikisi bawo - okwakuzokwenzeka nakanjani lapho ucingo lungena ngaphansi kokulawulwa kukahulumeni wobumbano. Kodwa-ke, incazelo elula ukungamethembi kwendabuko yaseMelika kuhulumeni omkhulu onamandla - ngenxa yesizathu esifanayo izinhlaka zokunakekelwa kwempilo yaseMelika, imfundo kanye nezinye izikhungo zomphakathi zihluke kakhulu kunezakwamanye amazwe.
Njengoba kubhekwa ukubaluleka okwandayo kokuxhumana ngogesi empilweni yezwe nokuvikeleka, i-United States ayikwazanga ukuzihlukanisa ngokuphelele nokuthuthukiswa kwezokuxhumana. Emashumini eminyaka okuqala ekhulu lama-XNUMX, kwavela uhlelo oluxubile lapho izinhlelo zokuxhumana ezizimele zavivinya amandla amabili: ngakolunye uhlangothi, i-bureaucracy ihlale iqapha amanani ezinkampani zokuxhumana, iqinisekisa ukuthi azithathi isikhundla sokuzimela futhi azenzi. inzuzo ngokweqile; ngakolunye uhlangothi, kunosongo lokuhlukaniswa ngaphansi kwemithetho yokungathembeki uma kwenzeka ukuziphatha okungafanele. Njengoba sizobona, lawa mandla amabili angase angqubuzane: ithiyori yentela yayikholelwa ukuthi ukubusa ngokweqile kwakuyinto engokwemvelo ngaphansi kwezimo ezithile, futhi ukuphindwaphindwa kwezinsizakalo kungaba ukumosha izinsiza ngokungadingekile. Abalawuli ngokuvamile bazama ukunciphisa izici ezingezinhle ze-monopoly ngokulawula amanani. Ngaso leso sikhathi, umthetho we-antimonopoly wawufuna ukucekela phansi i-monopoly ku-bud ngokuhlela ngenkani imakethe yokuncintisana.
Umqondo wokulawulwa kwentela waqalwa kojantshi besitimela, futhi wasetshenziswa ezingeni likahulumeni nge-Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), eyasungulwa yiCongress ngo-1887. Umfutho oyinhloko womthetho kwakungamabhizinisi amancane nabalimi abazimele. Isikhathi esiningi bebengenayo enye indlela ngaphandle kokuthembela kojantshi abathwala umkhiqizo wabo uma beyiswa emakethe, bathi izinkampani zezitimela zasizakala ngokubancisha imali eningi ngesikhathi zinikeza izinkampani ezinkulu impatho ewubukhazikhazi. . Ikhomishana yamalungu amahlanu yanikezwa amandla okuqapha izinsiza zikaloliwe kanye namarates kanye nokuvimbela ukusetshenziswa kabi kwamandla kaloliwe, ikakhulukazi ngokuvimbela imizila yezitimela ekunikezeni amanani akhethekile ezinkampanini ezikhethiwe (isandulela sombono namuhla esiwubiza ngokuthi “ukungathathi hlangothi kwenetha”). Umthetho we-Mann-Elkins ka-1910 wandisa amalungelo e-ICC ocingo kanye nocingo. Kodwa-ke, i-ICC, ngenkathi igxile kwezokuthutha, ayizange ibe nentshisekelo ikakhulukazi kulezi zindawo ezintsha zomthwalo wemfanelo, ingazinaki.
Ngesikhathi esifanayo, uhulumeni wobumbano wasungula ithuluzi elisha ngokuphelele lokulwa nodlame. 1890 wanika abameli abavamile ikhono lokubekela inselele enkantolo noma iyiphi “inhlanganisela” yezentengiselwano esolwa “ngokunqanda ukuhweba”—okungukuthi, ukucindezela ukuncintisana ngokusebenzisa amandla okubusa. Umthetho wasetshenziswa ukuhlakaza izinkampani ezinkulu ezimbalwa eminyakeni engamashumi amabili ezayo, okuhlanganisa nesinqumo seNkantolo Ephakeme sango-1911 sokuphula i-Standard Oil ibe yizicucu ezingu-34.
