Ezinye izindatshana ochungechungeni:
- Umlando we-relay
- Umlando wamakhompyutha kagesi
- Umlando we-transistor
- Umlando we-inthanethi
Cishe iminyaka engamashumi ayisikhombisa, i-AT&T, inkampani engumzali ye-Bell System, yayingenazo izimbangi kwezokuxhumana zaseMelika. Okuwukuphela kwembangi yayo yanoma yikuphi ukubaluleka kwakunguGeneral Telephone, kamuva eyaziwa ngokuthi i-GT&E kwase kubalula nje nge-GTE. Kodwa maphakathi nekhulu lama-5, yayinezintambo zocingo eziyizigidi ezimbili kuphela, okungukuthi, azikho ngaphezu kuka-1913% wesamba semakethe. Isikhathi sokubusa kwe-AT&T—kusukela esivumelwaneni somnumzane othile nohulumeni ngo-1982 kwaze kwaba yilowo hulumeni ofanayo usihlakaza ngo-XNUMX—cishe siphawula ukuqala nokuphela kwenkathi yezombangazwe eyinqaba e-United States; isikhathi lapho izakhamuzi zazikwazi ukuthembela ebuhleni nasekusebenzeni kahle kohlelo olukhulu lokuphatha.
Kunzima ukuphikisana nokusebenza kwangaphandle kwe-AT&T ngalesi sikhathi. Kusukela ngo-1955 kuya ku-1980, i-AT&T yengeza cishe amamayela ayibhiliyoni olayini bocingo bezwi, iningi layo irediyo ye-microwave. Izindleko ngekhilomitha ngalinye lolayini zehle ngokuphindwe kashumi ngalesi sikhathi. Ukwehliswa kwezindleko kubonakale kubathengi abezwa ukwehla okuqhubekayo kwenani langempela (elilungiswe ngokwenyuka kwamandla emali) lezikweletu zabo zocingo. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi kulinganiswa ngephesenti lemizi eyayinocingo lwayo (90% ngeminyaka yawo-1970), ngokwesilinganiso sokubonisana nomsindo, noma ngokwethembeka, i-United States ingahlala iziqhayisa ngesevisi yocingo ehamba phambili emhlabeni. Akukaze kube nesikhathi lapho i-AT&T inikeze noma yisiphi isizathu sokukholelwa ukuthi ibihlezi phezu kwengqalasizinda yayo yocingo ekhona. Ingalo yayo yocwaningo, iBell Labs, ibe negalelo elibalulekile ekuthuthukisweni kwamakhompyutha, i-solid-state electronics, ama-laser, ama-fiber optics, ezokuxhumana ngesathelayithi, nokunye. Kuphela uma kuqhathaniswa nesivinini esiyingqayizivele sokuthuthukiswa komkhakha wamakhompyutha i-AT&T ingabizwa ngenkampani ehamba kancane. Kodwa-ke, ngeminyaka yawo-1970, umbono wokuthi i-AT&T yayiphuza ukwenza izinto ezintsha wawusuzuze isisindo esanele sezombangazwe ukuze uholele ekuhlukaneni kwayo kwesikhashana.
Ukuwa kokubambisana phakathi kwe-AT&T nohulumeni wase-US bekuhamba kancane futhi kuthathe amashumi eminyaka ambalwa. Kwaqala lapho i-US Federal Communications Commission (FCC) inquma ukulungisa kancane uhlelo - ukususa intambo eyodwa exegayo lapha, enye lapho... Nokho, imizamo yabo yokubuyisela ukuhleleka yembula imicu eyengeziwe. Maphakathi nawo-1970, base bebuka isiphithiphithi ababesenzile bedidekile. Khona-ke uMnyango Wezobulungiswa nezinkantolo zombuso zangena ngesikelo zaluvala lolu daba.
