Ngokusebenzisa amanethiwekhi we-microwave yangasese "kusisombululo esingaphezu kuka-890", i-FCC kungenzeka ibe nethemba lokuthi ingaphusha wonke lawa manethiwekhi ayimfihlo ekhoneni layo elithulile lemakethe bese iwakhohlwa. Nokho, kwasheshe kwacaca ukuthi lokhu kwakungenakwenzeka.
Kwavela abantu abasha kanye nezinhlangano befuna izinguquko endaweni yokulawula ekhona. Baphakamise izindlela eziningi ezintsha zokusebenzisa noma ukuthengisa izinsiza zokuxhumana, futhi bathi izinkampani ezikhona eziphuca le ndawo ziyabavimbela ukuthi bakhule. I-FCC iphendule ngokunqamula kancane kancane i-AT&T's monopoly, ivumela izimbangi ezindaweni ezahlukahlukene zemakethe yezokuxhumana.
Ephendula, i-AT&T yathatha izinyathelo ezithile futhi yenza izitatimende obekufanele ziphikisane noma okungenani zinciphise umthelela wabaqhudelani abasha: bazinikele ukuxoxa esidlangalaleni ngokuphikisa kwabo ezenzweni ze-FCC, futhi banikeza amanani amasha anciphisa inzuzo engaba khona ukuze ibe ziro. Ngokombono wenkampani, lokhu bekuwukusabela okungokwemvelo ezinsongweni ezintsha zokuncintisana, kodwa ngaphandle zasebenza njengobufakazi besidingo sokuthatha izinyathelo ezinqala ukuze kunqandwe umbumbi onobuqili. Abalawuli abaphikelela ekudaleni ukuncintisana kwezokuxhumana bebengeke bakhuthaze impi yokubusa phakathi kwezinkampani lapho eziqine zizonqoba khona. Esikhundleni salokho, bebefuna ukudala nokweseka ezinye izindlela zesikhathi eside ze-AT&T. Imizamo ye-AT&T yokuphuma ogibeni oluyizungezile yavele yadida inkampani.
Izinsongo ezintsha ziqhamuke kuzo zombili iziphetho kanye nenkaba yenethiwekhi ye-AT&T, okunqamula ukulawula kwenkampani phezu kwemishini yokugcina amakhasimende ayo axhuma kolayini bayo kanye nemigqa yamabanga amade exhumanisa i-U.S. ohlelweni olulodwa locingo. Usongo ngalunye lwaqala ngamacala afakwe izinkampani ezimbili ezincane nezibonakala zingabalulekile: I-Carter Electronics ne-Microwave Communications, Incorporated (MCI), ngokulandelana. Kodwa-ke, i-FCC ayigcinanga ngokunquma ngokuvuna izinkampani ezisencane, kodwa futhi yanquma ukutolika amacala azo ngokwemibandela evamile njengokuhlangabezana nezidingo zekilasi elisha labaqhudelana nabo i-AT&T okufanele yamukele futhi iyihloniphe.
Kodwa nokho, ngokombono wenkundla yezomthetho, kuncane okushintshile kusukela kwanqunywa icala lika-Hush-a-Phone ngeminyaka yawo-1950. Ngaleso sikhathi, i-FCC yazenqaba ngokuqinile izicelo ezivela ezincintisaneni ezinobuntu kakhulu kuno-Carter noma i-MCI. Umthetho ofanayo Wezokuxhumana wango-1934 owadala i-FCC ngokwayo usabusa ukusebenza kwayo ngeminyaka yawo-1960s kanye nama-'70s. Izinguquko zenqubomgomo ye-FCC azivelanga esenzweni esisha seCongress, kodwa kusukela ekushintsheni kwefilosofi yezombusazwe ngaphakathi kwekhomishini ngokwayo. Futhi lolu shintsho lwadalwa wukufika kwamakhompyutha e-electronic. Ukuhlanganiswa okuvelayo kwamakhompiyutha kanye namanethiwekhi okuxhumana kuye kwasiza ukudala izimo zokuzithuthukisa.
Umphakathi wolwazi
Sekungamashumi eminyaka, i-FCC icubungula isibopho sayo esiyinhloko sokukhulisa ukufinyelela nokusebenza okufanele ohlelweni lwezokuxhumana oluzinzile nolufanayo. Kodwa-ke, kusukela maphakathi nawo-60, abasebenzi bekhomishana baqala ukuthuthukisa umbono ohlukile womsebenzi wabo-baqala ukugxila kakhulu ekwandiseni ukusungula izinto ezintsha endaweni yemakethe eguquguqukayo nehlukahlukene. Okuningi kwalolu shintsho kungabangelwa ukuvela kwemakethe entsha, nakuba incane, yezinkonzo zolwazi.