I-Standard Oil octopus evela kukhathuni ka-1904, ngaphambi kokuhlukana
Ngaleso sikhathi, ucingo, kanye nomhlinzeki wakho omkhulu we-AT&T, base bekwazile ukusibekela i-telegraphy kanye ne-WU ngokubaluleka nasemandleni, kangangokuthi ngo-1909 i-AT&T yakwazi ukuthenga intshisekelo yokulawula ku-WU. U-Theodore Vail waba umongameli wezinkampani ezihlanganisiwe futhi waqala inqubo yokuzihlanganisa zibe yinhlangano eyodwa. U-Vail wayekholelwa ngokuqinile ukuthi ukuzimela kwezokuxhumana okunomusa kuzosiza umphakathi kangcono, futhi wakhuthaza isiqubulo esisha senkampani esithi: "Inqubomgomo Eyodwa, Isistimu Eyodwa, Isevisi Yokumisa Okukodwa." Ngenxa yalokho, u-Vale wayesekulungele ukunakwa abaqaphi be-monopoly.
Theodore Vail, c. 1918
Ukuthatha isikhundla sokuphatha kukaWoodrow Wilson ngo-1913 kwanikeza amalungu ayo Lesi yisikhathi esihle sokusongela i-anti-monopoly cudgel yakho. UMqondisi Wezinkonzo Zeposi uSidney Burleson wathanda inkonzo yocingo yeposi egcwele ngendlela yaseYurophu, kodwa lo mbono, njengenjwayelo, awuzange ukuthole ukwesekwa. Esikhundleni salokho, u-Attorney General u-George Wickersham uphakamise ukuthi ukuqhubeka kwe-AT&T kwezinkampani zocingo ezizimele kwephule uMthetho we-Sherman. Esikhundleni sokuya enkantolo, uVail nesekela lakhe, uNathan Kingsbury, bangena esivumelwaneni nenkampani, esaziwa emlandweni ngokuthi “Isivumelwano se-Kingsbury,” lapho i-AT&T yavuma khona ukuthi:
- Yekani ukuthenga izinkampani ezizimele.
- Thengisa ingxenye yakho ku-WU.
- Vumela izinkampani zocingo ezizimele ukuthi zixhume kunethiwekhi yamabanga amade.
Kodwa ngemva kwalesi sikhathi esiyingozi kwabadla izambane likapondo, kwafika amashumi eminyaka ezolile. Inkanyezi ezolile yokulawulwa kwentela ikhuphukile, okusho ukuba khona kodlame lwemvelo kwezokuxhumana. Ekuqaleni kwawo-1920, impumuzo yase yenziwe futhi i-AT&T yaqala kabusha ukuthola izinkampani ezincane ezizimele zocingo. Le ndlela yafakwa esenzweni sango-1934 esasungula i-Federal Communications Commission (FCC), esikhundleni se-ICC njengomlawuli wamazinga okuxhumana ngezintambo. Ngaleso sikhathi, iBell System, nganoma yisiphi isilinganiso, yayilawula okungenani amaphesenti angama-90 ebhizinisi lezingcingo laseMelika: izintambo ezingamakhilomitha ayizigidi eziyi-135, 140 kwezingu-2,1 izingcingo zenyanga eziyizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezingu-2,3, izigidi ezingu-990 zamadola ayizigidi eziyinkulungwane ngenzuzo yonyaka. Kodwa-ke, umgomo oyinhloko we-FCC kwakungekona ukuvuselela ukuncintisana, kodwa “ukwenza kutholakale, ngangokunokwenzeka kubo bonke abahlali base-United States, ukuxhumana okusheshayo, okuphumelelayo, kwezwe kanye nomhlaba wonke ngocingo namaza omoya, ngokunethezeka okwanele nangesikhathi esifanele. izindleko." Uma inhlangano eyodwa inganikeza isevisi enjalo, makube njalo.