Umshayeli omkhulu walezi zinguquko, ngaphandle kuhulumeni, kwakuyifemu encane entsha ebizwa ngokuthi iMicrowave Communications, Incorporated. Ngaphambi kokuthi sifike lapho, ake sibheke ukuthi i-AT&T kanye nohulumeni wobumbano basebenzisana kanjani ngeminyaka yawo-1950s.
Isimo sezwe samanje
Njengoba sibonile okokugcina, ekhulwini lama-1934 izinhlobo ezimbili zemithetho ezihlukene zazinomthwalo wemfanelo wokuhlola iziqhwaga zezimboni ezifana ne-AT&T. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, kwakukhona umthetho olawulayo. Endabeni ye-AT&T, i-watchdog kwakuyi-FCC, eyakhiwe ngoMthetho Wezokuxhumana we-XNUMX. Ngakolunye uhlangothi kwakukhona umthetho wokungathembeki, owawuphoqelelwa uMnyango Wezobulungiswa. Lezi zigaba ezimbili zomthetho zazihluke kakhulu. Uma i-FCC ingase iqhathaniswe ne-lathe, ehlangana ngezikhathi ezithile ukuze yenze izinqumo ezincane ezilolonga kancane kancane ukuziphatha kwe-AT&T, khona-ke umthetho we-antitrust ungase ubhekwe njengembazo yomlilo: ngokuvamile ugcinwa ekhabetheni, kodwa imiphumela yokusetshenziswa kwawo ayiyona into ecashile. .
Ngawo-1950s, i-AT&T yayisithola izinsongo ezivela kuzo zombili izinkomba, kodwa zonke zaxazululwa ngokuthula, okunomthelela omncane ebhizinisini eliyinhloko le-AT&T. Akukhona i-FCC noma uMnyango Wezobulungiswa ophikise ukuthi i-AT&T izohlala ingumhlinzeki ovelele wezinto zokusebenza zocingo namasevisi e-United States.
Hush-a-Phone
Ake siqale sibheke ubudlelwano be-AT&T ne-FCC ngecala elincane nelingavamile elihlanganisa amadivayisi ezinkampani zangaphandle. Kusukela ngawo-1920, inkampani encane yaseManhattan ebizwa ngokuthi iHush-a-Phone Corporation iziphilisa ngokuthengisa inkomishi enamathela engxenyeni yocingo okhuluma kuyo. Umsebenzisi, ekhuluma ngqo kule divayisi, angagwema ukulalela abantu abaseduze, futhi avimbe omunye umsindo ongemuva (ngokwesibonelo, phakathi kwehhovisi lokuhweba). Nokho, ngawo-1940, i-AT&T yaqala ukufaka ingcindezi kumadivayisi anjalo ezinkampani zangaphandle—okungukuthi, kunoma iyiphi imishini exhunywe kumadivayisi e-Bell System i-Bell System ngokwayo engazange iwenze.
Imodeli yokuqala ye-Hush-a-Phone enamathiselwe ocingweni oluqondile
Ngokusho kwe-AT&T, i-Hush-a-Phone ethobekile yayiyidivayisi enjalo yenkampani yangaphandle, eyenza noma yimuphi obhalisile asebenzise idivayisi enjalo enefoni yakhe engaphansi kokunqanyulwa ngenxa yokwephula imigomo yokusetshenziswa. Ngokwazi kwethu, lolu songo aluzange lwenziwe, kodwa kungenzeka ngokwako kubize i-Hush-a-Phone imali ethile, ikakhulukazi kubathengisi ababengazimisele ukubeka imishini yabo. UHarry Tuttle, umsunguli weHush-a-Phone kanye “nomongameli” webhizinisi (nakuba isisebenzi senkampani yakhe okuwukuphela kwakhe kwakungunobhala wakhe), wanquma ukuphikisana nale ndlela futhi wafaka isikhalazo kuFCC ngoDisemba 1948.