Imboni yezinkonzo zolwazi ekuqaleni yayingahlangani ngalutho nebhizinisi lezokuxhumana. Yazalelwa ezikhungweni zesevisi—izinkampani ezazicubungula imininingwane yamakhasimende azo bese ziwathumelela imiphumela; lo mqondo wandulela amakhompyutha esimanje emashumini ambalwa eminyaka. Isibonelo, i-IBM ibilokhu ihlinzeka ngokucubungula idatha yangokwezifiso kusukela ngeminyaka yawo-1930s kumakhasimende ayengakwazi ukuqasha amathebula awo ayimishini. Ngo-1957, njengengxenye yesivumelwano sokungathembeki noMnyango Wezobulungisa wase-United States, balisusa leli bhizinisi laba ingxenye ehlukile, i-Service Bureau Corporation, eyayisebenza kumakhompyutha esimanje. Ngokufanayo, i-Automatic Data Processing (ADP) yaqala njengebhizinisi lokucutshungulwa kwedatha ngasekupheleni kwawo-1940, ngaphambi kokuthuthela kumakhompyutha ngasekupheleni kwawo-1950. Kodwa ngeminyaka yawo-1960s, amadeski olwazi okuqala aku-inthanethi aqala ukuvela, okuvumela abasebenzisi ukuthi baxhumane nekhompyutha ekude ngokusebenzisa itheminali ngocingo oluqashwe ngasese. Okudume kakhulu kuzo kwakuwuhlelo lwe-SABER, okuphuma ku-SAGE, okwenza kwaba nokwenzeka ukubekisa amathikithi e-American Airlines kusetshenziswa amakhompyutha e-IBM.
Njengalokho okwenzekile ngamasistimu okwabelana kokuqala, uma unabasebenzisi abaningi abaxhumana nekhompyutha eyodwa, bekuyisinyathelo esincane kakhulu ukubavumela ukuthi baxhumane bodwa. Kwakuyile ndlela entsha yokusebenzisa amakhompyutha njengamabhokisi eposi ewalethe ekunakeni kwe-FCC.
Ngo-1964, iBunker-Ramo, inkampani eyaziwa kakhulu njengosonkontileka woMnyango Wezokuvikela, yanquma ukuhlukanisa izinsiza zayo zolwazi ngokuthenga i-Teleregister. Phakathi kwezindawo zokusebenza zamuva kwakukhona isevisi ebizwa ngokuthi i-Telequote, ebihlinzeka abathengisi besitoko ngolwazi lokuhweba ngezingcingo kusukela ngo-1928. Kodwa-ke, i-Teleregister yayingenayo ilayisensi yezinsizakalo zokuxhumana. Ithembele ku-Western Union ukuxhuma abasebenzisi kanye nesikhungo sedatha.
Itheminali ye-Telequote III evela eBunker-Ramo. Ingabonisa ulwazi mayelana namasheya uma icelwa, futhi inikeze idatha yemakethe evamile.
Uhlelo oluphumelelayo lwe-Telequote ngeminyaka yawo-1960, i-Telequote III, yavumela abasebenzisi ukuthi basebenzise itheminali enesikrini esincane se-CRT kanye nezintengo zesitoko zokubuza ezigcinwe kukhompyutha ekude ye-Telequote. Ngo-1965, i-Bunker-Ramo yethula isizukulwane sayo esilandelayo, i-Telequote IV, ngesici esengeziwe esivumela abathengisi ukuthi bakhiphe futhi bathengiselane ama-oda besebenzisa amatheminali. Kodwa-ke, iWestern Union yenqaba ukwenza imigqa yayo itholakalele lezi zinhloso. Waphikisa ngokuthi ukusebenzisa ikhompuyutha ukuthumela imilayezo phakathi kwabasebenzisi kuzoshintsha ulayini obonakala uyimfihlo ube yisevisi yemiyalezo yomphakathi (efana nesevisi yocingo ye-WU), ngakho-ke i-FCC kufanele ilawule u-opharetha waleyo sevisi (Bunker-Ramo).
I-FCC inqume ukushintsha ingxabano ibe yithuba lokuphendula umbuzo obanzi: Kufanele iphathwe kanjani ingxenye ekhulayo yamasevisi edatha ye-inthanethi uma kuqhathaniswa nomthetho wezokuxhumana? Lolu phenyo manje selwaziwa ngokuthi “uphenyo lwekhompyutha.” Iziphetho zokugcina zophenyo azibalulekile kithina ngalesi sikhathi njengomthelela wazo emiqondweni yabasebenzi be-FCC. Imingcele nezincazelo ezihlala isikhathi eside zibonakale zifanele ukubuyekezwa noma ziyekwe, futhi lokhu kuzamazama kwalungiselela ingqondo ye-FCC izinselele zesikhathi esizayo. Emashumini eminyaka adlule, ubuchwepheshe obusha bezokuxhumana buye bavela ngezikhathi ezithile. Ngamunye wabo wathuthuka ngokuzimela futhi wazuza uhlamvu lwakhe kanye nemithetho yayo yokulawula: telegraphy, telephony, radio, ithelevishini. Kodwa ngokufika kwamakhompiyutha, le migqa yentuthuko ehlukene yaqala ukuhlangana emkhathizwe, yaba umphakathi wolwazi ohlangene.