Maphakathi nekhulu lama-XNUMX, abalawuli bezokuxhumana bendawo nezifundazwe e-United States bathuthukise uhlelo lokuxhaswa ngezigaba eziningi ukuze kusheshiswe ukuthuthukiswa kwesevisi yezokuxhumana ngocingo. Amakhomishana okulawula abeka izilinganiso ngokusekelwe kunani elicatshangwayo lenethiwekhi kukhasimende ngalinye, esikhundleni sezindleko zokunikeza isevisi kulelo khasimende. Ngakho-ke, abasebenzisi bebhizinisi abathembele ocingweni ukuze baqhube ibhizinisi bakhokha kakhulu kunabantu abangabodwana (isevisi ebanikeze ukunethezeka komphakathi). Amakhasimende ezimakethe ezinkulu zasemadolobheni, anokufinyelela kalula kwabanye abasebenzisi abaningi, akhokha kakhulu kunalawo asemadolobheni amancane, ngaphandle kokusebenza kahle okukhulu kokuhwebelana ngezingcingo okukhulu. Abasebenzisi bamabanga amade babekhokha kakhulu, njengoba ubuchwepheshe behlise kancane kancane izindleko zezingcingo ezikude futhi inzuzo yokushintsha kwendawo yanda. Lolu hlelo oluyinkimbinkimbi lokwabiwa kabusha kwezimali lusebenze kahle inqobo nje uma kunomhlinzeki oyedwa we-monolithic lapho konke lokhu kungasebenza khona.
Ubuchwepheshe obusha
Sijwayele ukubheka i-monopoly njengamandla abuyisela emuva adala ubuvila nokukhathala. Silindele ukuthi umnikazi we-monopoly aqaphe ngomona isikhundla kanye nesimo sawo kunokuba asebenze njengenjini yokuguqulwa kwezobuchwepheshe, ezomnotho kanye namasiko. Kodwa-ke, kunzima ukusebenzisa lo mbono ku-AT&T lapho ifinyelela isiqongo sayo, njengoba ikhiphe ukuqamba okusha ngemuva kokuqamba okusha, ilindele futhi isheshisa impumelelo entsha ngayinye yezokuxhumana.
Ngokwesibonelo, ngo-1922, i-AT&T yafaka isiteshi somsakazo esisakaza ezohwebo esakhiweni sayo saseManhattan, ngemva nje konyaka nengxenye kuvulwe isiteshi esikhulu esinjalo, i-KDKA yaseWestinghouse. Ngonyaka olandelayo, yasebenzisa inethiwekhi yayo yamabanga amade ukusakaza kabusha inkulumo kaMongameli uWarren Harding eziteshini zomsakazo eziningi zasendaweni ezweni lonke. Eminyakeni embalwa kamuva, i-AT&T iphinde yathola indawo embonini yefilimu, ngemuva kokuthi onjiniyela beBell Labs benze umshini ohlanganisa ividiyo nomsindo oqoshiwe. Isitudiyo seWarner Brothers sisebenzise lokhu "»ukukhishwa kwefilimu yokuqala yaseHollywood enomculo ovumelanisiwe , eyalandelwa yifilimu yokuqala ngqa yobude esebenzisa i-voice-over evumelanisiwe "".
I-Vitaphone
U-Walter Gifford, owaba ngumongameli we-AT&T ngo-1925, wanquma ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwenkampani ye-spinoffs efana nokusakaza nezithombe ezinyakazayo, ngokwengxenye ukugwema uphenyo lokungathembeki. Nakuba uMnyango Wezobulungiswa wase-US ungazange usongele inkampani kusukela lapho kwakuhlala khona i-Kingsbury, bekungafanele ukudonsela ukunaka okungadingekile ezenzweni ezingase zithathwe njengomzamo wokuxhaphaza isikhundla sawo somuntu oyedwa ocingweni ukuze inwebele ngokungafanele kwezinye izimakethe. Ngakho-ke, esikhundleni sokuhlela ukusakazwa kwayo komsakazo, i-AT&T yaba umhlinzeki wezimpawu oyinhloko we-RCA namanye amanethiwekhi omsakazo, idlulisela izinhlelo ezivela ezitudiyo zabo zaseNew York nakwamanye amadolobha amakhulu kuya eziteshini zomsakazo ezixhumene nayo ezweni lonke.