I-FCC yayinamandla kokubili okumisa imithetho emisha njengegatsha elishaya umthetho kanye nokuxazulula izingxabano njengegatsha lezomthetho. Kwakusesikhundleni sakamuva lapho ikhomishana yenza khona isinqumo ngo-1950 lapho icubungula isikhalazo sikaTuttle. UTuttle akazange avele phambi kwekhomishana yedwa; wahlomisa ngofakazi abangochwepheshe abavela eCambridge, elungele ukufakaza ukuthi izimfanelo ze-acoustic ze-Hush-a-Phone zaziphakeme kunezinye - isandla esinqunyiwe (ochwepheshe kwakungu-Leo Beranek noJoseph Carl Robnett Licklider, futhi babezokwenza kamuva. dlala indima ebaluleke kakhulu kule ndaba kunale-cameo encane). Isikhundla sikaHush-a-Phone sasisekelwe emaqinisweni okuthi ukuklanywa kwayo kwakuphakeme kunenye indlela okuwukuphela kwayo okwakungenzeka, ukuthi, njengesisetshenziswa esilula esixhunywe ocingweni, yayingakwazi ukulimaza inethiwekhi yocingo nganoma iyiphi indlela, nokuthi abasebenzisi abazimele babenayo. ilungelo lokuzenzela izinqumo mayelana nokusebenzisa impahla abayibona ikulungele.
Ngokombono wesimanje, lezi zimpikiswano zibonakala zingenakuphikiswa, futhi isimo se-AT&T sibonakala singenangqondo; Iliphi ilungelo inkampani enalo lokuvimbela abantu ukuthi baxhume noma yini ocingweni ekhaya noma ehhovisi labo? Ingabe i-Apple kufanele ibe nelungelo lokukuvimbela ukuthi ufake i-iPhone yakho ecaleni? Kodwa-ke, uhlelo lwe-AT&T bekungelona ukufaka ingcindezi ku-Hush-a-Phone ngokuqondile, kodwa ukuvikela isimiso esijwayelekile sokuvala amadivayisi ezinkampani zangaphandle. Kube nezimpikiswano eziningana eziqinisekisayo ezivuna lo mgomo, ezihlobene kokubili ohlangothini lwezomnotho lwalolu daba kanye nezithakazelo zomphakathi. Okokuqala, ukusebenzisa isethi yocingo eyodwa kwakungeyona into yangasese, njengoba yayingaxhuma izigidi zamasethi abanye ababhalisile, futhi noma yini eyehlisa izinga lekholi ingase ibe nomthelela kunoma iyiphi yazo. Kuyafaneleka futhi ukukhumbula ukuthi ngaleso sikhathi, izinkampani zocingo ezifana ne-AT&T zaziphethe yonke inethiwekhi yocingo ebonakalayo. Impahla yabo yayisuka emabhodini okushintsha amaphakathi kuye ezintanjeni kanye namasethi ocingo ngokwawo, lawo abasebenzisi ababewaqasha. Ngakho ngokombono wendawo yangasese, kwabonakala kunengqondo ukuthi inkampani yocingo kufanele ibe nelungelo lokulawula okwenzeka emishinini yayo. I-AT&T itshale izigidi zamaRandi emashumini eminyaka amaningi ithuthukisa umshini oyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu owaziwa umuntu. Wonke umhwebi omncane onombono ongasile angawafuna kanjani amalungelo akhe okuzuza kulezi zimpumelelo? Okokugcina, kufanelekile ukucabangela ukuthi i-AT&T ngokwayo inikeze izesekeli ezihlukahlukene ongakhetha kuzo, kusukela kumalambu wesignali kuya ekukhwezeni kwamahlombe, nazo ezaziqashwa (imvamisa ngamabhizinisi) kanye nezinkokhelo eziwela esikhwameni se-AT&T, okusiza ukugcina amanani ephansi. amasevisi anikezwa ababhalisile abajwayelekile. Ukuqondisa kabusha le mali engenile emaphaketheni osomabhizinisi abazimele kuzophazamisa lolu hlelo lokwabiwa kabusha.
Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi uzizwa kanjani ngalezi zimpikiswano, zenze ikhomishana yaqiniseka - i-FCC yaphetha ngazwi linye ukuthi i-AT&T inelungelo lokulawula yonke into eyenzekayo kunethiwekhi, okuhlanganisa namadivayisi axhunywe kwihendisethi. Nokho, ngo-1956, inkantolo yokudlulisa amacala yasenqaba isinqumo se-FCC. Ijaji linqume ukuthi uma i-Hush-a-Phone yehlisa ikhwalithi yezwi, yenza kanjalo kuphela kulabo ababhalisile abayisebenzisayo, futhi i-AT&T ayinaso isizathu sokuphazamisa lesi sixazululo sangasese. I-AT&T futhi ayinalo ikhono noma inhloso yokuvimbela abasebenzisi ukuthi bathulise amazwi abo ngezinye izindlela. Ijaji labhala: “Ukusho ukuthi umuntu obhalisele ucingo angathola umphumela okukhulunywa ngaye ngokufaka isandla sakhe futhi akhulume kuwo, kodwa ngeke akwenze lokho esebenzisa umshini oshiya isandla sakhe sikhululekile ukuba abhale ngawo noma enze noma yini enye. ngayo, noma yini ayifunayo ngeke ibe nobulungisa noma ibe nengqondo.” Futhi nakuba amajaji ngokusobala ayengakuthandi ukunganaki kwe-AT&T kuleli cala, isinqumo sawo sasincane - awazange akuqede ngokuphelele ukuvinjelwa kwamadivayisi ezinkampani zangaphandle, futhi aqinisekisa kuphela ilungelo lababhalisile lokusebenzisa i-Hush-a-Phone ngokuthanda kwabo ( noma ngabe yikuphi, i-The Hush-a-Phone ayizange ihlale isikhathi eside - idivayisi kwadingeka iklanywe kabusha ngeminyaka yawo-1960s ngenxa yezinguquko ekwakhiweni kwamashubhu, kanye nakuTuttle, okwakufanele ngabe wayeseminyakeni yawo-60 noma 70s ngaleso sikhathi, lokhu. kwaba kakhulu). I-AT&T ilungise amanani ayo ukuze ikhombise ukuthi ukuvinjelwa kwamadivayisi ezinkampani zangaphandle axhuma ngogesi noma nge-inductive ocingweni kuhlala kusendaweni. Kodwa-ke, kwakuwuphawu lokuqala lokuthi ezinye izingxenye zikahulumeni wobumbano ngeke ngempela ziphathe i-AT&T ngobumnene njengabalawuli be-FCC.
Isinqumo semvume
Ngaleso sikhathi, ngawo lowo nyaka u-Hush-a-Phone ayekhalazwe ngawo, uMnyango Wezobulungiswa wesula uphenyo lwawo lokungathembeki ku-AT&T. Lolu phenyo lusuka endaweni efanayo ne-FCC ngokwayo. Igqugquzelwe ngamaqiniso amabili abalulekile: 1) I-Western Electric, i-industrial giant ngokwayo, ilawula u-90% wemakethe yezimpahla zocingo futhi iyona kuphela ehlinzeka ngalezi zisetshenziswa ku-Bell System, kusukela ekuhwebeni ngocingo okuqashisiwe kuya kubasebenzisi bokugcina. amakhebula ama-coaxial nama-microwaves imibhoshongo esetshenziselwa ukudlulisa izingcingo kusuka ohlangothini olulodwa lwezwe kuya kolunye. Futhi 2) zonke izinto ezilawulayo ezigcine ukugunyazwa kwe-AT&T zithembele ekuhlanganiseni inzuzo yazo njengephesenti lokutshalwa kwezimali kwayo okukhulu.