Hhayi i-FCC kuphela, kodwa nezihlakaniphi sezizonke zazilindele izinguquko ezinkulu ezizayo. Isazi sezokuhlalisana kwabantu uDaniel Bell sibhale "ngomphakathi wangemuva kwezimboni", uchwepheshe wezokuphatha uPeter Drucker wakhuluma "ngabasebenzi bolwazi" kanye "nenkathi yokuyeka ukusebenza". Izincwadi, amaphepha esayensi kanye nezinkomfa ngendikimba yezwe elizayo esekelwe olwazini nolwazi, esikhundleni sokukhiqizwa kwezinto ezibonakalayo, kwakugeleza njengomfula engxenyeni yesibili yawo-1960. Ababhali bala maphepha bavame ukubhekisela ekufikeni kwamakhompiyutha asebenza ngesivinini esiphezulu kanye nezindlela ezintsha zokudlulisa nokucubungula idatha kumanethiwekhi okuxhumana abazokwenza kwenzeke emashumini eminyaka ezayo.
Abanye bokhomishana abasha be-FCC abaqokwe ngoMongameli uKennedy kanye noJohnson bazithuthele ngokwabo kule mibuthano yongqondongqondo. U-Kenneth Cox kanye no-Nicholas Johnson babambe iqhaza ochungechungeni lwe-Brooklyn Institute olukhuluma nge-“Computer, Communications and the Public Interest,” usihlalo walo abone “inethiwekhi yezokuxhumana kazwelonke noma yesifunda exhuma izikhungo zevidiyo namakhompyutha emanyuvesi emakhaya nasemakilasini emphakathini... Izakhamizi zizokwazi ukuqhubeka zingabafundi “kusukela ekubelethweni kuye ethuneni.” UJohnson ngokuhamba kwesikhathi uzobhala incwadi mayelana namathuba okusebenzisa amakhompiyutha ukuguqula umabonakude osakazwayo abe yindlela yokuxhumana, enesihloko esithi".
Ngaphandle kwale misinga evamile yobuhlakani ebithatha ukulawulwa kwezokuxhumana ngezindlela ezintsha, indoda eyodwa yayinentshisekelo ikakhulukazi yokubeka umthetho esifundweni esisha futhi yadlala indima enkulu ekuguquleni isimo sengqondo se-FCC. UBernard Strasburg wayengowalolo hlaka lwe-FCC bureaucracy, isinyathelo esisodwa ngaphansi kokhomishana abayisikhombisa abaqokwe osopolitiki. Izisebenzi zikahulumeni ezihlanganisa kakhulu i-FCC zahlukaniswa ngamahhovisi ngokusekelwe ezindaweni zobuchwepheshe abazilawulayo. Okhomishana bathembele kulwazi lwezomthetho kanye nobuchwepheshe be-bureau ukuze babeke imithetho. Indawo yomthwalo wemfanelo we-Bureau of Public Communications Systems, lapho iStrasbourg yayiyingxenye yayo, yayihlobene nezintambo zocingo kanye ne-telegraph, futhi yayihlanganisa ikakhulukazi i-AT&T kanye ne-Western Union.
IStrasburg yajoyina Ihhovisi Lezokuxhumana Komphakathi phakathi neMpi Yezwe II futhi yaphakama yaba ngusihlalo ngo-1963, yadlala indima enkulu emizamweni ye-FCC yokubukela phansi ukubusa kwe-AT&T emashumini eminyaka alandelayo. Ukungayethembi kwakhe i-AT&T kwabangelwa yicala lokungathembeki elafakwa uMnyango Wezobulungiswa ngokumelene nenkampani ngo-1949. Njengoba sesishilo, inkinga ngaleso sikhathi yayiwukuthi i-Western Electric, ingxenye yokukhiqiza ye-AT&T, yayinyusa amanani entengo ukuze ivumele i-AT&T ukuthi ikhuphule inzuzo yayo ngokungemthetho. Phakathi nalolu cwaningo, iStrasbourg yaqiniseka ukuthi lo mbuzo wawungenakwenzeka ukuphendula ngenxa yesimo samanje emakethe yemishini yocingo. Iphutha le-AT&T. Yayingekho imakethe yemishini yocingo yokuqhathanisa noma yini ukuze kutholwe ukuthi amanani ayelungile yini. Unqume ukuthi i-AT&T inkulu kakhulu futhi inamandla okulawula. Izeluleko zakhe eziningi kwikhomishana eminyakeni ezayo zingaboshelwa enkolelweni yakhe yokuthi ukuncintisana kumele kuphoqwe emhlabeni we-AT&T ukuze kwenziwe buthaka ube yisifunda esilawulwayo.