Phakathi naleso sikhathi, ngo-1927, umsakazo wocingo wasakazekela ngaphesheya kwe-Atlantic, waqala ngombuzo ongasho lutho owabuzwa uGifford kumkhulumeli wakhe ovela enkonzweni yeposi yaseBrithani: “Sinjani isimo sezulu eLondon?” Lokhu, vele, akukhona ukuthi “Yilokhu uNkulunkulu akwenzayo!” [ibinzana lokuqala elidluliselwa ngokusemthethweni ngekhodi ye-Morse nge-telegraph / approx. transl.], kodwa isaphawula ingqophamlando ebalulekile, ukuvela kwezingxoxo ezikhona phakathi kwamazwekazi amashumi eminyaka ambalwa ngaphambi kokufakwa kwezintambo zocingo ezingaphansi kolwandle, nakuba ngezindleko ezinkulu kanye nezinga eliphansi.
Nokho, intuthuko ebaluleke kakhulu emlandweni wethu ihilela ukudluliswa kwenani elikhulu ledatha ebangeni elide. I-AT&T ihlale ifuna ukukhulisa ithrafikhi kumanethiwekhi ayo amabanga amade, asebenze njengenzuzo enkulu yokuncintisana ngaphezu kwezinkampani ezizimele ezimbalwa ezisaphilayo, kanye nokuhlinzeka ngenzuzo enkulu. Indlela elula yokuheha amakhasimende kwakuwukusungula ubuchwepheshe obusha obanciphisa izindleko zokudlulisela - ngokuvamile lokhu kwakusho ukukwazi ukuminyanisa izingxoxo eziningi ezintanjeni noma izintambo ezifanayo. Kodwa, njengoba sesibonile kakade, izicelo zokuxhumana ezikude zedlulele ngale kwemiyalezo yendabuko yocingo neyezingcingo esuka kumuntu oyedwa iye komunye. Amanethiwekhi omsakazo ayedinga iziteshi zawo, futhi umabonakude wayesevele eseduze, enezicelo ezinkulu kakhulu zomkhawulokudonsa.
Indlela ethembisa kakhulu yokwanelisa izimfuno ezintsha kwakuwukubeka intambo ye-coaxial eyakhiwe ngamasilinda ensimbi agxilile [i-coaxial, i-co-axial - ene-eksisi evamile / cishe. ukuhumusha ]. Izakhiwo zomqhubi onjalo zafundwa emuva ngekhulu le-1920 yiziqhwaga ze-physics yasendulo: uMaxwell, Heaviside, Rayleigh, Kelvin noThomson. Yayinezinzuzo ezinkulu zethiyori njengolayini wokudlulisela, njengoba yayikwazi ukudlulisa isignali ye-wideband, futhi isakhiwo sayo siyivikele ngokuphelele ekukhulumeni okuphambene nokuphazanyiswa amasignali angaphandle. Kusukela ukuthuthukiswa komabonakude kwaqala ngawo-1936, abukho ubuchwepheshe obukhona obunganikeza i-megahertz (noma ngaphezulu) umkhawulokudonsa odingekayo ekudlulisweni kwekhwalithi ephezulu. Ngakho-ke onjiniyela beBell Labs baqala ukuguqula izinzuzo zethiyori yekhebula zibe ulayini osebenza webanga elide ne-broadband, okuhlanganisa nokwakha zonke izinto ezidingekayo ezisekelayo zokukhiqiza, ukukhulisa, ukwamukela, kanye nokunye ukucubungula amasignali. Ngo-160, i-AT&T, ngemvume evela ku-FCC, yenza izivivinyo zekhebula ezingaphezu kwamamayela ayi-27 ukusuka eManhattan ukuya ePhiladelphia. Ngemva kokuhlola kuqala uhlelo ngamasekhethi ezwi angu-1937, onjiniyela bafunda ngempumelelo ukudlulisa ividiyo ekupheleni kuka-XNUMX.