Inkinga bekulokhu. Umuntu osolisayo angacabanga kalula itulo ngaphakathi kwe-Bell System ukuze asebenzise la maqiniso. I-Western Electric inganyusa izintengo zensalela Yohlelo Lwe-Bell (isibonelo, ngokukhokhisa u-$5 ngobude obuthile bekhebula lapho inani layo elifanelekile lalingu-$4), kuyilapho ikhulisa ukutshalwa kwezimali kwayo okukhulu ngamadola kanye nayo yonke inzuzo yenkampani. Ake sithi, isibonelo, imbuyiselo ephezulu ye-Indiana Bell ekutshalweni kwezimali kwe-Indiana Bell ingu-7%. Ake sicabange ukuthi i-Western Electric yacela i-$ 10 ngemishini emisha ngo-000. Inkampani izobe isikwazi ukwenza inzuzo engu-$000 - nokho-ke, uma intengo efanelekile yale mishini ingu-$1934, bekuzodingeka yenze u-$700 kuphela.
ICongress, ikhathazekile ngokuthi uhlelo olunjalo lomgunyathi lwayenzeka, yenze uphenyo ngobudlelwano phakathi kwe-Western Electric nezinkampani ezisebenzayo ezifakwe kugunya lokuqala le-FCC. Ucwaningo lwathatha iminyaka emihlanu futhi lwahlanganisa amakhasi angama-700, luchaza umlando we-Bell System, uhlaka lwayo lwebhizinisi, ezobuchwepheshe kanye nezezimali, nakho konke ukusebenza kwayo, kwamanye amazwe nasekhaya. Bekhuluma nombuzo wasekuqaleni, ababhali bocwaningo bathola ukuthi kwakungenakwenzeka ukunquma ukuthi amanani entengo ye-Western Electric ayelungile noma cha-asikho isibonelo esiqhathanisekayo. Kodwa-ke, batusa ukwethula ukuncintisana ngempoqo emakethe yocingo ukuze kuqinisekiswe izinqubo ezinobulungiswa futhi kugqugquzelwe izinzuzo ezisebenza kahle.
Amalungu ayisikhombisa ekhomishini yeFCC ngo-1937. Damn buhle.
Nokho, ngesikhathi lo mbiko uqedwa, impi yayisisondela ngo-1939. Ngaleso sikhathi, akekho owayefuna ukuphazamisa inethiwekhi yezokuxhumana ewumgogodla wezwe. Nokho, eminyakeni eyishumi kamuva, uMnyango Wezobulungiswa we-Truman wavuselela izinsolo mayelana nobudlelwano phakathi kwe-Western Electric kanye nayo yonke i-Bell System. Esikhundleni semibiko ende nengacacile, lezi zinsolo ziholele ohlotsheni olusebenza kakhulu lwesenzo sokungathembeki. Yayidinga ukuthi i-AT&T ingagcini nje ngokuhlukanisa i-Western Electric, kodwa futhi iyihlukanise ibe izinkampani ezintathu ezihlukene, ngaleyo ndlela idale imakethe yokuncintisana yemishini yocingo ngesinqumo somthetho.
I-AT&T yayinezizathu okungenani ezimbili zokukhathazeka. Okokuqala, abaphathi be-Truman babonise isimo sabo esinolaka ekubekeni imithetho yokungathembeki. Ngo-1949 kuphela, ngaphezu kwecala le-AT&T, uMnyango Wezobulungiswa kanye neFederal Trade Commission bafaka amacala ngokumelene no-Eastman Kodak, uxhaxha lwesitolo esikhulu segrosa i-A&P, i-Bausch ne-Lomb, i-American Can Company, iYellow Cab Company, nabanye abaningi. . Okwesibili, kwaba nesandulela esivela ku-US v. Pullman Company. I-Pullman Company, efana ne-AT&T, yayinophiko lwesevisi oluhlinzeka ngezimoto ezingalali zikaloliwe kanye nengxenye yokukhiqiza eyazihlanganisa. Futhi, njengasendabeni ye-AT & T, ukusabalala kwenkonzo ye-Pullman kanye neqiniso lokuthi yakhonza kuphela izimoto ezenziwe ku-Pullman, izimbangi azikwazanga ukuvela ohlangothini lokukhiqiza. Futhi njenge-AT&T, ngaphandle kobudlelwano obusolisayo bezinkampani, abukho ubufakazi bokusebenzisa kabi amanani e-Pullman, futhi abekho amakhasimende anganelisekile. Nokho, ngo-1943, inkantolo yombuso yakhipha isinqumo sokuthi uPullman wephula imithetho yokungathembeki futhi kufanele ahlukanise ukukhiqiza kanye nenkonzo.