Isikhungo Socingo: MCI
Inselele yokuqala enkulu emigqeni yebanga elide ye-AT&T selokhu yasungulwa ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-XNUMX yavela kumuntu obekungalindelekanga. U-John Goeken wayengumdayisi kanye nosomabhizinisi omncane okuhlakanipha kwakhe kwakungaphansi kwentshiseko yakhe. Ebusheni bakhe, njengabaningi ontanga yakhe, waba nesithakazelo ezintweni zomsakazo. Ngemva kokuphothula esikoleni, waya ebuthweni lezempi emabuthweni omsakazo, futhi ngemva kokuqeda inkonzo yakhe, wathola umsebenzi wokudayisa imishini yomsakazo yakwaGeneral Electric (GE) e-Illinois. Nokho, umsebenzi wakhe wesikhathi esigcwele awuzange ukwanelise uthando lwakhe lwezamabhizinisi, ngakho wavula ibhizinisi eliseceleni, ethengisa imisakazo eyengeziwe kwezinye izingxenye zase-Illinois ngaphandle kwensimu yakhe neqembu labangane.
UJack Goken maphakathi nawo-90s, ngenkathi esebenza ngocingo lwendiza
Lapho i-GE izwa ngokwenzekayo futhi ivala isitolo ngo-1963, uGoken waqala ukufuna izindlela ezintsha zokwandisa imali engenayo. Wanquma ukwakha ulayini wezokuxhumana we-microwave osuka eChicago uya e-St. Louis, futhi adayisele ukufinyelela komsakazo kubashayeli bamaloli, okaputeni bezikebhe zasemfuleni, amaveni okudiliva izimbali, namanye amabhizinisi amancane asebenzisa umgwaqo futhi adinga isevisi yomakhalekhukhwini engabizi. Wayekholelwa ukuthi izinsiza zokuqasha ezizimele ze-AT&T zazinhle kakhulu—abantu abaningi kakhulu abasebenza kuzo futhi ziyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu ngokombono wobunjiniyela—nokuthi ngokonga imali yokwakha ulayini, wayenganikeza amanani aphansi kanye nenkonzo engcono kubasebenzisi ababenganakwa. inkampani enkulu.
Umqondo ka-Goken wawungangeni emithethweni ye-FCC yangaleso sikhathi - isinqumo "ngaphezulu kuka-890" sanikeza izinkampani ezizimele ilungelo lokwakha amasistimu we-microwave ukuze zizisebenzisele wona. Ngokunqotshwa ingcindezi yamabhizinisi amancane ayengenayo imali yokuzakhela olwawo uhlelo lonke, kwashaywa umthetho ngo-1966 owavumela amabhizinisi amaningana ukuba asebenzise uhlelo olulodwa lwe-microwave oluyimfihlo. Noma kunjalo, ayizange ibanike ilungelo lokuhlinzeka ngezinsizakalo zokuxhumana ngemali kubantu besithathu.
Ngaphezu kwalokho, isizathu esenza amanani entengo e-AT&T abonakale eqile kwakungengenxa yokusebenzisa imali enkulu, kodwa kungenxa yokulawulwa kwezintengo ezimaphakathi. I-AT&T ikhokhiselwa isevisi yolayini wangasese ngokusekelwe ebangeni lamakholi kanye nenombolo yemigqa, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi igijima eduze kwe-Chicago-St. . Abalawuli nezinkampani zezingcingo ziklame ngamabomu lesi sakhiwo ukuze sileveli inkundla yezindawo ezinabantu abaningi abahlukahlukene. Ngakho-ke, i-MCI ihlongoze ukuzibandakanya ekudlaleni okuhlukile kwentela - ukusizakala ngomehluko phakathi kwemakethe nezintengo ezilawulwayo emizileni enemithwalo ephezulu ukuze kukhishwe inzuzo eqinisekisiwe. I-AT&T ibize le skimming, igama elizoba yisisekelo senkulumo-mpikiswano yabo ezingxoxweni ezizayo.
Akwaziwa ukuthi uGouken wayewazi yini la maqiniso ekuqaleni, noma wanquma ukuwashaya indiva ngenhliziyo emsulwa. Kunoma ikuphi, wagxumela kulo mbono ngokukhulu ukushesha, enesabelomali esincane esihlelwe ngokuyinhloko ngokusebenzisa amakhadi okuthenga ngesikweletu. Yena nabalingani bakhe abanekhono elilinganiselwe ngokulinganayo banquma ukwakha inkampani futhi baphonsela inselelo umninimandla onke i-AT&T, futhi bayibiza ngokuthi iMicrowave Communications, Inc. UGoken wandiza lonke izwe efuna abatshalizimali abanezikhwama ezijulile, kodwa ngempumelelo encane. Kodwa-ke, uphumelele kakhulu ekuvikeleni umbono wenkampani yakhe i-MCI ngaphambi kweKhomishini yeFCC.