Ngaleso sikhathi, kwaqala ukuvela esinye isicelo sokuxhumana okude nge-high throughput, ukuxhumana kwe-radio relay. I-Radiotelephony, eyasetshenziswa ngo-1927 kwezokuxhumana kwe-transatlantic, yasebenzisa amasignali omsakazo osakazwayo futhi yakha isiteshi sezwi esinezinhlangothi ezimbili phezu kwe-shortwave. Ukuxhumanisa ama-radio-transmitters amabili kanye nabamukeli kusetshenziswa i-frequency band engxoxweni eyodwa yocingo akuzange kusebenze ngokwezomnotho ngokombono wezokuxhumana wasemhlabeni. Ukube bekungenzeka ukuminyanisa izingxoxo eziningi emsakazweni owodwa, bekungaba ingxoxo ehlukile. Nakuba isiteshi somsakazo ngasinye singabiza kakhulu, iziteshi ezinjalo eziyikhulu beziyokwanela ukudlulisa imiyalezo kulo lonke elase-United States.
Amabhendi amabili efrikhwensi aqhudelana nelungelo lokusebenzisa ohlelweni olunjalo: amaza aphezulu kakhulu (amaza amadesimitha) UHF namamicrowaves (amaza anobude besentimitha). Ama-microwave amafrikhwensi aphezulu athembisa ukusebenza okukhulu, kodwa futhi aveza ubunkimbinkimbi obukhulu bezobuchwepheshe. Ngawo-1930s, umbono we-AT&T obophezelekile wancika kunketho ephephile ye-UHF.
Kodwa-ke, ubuchwepheshe be-microwave buthathe igxathu elikhulu phambili phakathi neMpi Yezwe II ngenxa yokusetshenziswa kakhulu kwe-radar. I-Bell Labs ibonise ukusebenza komsakazo we-microwave nge-AN/TRC-69, isistimu yeselula ekwazi ukudlulisa izintambo zocingo eziyisishiyagalombili kolunye uthi lomugqa wokubona. Lokhu kwavumela ikomkhulu lezempi ukuthi libuyisele ngokushesha ukuxhumana kwezwi ngemva kokuthutha, ngaphandle kokulinda ukuthi kubekwe izintambo (futhi ngaphandle kwengozi yokushiywa ngaphandle kokuxhumana ngemva kokusika ikhebula, kungaba ngephutha noma njengengxenye yesenzo sesitha).
Kufakwe isiteshi somsakazo we-microwave AN/TRC-6
Ngemva kwempi, uHarold T. Friis, isikhulu saseBell Labs esazalelwa eDenmark, wahola ukuthuthukiswa kwezokuxhumana ngomsakazo we-microwave. Ulayini wecala ongamakhilomitha angama-350 osuka eNew York uya eBoston wavulwa ngasekupheleni kuka-1945. Amagagasi agxume izigaba ezingama-50 km ubude phakathi kwemibhoshongo esekelwe phansi - esebenzisa isimiso esifana ncamashi ne-optical telegraphy, noma ngisho nochungechunge lwamalambu esignali. Ukhuphukela e-Hudson Highlands, udabule amagquma ase-Connecticut, uye eNtabeni i-Ashnebamskit entshonalanga yeMassachusetts, bese wehlela eBoston Harbour.
I-AT&T bekungeyona yodwa inkampani enentshisekelo kwezokuxhumana nge-microwave kanye nokuthola ulwazi lwezempi ekuphatheni amasiginali we-microwave. UPhilco, General Electric, Raytheon, nabasakazi bethelevishini bazakhele noma bahlela ezabo izinhlelo zokuhlola eminyakeni yangemva kwempi. UPhilco washaya i-AT&T ngokwakha isixhumanisi phakathi kweWashington nePhiladelphia entwasahlobo ka-1945.
Isiteshi somsakazo i-AT&T microwave relay eCreston (Wyoming), ingxenye yomugqa wokuqala we-transcontinental, ngo-1951.
Ngaphezu kweminyaka engama-30, i-AT&T igweme izinkinga nabalawuli be-antitrust nabanye abalawuli bakahulumeni. Okuningi kwakho kwavikelwa umbono wokubusa kwemvelo—umbono wokuthi ngeke kungasebenzi kahle ukudala amasistimu amaningi aqhudelanayo nangahlobene asebenzisa izintambo zawo ezweni lonke. Ukuxhumana kwe-Microwave kwaba ukubola kokuqala okukhulu kulesi sikhali, okuvumela izinkampani eziningi ukuthi zinikeze ukuxhumana okude ngaphandle kwezindleko ezingadingekile.