Kodwa ekugcineni, i-AT&T yagwema ukunqunywa futhi ayizange ivele enkantolo. Ngemva kweminyaka eyi-limbo, ngo-1956 yavuma ukungena esivumelwaneni nabaphathi abasha be-Eisenhower ukuze kuqedwe ukuqulwa kwamacala. Uguquko endleleni uhulumeni abheka ngayo lolu daba lube lula kakhulu wukushintshwa kokuphatha. AmaRiphabhulikhi ayethembeke kakhulu ebhizinisini elikhulu kunamaDemocrats, owakhuthaza "". Kodwa-ke, izinguquko ezimweni zezomnotho akufanele zishaywe indiva - ukukhula komnotho okuqhubekayo okubangelwa impi kwaphikisa izimpikiswano ezithandwayo zabalandeli be-New Deal zokuthi ukubusa kwamabhizinisi amakhulu emnothweni kwaholela nakanjani ekwehleni komnotho, ukucindezela ukuncintisana nokuvimbela amanani ukuba ehle. Ekugcineni, ukwanda kobubanzi beMpi Yomshoshaphansi neSoviet Union nakho kwaba nengxenye. I-AT&T icishe yasebenzela amasosha nasolwandle phakathi neMpi Yezwe II, futhi yaqhubeka nokusebenzisana nowalandela esikhundleni, uMnyango Wezokuvikela wase-US. Ikakhulukazi, ngawo lowo nyaka lapho kwafakwa khona icala lokungathembeki, iWestern Electric yaqala ukusebenza e-Albuquerque (eNew Mexico). Ngaphandle kwale labhorethri, i-United States ayikwazanga ukuthuthukisa nokudala izikhali zenuzi ezintsha, futhi ngaphandle kwezikhali zenuzi, ayikwazanga ukubeka usongo olukhulu ku-USSR eMpumalanga Yurophu. Ngakho-ke, uMnyango Wezokuvikela wawungenaso isifiso sokwenza buthaka i-AT&T, futhi abagqugquzeli bayo bamelana nabaphathi egameni likasonkontileka wabo.
Imigomo yesivumelwano idinga ukuthi i-AT&T ikhawulele imisebenzi yayo ebhizinisini lezokuxhumana elilawulwayo. UMnyango Wezobulungiswa wavumela okuhlukile, ikakhulukazi umsebenzi kahulumeni—wawungahlosile ukuvimba inkampani ukuthi isebenze eSandia Laboratories. Uhulumeni uphinde wadinga ukuthi i-AT&T inikeze ilayisense futhi inikeze izeluleko zobuchwepheshe kuwo wonke amalungelo obunikazi akhona nawesikhathi esizayo ngezindleko ezifanele kunoma yiziphi izinkampani zasekhaya. Uma kubhekwa ububanzi bezinto ezintsha ezakhiwe yi-Bell Labs, lokhu kukhululwa kwelayisensi kuzosiza ukukhuthaza ukukhula kwezinkampani zobuchwepheshe obuphezulu baseMelika emashumini eminyaka ezayo. Zombili lezi zidingo zibe nomthelela omkhulu ekwakhiweni kwamanethiwekhi ekhompyutha e-United States, kodwa azenzanga lutho ukushintsha indima ye-AT&T njengomhlinzeki we-de facto monopoly wezinsizakalo zokuxhumana zendawo. Imbazo yomlilo ibuyiselwe ekhabetheni layo okwesikhashana. Kodwa maduze nje, kuzovela usongo olusha oluvela engxenyeni engalindelekile ye-FCC. I-lathe, ehlale isebenza ngokushelela futhi kancane kancane, izoqala ngokuzumayo ukumba ijule.