Ukuqulwa kwamacala okuqala kuleli cala kwaqala ngo-1967. Ubone i-MCI njengethuba lokufeza inhloso yakhe yokwenza buthaka i-AT&T ngokuqhubeka nokuvula imakethe emigqeni yangasese. Nokho, ekuqaleni wayemanqikanqika. UGouken akazange amhlabe umxhwele njengosomabhizinisi oqotho futhi osebenza kahle. Wayekhathazekile ngokuthi i-MCI ingase ingabi inketho yokuhlola engcono kakhulu. Ugqugquzelwe kulesi sinqumo isazi sezomnotho saseNyuvesi yaseNew Hampshire okuthiwa uManley Irwin. U-Irwin ubesebenza njalo njengomeluleki we-Bureau of Public Communications Systems, futhi wasiza ukuchaza imigomo "yophenyo lwekhompyutha." Waqinisekisa iStrasbourg ukuthi imakethe ekhulayo yezinsizakalo zolwazi lwe-inthanethi edalulwe yilolu phenyo idinga izinkampani ezifana ne-MCI ngeminikelo emisha; ukuthi i-AT&T ngokwayo ayisoze yakwazi ukubona amandla aphelele omphakathi wolwazi olusafufusa. Kamuva i-Strasburg yakhumbula ukuthi "imiphumela emibi yophenyo lwekhompiyutha isekela izimangalo ze-MCI zokuthi ukungena kwayo emakethe ekhethekile yamabanga amade kuzosebenzela isithakazelo somphakathi."
Ngesibusiso sePublic Communications Bureau, i-MCI yaphenya amacala okuqala yase icindezela ukugunyazwa kwayo ezigcawini zekomiti ezigcwele ngo-1968, lapho ivoti lahlukaniswa khona ngo-4 kuya kwabangu-3 ngokwemigqa yeqembu. Wonke amaDemocrats (kuhlanganise no-Cox noJohnson) avotele gunyaza ilayisense ye-MCI. . AmaRiphabhulikhi, eholwa nguSihlalo uRosell Hyde, avotele ngokumelene nalo.
AmaRiphabhulikhi ayengafuni ukuphazamisa uhlelo lokulawula olunokulinganisela ngohlelo oluphuphelwe abaqageli bokufaneleka okungabazekayo kwezobuchwepheshe nezamabhizinisi. Baveze ukuthi lesi sinqumo, nakuba sibonakala silinganiselwe enkampanini eyodwa nomzila owodwa, sizoba nemiphumela ebalulekile ezoguqula imakethe yezokuxhumana. I-Strasburg kanye nabanye abasekela iphrojekthi babuke icala le-MCI njengokuhlola ukuthi ibhizinisi lingasebenza ngempumelelo yini eceleni kwe-AT&T emakethe yezokuxhumana yangasese. Kodwa-ke, empeleni lokhu kwakuyisibonelo, futhi ngemva kokugunyazwa kwakho, inqwaba yezinye izinkampani zizogijima ngokushesha ukuze zifake izicelo zazo. AmaRiphabhulikhi ayekholelwa ukuthi kwakungeke kwenzeke ukuhlehlisa ukuhlolwa. Ngaphezu kwalokho, i-MCI kanye nabangenayo abasha abafanayo akunakwenzeka ukuba bakwazi ukuhlala behamba neqoqo elincane lemigqa ehlakazekile nengaxhumekile, njengomzila weChicago ukuya eSt. Bazofuna ukuxhumana ne-AT&T futhi baphoqelele i-FCC ukuthi yenze izinguquko ezintsha esakhiweni sokulawula.
Futhi ukuwa okwabikezelwa uHyde namanye amaRiphabhulikhi kwenzeka ngempela - phakathi neminyaka emibili yesinqumo se-MCI, ezinye izinkampani ezingamashumi amathathu nanye zafaka izicelo eziyi-1713 zamakhilomitha angama-65 wezixhumanisi zama-microwave. I-FCC ibingenalo ikhono lokubamba ukulalelwa okuhlukene kwesicelo ngasinye, ngakho ikhomishana yazihlanganisa zonke njengedokodo elilodwa lokulalelwa kwezinkampani ezihlinzeka ngezinsizakalo zokuxhumana ezikhethekile. Ngo-May 000, lapho u-Hyde esula kukhomishana, kwenziwa isinqumo esivumelanayo sokuvula ngokuphelele imakethe emncintiswaneni.
Ngaleso sikhathi, i-MCI, isenenkinga yemali, yathola umtshali-zimali omusha ocebile ukuze athuthukise ingcebo yayo: uWilliam K. McGowan. UMcGowan wayecishe abe ngophambene noGoken, usomabhizinisi osezingeni eliphezulu futhi osezinzile oneziqu ze-Harvard owakha amabhizinisi amakhulu okuxoxisana nawomsebenzi eNew York. Eminyakeni embalwa, uMcGowan wayesekwazile ukulawula i-MCI futhi waphoqa uGouken ukuthi aphume enkampanini. Wayenombono ohluke ngokuphelele ngekusasa lenkampani. Wayengenazo izinhlelo zokuthi uthuthelwe emfuleni noma ukulethwa kwezimbali, edonsa kanzima emaphethelweni emakethe yezokuxhumana lapho i-AT&T yayingeke imnake. Wayefuna ukungena ngqo enhliziyweni yenethiwekhi elawulwayo, futhi aqhudelane ngokuqondile kuzo zonke izinhlobo zokuxhumana ezikude.