Ukudluliswa kwe-Microwave kwehlise kakhulu isithiyo sokungena kwabangase baqhudelane. Njengoba ubuchwepheshe budinga uchungechunge lweziteshi kuphela eziqhelelene ngamakhilomitha angama-50, ukwakha uhlelo oluwusizo kwakungadingi ukuthenga umhlaba oyizinkulungwane zamakhilomitha nokugcina izintambo eziyizinkulungwane zamakhilomitha. Ngaphezu kwalokho, umkhawulokudonsa wama-microwave wawumkhulu ngokuphawulekayo kunalowo wezintambo ezibhanqiwe zendabuko, ngoba isiteshi sokudluliselana ngasinye singadlulisela izinkulungwane zezingxoxo zocingo noma ukusakazwa kwethelevishini okuningana. Inzuzo yokuncintisana yesistimu yebanga elide ye-AT&T yezintambo yayiguguleka.
Kodwa-ke, i-FCC ivikele i-AT&T emiphumeleni yomncintiswano onjalo iminyaka eminingi, ikhipha izinqumo ezimbili ngeminyaka yawo-1940s kanye nawo-1950. Ekuqaleni, ikhomishana yenqaba ukukhipha amalayisense, ngaphandle kwalawo esikhashana nawokuhlola, kubahlinzeki abasha bezokuxhumana abangazange banikeze izinsizakalo zabo kubo bonke abantu (kodwa, isibonelo, banikeze ukuxhumana phakathi kwebhizinisi elilodwa). Ngakho-ke, ukungena kule makethe kwasongela ukulahlekelwa ilayisense. Okhomishana bakhathazeke ngenkinga efanayo eyayikhungethe ukusakaza eminyakeni engamashumi amabili ngaphambili futhi yaholela ekwakhiweni kwe-FCC ngokwayo: i-cacophony yokuphazamiseka okuvela kuma-transmitters amaningi ahlukene angcolisa umkhawulokudonsa olinganiselwe womsakazo.
Isinqumo sesibili siphathelene nokusebenza kwe-inthanethi. Khumbula ukuthi Isivumelwano sase-Kingsbury besidinga ukuthi i-AT&T ivumele izinkampani zocingo zasendaweni ukuthi zixhume kunethiwekhi yayo yamabanga amade. Ingabe lezi zimfuneko bezisebenza ekuxhumaneni nomsakazo we-microwave? I-FCC inqume ukuthi zisebenza kuphela ezindaweni lapho isistimu yezokuxhumana yomphakathi ingekho khona. Ngakho-ke noma yimuphi umuntu oqhudelana naye owakha inethiwekhi yesifunda noma yendawo ube sengozini yokunqanyulwa kungazelelwe ezweni lonke lapho i-AT&T inquma ukungena endaweni yayo. Okuwukuphela kwendlela yokulondoloza ukuxhumana kwaba ukwakha inethiwekhi kazwelonke entsha eyethu, okwakusabisa ukuyenza ngaphansi kwelayisensi yokuhlola.
Ngasekupheleni kweminyaka yama-1950s, kwase kukhona umdlali oyedwa kuphela omkhulu emakethe yezokuxhumana yamabanga amade: AT&T. Inethiwekhi yayo ye-microwave ithwala izintambo zocingo ezingu-6000 umzila ngamunye, zifinyelela kuzo zonke izifundazwe zezwekazi.
Inethiwekhi yomsakazo we-microwave ye-AT&T ngo-1960
Nokho, isithiyo sokuqala esibalulekile ekulawuleni okuphelele nokuphelele kwe-AT&T kunethiwekhi yezokuxhumana savela ohlangothini oluhluke ngokuphelele.
Yini enye ongayifunda
- UGerald W. Brock, The Telecommunications Industry (1981) Imboni yezokuxhumana: the dynamics of market structure / Gerald W. Brock
- UJohn Brooks, Ucingo: Iminyaka Eyikhulu Yokuqala (1976)
- M. D. Fagen, ed., Umlando Wobunjiniyela Nesayensi Kuhlelo LweBell: Ubuchwepheshe Bokudlulisa (1985)
- UJoshua D. Wolff, i-Western Union kanye nokudalwa kwe-American Corporate Order (2013)
Source: www.habr.com