Intambo yokuqala
I-AT&T kade ihlinzeka ngezinsizakalo zokuxhumana ezizimele ezivumela ikhasimende (imvamisa inkampani enkulu noma umnyango kahulumeni) ukuthi liqashe ulayini wefoni owodwa noma ngaphezulu ukuze lisetshenziswe ngokukhethekile. Ezinhlanganweni eziningi okwakudingeka zixoxisane ngenkuthalo ngaphakathi—amanethiwekhi e-TV, izinkampani ezinkulu zikawoyela, abaqhubi bezitimela, uMnyango Wezokuvikela wase-U.S.—le nketho ibonakala ifaneleka kakhulu, iyonga, futhi ivikelekile kunokusebenzisa inethiwekhi yomphakathi.
Onjiniyela beBell basungula ulayini ozimele we-radiotelephone wenkampani yamandla ngo-1953.
Ukwanda kwemibhoshongo ye-microwave relay ngeminyaka yawo-1950s kwanciphisa izindleko zokungena kwabasebenzisa izingcingo abahamba ibanga elide kangangokuthi izinhlangano eziningi zavele zakuthola kunenzuzo enkulu ukwakha amanethiwekhi azo kunokuqasha inethiwekhi kwa-AT&T. Ifilosofi yenqubomgomo ye-FCC, njengoba isungulwe ngemithetho yayo eminingi, bekuwukuvimbela ukuncintisana kwezokuxhumana ngaphandle uma inkampani ephethe ingakwazi noma ingazimisele ukunikeza isevisi efanayo kumakhasimende. Kungenjalo, i-FCC izobe ikhuthaza ukumoshwa kwezinsiza futhi ibukela phansi isistimu ebhalansiswe ngokucophelela yokulawula kanye nesilinganiso esimaphakathi esigcine i-AT&T isemgqeni ngenkathi kukhulisa isevisi emphakathini. Isandulela esisunguliwe asenzanga ukuthi kube nokwenzeka ukuvula ukuxhumana okuyimfihlo kwe-microwave kuwo wonke umuntu. Ngenkathi i-AT&T yayizimisele futhi ikwazi ukunikeza izintambo zefoni eziyimfihlo, ezinye izinkampani zenethiwekhi zazingenalo ilungelo lokungena ebhizinisini.
Ngemva kwalokho umfelandawonye wabathintekayo wanquma ukuphikisa lesi sibonelo. Cishe zonke bekuyizinkampani ezinkulu ezinezimali zazo zokwakha nokugcina amanethiwekhi azo. Phakathi kwezigqame kakhulu kwakuyimboni ye-petroleum (emelwe yi-American Petroleum Institute, API). Njengoba amapayipi emboni ezulazula kuwo wonke amazwekazi, imithombo esabalele ezindaweni ezinkulu nezikude, imikhumbi yokuhlola nezindawo zokumba ezisabalele emhlabeni wonke, imboni yayifuna ukudala amasistimu ayo okuxhumana ukuze ihambisane nezidingo zayo ezithile. Izinkampani ezifana ne-Sinclair kanye ne-Humble Oil zazifuna ukusebenzisa amanethiwekhi e-microwave ukuze ziqaphe isimo sepayipi, ziqaphe zikude izinjini zokulungisa izinto, zixhumane nezinsimbi ezingasogwini, futhi bezingafuni ukulinda imvume evela ku-AT&T. Kodwa imboni kawoyela yayingeyona yodwa. Cishe zonke izinhlobo zamabhizinisi amakhulu, kusukela kwaloliwe kanye nabathwali bezimpahla kuya kubathengisi nabakhiqizi bezimoto, banxuse i-FCC ukuthi ivumele izinhlelo ezizimele ze-microwave.