UBill McGowan esemdala
Izikhonkwane nemithelela yokuhlolwa kwasekuqaleni kwe-MCI kuqhubekile nokukhula. I-FCC, ezimisele ukwenza i-MCI ibe yimpumelelo, manje isizithole isingene ebhizinisini njengoba izimfuno zikaMagkovan zikhula kancane kancane. Yena, ephikisana (njengoba kulindelekile) ukuthi i-MCI ngeke iphile njengeqoqo elincane lemizila engahlobene, yafuna inombolo enkulu yamalungelo okuxhumana ngenethiwekhi ye-AT & T; isibonelo, ilungelo lokuxhumana nalokho okubizwa ngokuthi "iswishi yangaphandle" engavumela inethiwekhi ye-MCI ukuthi ixhume ngokuqondile kumaswishi asendaweni e-AT&T lapho imigqa ye-MCI inqanyulwe khona.
Impendulo ye-AT&T kubathwali bezokuxhumana abakhethekile ayizange iyisize inkampani. Ukusabela ekuhlaselweni kwezimbangi, yethule amanani ancishisiwe emizileni elayishwe kakhulu, ishiya amanani amaphakathi abekwe abalawuli. Uma ekholelwa ukuthi wayezokwanelisa i-FCC ngale ndlela ngokubonisa umoya wokuncintisana, khona-ke wayengayiqondi injongo ye-FCC. IStrasburg kanye nozakwabo babengazami ukusiza abathengi ngokunciphisa amanani e-telecom—okungenani hhayi ngokuqondile. Babezama ukusiza izinkampani ezintsha ukuthi zingene emakethe ngokwenza buthaka amandla e-AT&T. Ngakho-ke, amanani amasha okuncintisana e-AT&T abonwa yi-FCC nezinye izibukeli, ikakhulukazi uMnyango Wezobulungiswa, njengezokuziphindiselela futhi ezimelene nokuncintisana ngoba zisongela ukuzinza kwezezimali kwabasanda kungena njenge-MCI.
Umongameli omusha we-AT&T, uJohn Debates, naye akazange asithuthukise isikhundla sakhe, ephendula ngamazwi anolaka ekungeneni kwabaqhudelana naye. Enkulumweni ka-1973 ku-National Association of Regulatory Commissioners, wagxeka i-FCC, efuna "ukumiswa kokuqhubeka kokuhlolwa komnotho." Ukuziphatha okunjalo okungayekethisi kwamthukuthelisa uStrasburg futhi kwamqinisekisa nakakhulu ngesidingo sokubuyisela i-AT&T. I-FCC ivele yayalela i-MCI ukuthi ibe nokufinyelela kwenethiwekhi eyicelile ngo-1974.
Ingxabano ekhulayo noMcGowan yafinyelela umvuthwandaba ngokukhishwa kwe-Execunet ngonyaka olandelayo. Isevisi yakhangiswa njengohlobo olusha lwesevisi ekhokhelwayo yokwabelana ngemigqa yangasese phakathi kwamabhizinisi amancane, kodwa kancane kancane kwacaca ku-FCC kanye ne-AT&T ukuthi empeleni i-Execunet yayingenye yamanethiwekhi ocingo amabanga amade aqhudelanayo. Ivumele iklayenti edolobheni elilodwa ukuthi libambe ucingo, lishayele inombolo futhi lifinyelele noma yiliphi iklayenti kwelinye idolobha (lisebenzisa “iswishi yangaphandle”, futhi inkokhelo yesevisi incike ebangeni kanye nobude bekholi. Futhi ayikho imigqa eqashiwe ukusuka ephuzwini A ukuya endaweni engu-B.
I-Execunet ixhume amakhasimende e-MCI kunoma yimuphi umsebenzisi we-AT&T kunoma yiliphi idolobha elikhulu
Futhi-ke, ekugcineni, i-FCC yahluleka. Ubehlose ukusebenzisa i-MCI njenge-cudgel ngokumelene nokubusa okuphelele kwe-AT&T, kodwa igalelo lalinamandla kakhulu. Nokho, ngalesi sikhathi, i-AT&T yayinabanye ababambisene ezinkantolo kanye noMnyango Wezobulungiswa futhi yaqhubeka nokulandela leli cala. Lapho i-AT&T monopoly isiqalile ukuhlukana, kwaba nzima ukuyeka.
Izinkinga ze-Peripheral: Carterfone
Njengoba icala le-MCI liqhubeka, kwavela olunye usongo emkhathizwe. Ukufana phakathi kwezindaba ze-Carterfone ne-MCI kuyamangaza. Kuzo zombili lezi zimo, usomabhizinisi owayesafufusa—ombono wakhe webhizinisi wawungathuthukisiwe kakhulu kunobuhlakani bakhe nokuqina kwakhe—uthathe ngempumelelo inkampani enkulu yase-US. Kodwa-ke, bobabili laba bantu - uJack Goken kanye neqhawe lethu elisha, u-Tom Carter - basheshe basuswa ezinkampanini zabo ngosomabhizinisi abanobuqili, futhi banyamalala. Bobabili baqala njengamaqhawe futhi bagcina bengama-pawn.
UTom Carter wazalwa ngo-1924 eMabank, eTexas. Waphinde waba nesithakazelo emsakazweni esemncane, wajoyina ibutho eneminyaka engu-19, futhi, njengoGouken, waba uchwepheshe womsakazo. Eminyakeni yokugcina yeMpi Yezwe II, wasebenzisa isiteshi sokusakaza eJuneau, enikeza izindaba nokuzijabulisa emasosheni asezindaweni ezingaphandle kwe-Alaska. Ngemva kwempi, wabuyela eTexas futhi wasungula iCarter Electronics Corporation eDallas, eyayisebenza ngesiteshi somsakazo esinezinhlangothi ezimbili asiqashisela ezinye izinkampani - izisebenzi zezimbali ezinamaveni okudiliva; abakhiqizi bakawoyela abanama-opharetha kuma-rigs. UCarter wayelokhu ethola izicelo zamakhasimende zokuqhamuka nendlela yokuxhuma imisakazo yabo ephathwayo ngqo kunethiwekhi yocingo ukuze bangadluliseli imiyalezo kubantu basedolobheni ngo-opharetha besiteshi.
UCarter wenza ithuluzi lale njongo, alibiza ngokuthi iCarterfone. Yayinedayimane lepulasitiki elimnyama elinesivalo esimise okuyinkimbinkimbi okwakufakwe kuso ihendisethi yocingo enombhobho nesipika. Zombili izingxenye bezixhunywe esiteshini sokudlulisa/sokuthola. Ukuze kuxhunywe othile ensimini nomuntu othile ocingweni, umqhubi wesiteshi esiyisisekelo kwakudingeka ashaye ucingo mathupha, kodwa akwazi ukubeka ihendisethi phezu kwembeleko, ngemva kwalokho izinhlangothi zombili zikwazi ukukhuluma ngaphandle kokuphazamiseka. Iswishi yemodi yokudlulisa nokwamukela yomsakazo yenziwa yasebenza, ithumela inkulumo lapho umuntu ocingweni ekhuluma, bese iyithola lapho umuntu osesigangeni ekhuluma. Waqala ukuthengisa idivayisi ngo-1959, futhi wonke umkhiqizo wawusebhilidini elincane lezitini e-Dallas, lapho asebethathe umhlalaphansi bahlanganisa i-Carterfone ematafuleni amapulangwe alula.
Lapho ihendisethi ibekwa kumbeleko, yenza idivayisi isebenze ngenkinobho engaphezulu
Ukusungulwa kukaCarter bekungekona okwangempela. UBell wayenenkonzo yakhe yomsakazo/yocingo, le nkampani eyaqala ukuyinikeza amakhasimende e-St. Louis ngo-1946. Eminyakeni engamashumi amabili kamuva yasiza amakhasimende angu-30. Kodwa-ke, besikhona isikhala esiningi sabaqhudelana nabo abafana no-Carter - i-AT&T inikeze le sevisi cishe engxenyeni yesithathu ye-United States, futhi ungalinda emgqeni iminyaka eminingi. Ukwengeza, uCarter unikeze amanani ashibhile kakhulu uma (ububi obukhulu) umthengi esevele ekwazi ukufinyelela umbhoshongo womsakazo: $000 ngesikhathi esisodwa, uma kuqhathaniswa no-$248-$50 ngenyanga ngeselula evela kwaBell.
Ngokombono we-AT&T, i-Carterfone "yayiyidivayisi yenkampani yangaphandle," idivayisi eyakhiwe izinkampani zangaphandle ezixhunywe kunethiwekhi yenkampani, eyakwenqabela. Ecaleni lokuqala le-Hush-a-Phone, izinkantolo zaphoqa i-AT&T ukuthi ivumele ukusetshenziswa kwemishini elula, kodwa iCarterfone ayizange iwele kuleso sigaba ngoba ixhumeke kunethiwekhi ngokuzwakalayo—okungukuthi, ithumele futhi yathola umsindo ulayini wefoni. Ngenxa yesilinganiso esincane sokusebenza kukaCarter, i-AT&T yaqaphela ngemuva kweminyaka emibili futhi yaqala ukuxwayisa abathengisi beCarterfone ukuthi amakhasimende abo asengozini yokunqanyulwa emafonini abo—izinsongo ezifanayo ezazenziwa kuHush-a-Phone eminyakeni eyishumi ngaphambili. Ngamaqhinga afanayo, i-AT&T yaphoqa uCarter ukuthi aphume emakethe ngemuva kwenye. Engakwazi ukufinyelela esivumelwaneni nezimbangi zakhe, uCarter wanquma ukubamangalela ngo-1965.