Lapho ibhekene nengcindezi enjalo, i-FCC yavula ukulalelwa kwecala ngoNovemba 1956 ukuze inqume ukuthi ngabe ibhendi entsha yamafrikhwensi (engaba ngu-890 MHz) kufanele ivulwe yini kumanethiwekhi anjalo. Njengoba kunikezwe ukuthi amanethiwekhi we-microwave yangasese acishe aphikiswa ngokukhethekile opharetha be-telecom ngokwabo, isinqumo ngalolu daba bekulula ukusithatha. Ngisho noMnyango Wezobulungiswa, ukholelwa ukuthi i-AT&T yayibakhohlise ngandlela thize lapho isayina isivumelwano sokugcina, yaphuma ivuna amanethiwekhi ama-microwave angasese. Futhi kwaba umkhuba - phakathi neminyaka engamashumi amabili eyalandela, uMnyango Wezobulungiswa uhlale uhlohla ikhala lawo ezindabeni ze-FCC, isikhathi nesikhathi uphazamisa izenzo ze-AT&T futhi umela abasanda kungena ezimakethe.
Ukuphikisa okuqine kakhulu kwe-AT&T, kanye naleyo ebilokhu ibuyela kuyo, ukuthi abafikayo babebophekile ukuthi baphazamise ibhalansi ethambile yesistimu yokulawula ngokuzama ukuhleba ukhilimu. Okusho ukuthi, amabhizinisi amakhulu eza ukuze adale amanethiwekhi awo emizileni lapho izindleko zokubeka ziphansi futhi ithrafikhi iphezulu (imizila enenzuzo kakhulu ye-AT&T), bese iqasha imigqa yangasese evela ku-AT&T lapho kubiza kakhulu ukuyakha. Ngenxa yalokho, yonke into izokhokhwa ngababhalisi abavamile, izinga eliphansi lemali ekhokhwayo elingagcinwa kuphela ngezinsizakalo zokuxhumana zebanga elide ezinenzuzo kakhulu, izinkampani ezinkulu ezingeke zikhokhe.
Nokho, i-FCC ngo-1959 kulokho okuthiwa. "izixazululo ezingaphezu kuka-890" [okungukuthi, kububanzi befrikhwensi ngaphezulu kuka-890 MHz / approx. transl.] unqume ukuthi wonke umuntu osanda kungena ebhizinisini angakha inethiwekhi yakhe yangasese yamabanga amade. Lesi kwakuyisikhathi sokukhula kwenqubomgomo yenhlangano. Ubuze umcabango oyisisekelo wokuthi i-AT&T kufanele isebenze njengendlela yokusabalalisa kabusha, ukushaja amanani kumakhasimende acebile ukuze anikeze isevisi yocingo ebiza kancane kubasebenzisi emadolobheni amancane, ezindaweni zasemakhaya nasezindaweni ezimpofu. Kodwa-ke, i-FCC isaqhubeka nokukholelwa ukuthi ingadla inhlanzi futhi ingangeni echibini. Wazitshela ukuthi lolu shintsho lwalungabalulekile. Kuthinte kuphela iphesenti elincane lethrafikhi ye-AT&T, futhi akuzange kuthinte ifilosofi eyinhloko yenkonzo yomphakathi eye yabusa ukulawulwa kwezingcingo amashumi eminyaka. Phela, i-FCC inqume intambo eyodwa ephumile. Ngempela, isinqumo “ngaphezu kuka-890” ngokwaso sasinomphumela omncane. Nokho, yaqala uchungechunge lwezenzakalo ezaholela ekuguqukeni kwangempela kwesakhiwo sezokuxhumana ngezingcingo zaseMelika.
Yini enye ongayifunda
- UFred W. Henck noBernard Strassburg, I-Slippery Slope (1988)
- U-Alan Stone, Inombolo Engalungile (1989)
- U-Peter Temin no-Louis Galambos, Ukuwa kwe-Bell System (1987)
- U-Tim Wu, I-Master Switch (2010)
Source: www.habr.com