Amafemu amakhulu aseDallas ayengafuni ukuliphendula leli cala, ngakho uCarter wazithola esehhovisi elincane laseWalter Steele, lapho kwakusebenza khona izisebenzi ezintathu kuphela. Omunye wabo, uRay Bezin, kamuva wachaza isithombe sendoda eyafika ehhovisi labo:
Wayezibona emuhle njengoba kwabonakala nangendlela ayekama ngayo izinwele zakhe ezimhlophe eceleni, ezimhlophe zazithuthukiswa udayi wezinwele, kodwa isudi yakhe ewugqinsi namabhuzu omfana wezinkomo ayeveza isithombe esihlukile. Wayezifundise futhi ekwazi ukuphatha kalula izinto zikagesi, umsakazo noma ucingo. Wayengeyena usomabhizinisi. Isimo sengqondo esiqinile maqondana nomndeni kanye nomfazi oqinile. Nokho, wazama ukubukeka njengosomabhizinisi opholile futhi ophumelelayo, nakuba, eqinisweni, wayengenamali.
Ukulalelwa kokuqala ngaphambi kwe-FCC kwabanjwa ngo-1967. I-AT&T kanye nabalingani bayo (ikakhulukazi ezinye izinkampani zocingo ezincane kanye nezinhlaka zokulawula zombuso) baphikisa ngokuthi iCarterfone yayingelona nje ithuluzi, kodwa ithuluzi lokuxoxa elixhumanisa ngokungemthetho amanethiwekhi e-AT&T nomsakazo wendawo. amanethiwekhi.. Lokhu kwephule isibopho senkampani sokuxhumana ngaphakathi kohlelo.
Kodwa, njengasendabeni ye-MCI, i-Bureau of Public Communications Systems yathatha isinqumo esivuna uCarter. Inkolelo ezweni elisondelayo lezinsizakalo zolwazi lwedijithali, kokubili okuxhumene futhi okuhlukahlukene, kwaqala ukusebenza futhi. Kungenzeka kanjani ukuthi umhlinzeki wesevisi oyedwa oyedwa alindele futhi anelise zonke izidingo zemakethe zamatheminali nezinye izinto zokusebenza kuzo zonke izinhlelo zokusebenza ezingenzeka?
Isinqumo sokugcina sephaneli, esakhishwa ngo-June 26, 1968, savumelana ne-bureau futhi sanquma ukuthi umthetho we-AT&T wezinkampani zangaphandle wawungekho emthethweni kuphela, kodwa wawungekho emthethweni kusukela ekuqaleni kwawo-ngakho-ke uCarter wayengalindela isinxephezelo. Ngokusho kwe-FCC, i-AT&T yehlulekile ukuhlukanisa kahle phakathi kwamadivayisi angaba yingozi (ngokwesibonelo, angathumela amasiginali okulawula anephutha kunethiwekhi) kusukela kumadivayisi angenabungozi njenge-Carterfone. I-AT&T bekufanele ngabe ivumele ngokushesha i-Carterfone ukuthi isetshenziswe futhi ithuthukise amazinga obuchwepheshe ukuze amadivayisi ezinkampani zangaphandle axhumane ngokuphephile.
Ngokushesha ngemva kwalesi sinqumo, uCarter wazama ukusizakala ngale mpumelelo ngokungena ebhizinisini nabalingani bakhe ababili, kuhlanganise noyedwa wabameli bakhe, futhi wasungula iCarterfone Corporation. Ngemva kokuphoqa uCarter ukuba aphume enkampanini, abalingani bakhe bathola izigidi ngokuthengisa ukuya kwi-British giant Cable and Wireless. I-Carterfone inyamalele; inkampani yaqhubeka nokudayisa imishini yocingo kanye namatheminali ekhompyutha.
Indaba kaCarter inesiqephu esijabulisayo. Ngo-1974, wangena ebhizinisini noJack Goken, wasungula inkampani yokulethwa kwezimbali efunwa kakhulu iFlolist Transworld Delivery. Kwakukule makethe - ezokuxhumana ukuze kusekelwe amabhizinisi amancane - lapho bobabili osomabhizinisi babefuna ukusebenza ekuqaleni. Nokho, ngokushesha uCarter wayishiya le nkampani futhi wabuyela edolobheni lakubo, eningizimu-mpumalanga yeDallas, lapho aqhuba khona inkampani yocingo engenazintambo, iCarter Mobilefone, phakathi nawo-80. Wasebenza khona kwaze kwaba sekufeni kwakhe ngo-1991.
Ukubola
I-FCC, njengoCarter noGoken, idale amandla engakwazi ukuwalawula noma ukuwaqonda ngokugcwele. Maphakathi nawo-1970, iCongress, uMnyango Wezobulungiswa, kanye nezinkantolo zasusa i-FCC ezingxabano ngekusasa le-AT&T. Umvuthwandaba wokuhlukana okukhulu kwe-AT&T, vele, wafika ngo-1984 lapho ihlukana. Nokho, siye sahamba phambili endabeni yethu.
Umhlaba wokuxhumana ngamakhompiyutha awuzange uzwe umthelela ogcwele wokunqoba kwe-MCI kanye nokuvela kokuncintisana emakethe yamabanga amade kwaze kwaba ngawo-1990, lapho amanethiwekhi olwazi oluyimfihlo eqala ukuthuthuka. Izixazululo ezihlobene nemishini yetheminali zidlalwa ngokushesha. Manje noma ubani angenza amamodemu e-acoustic futhi awaxhume ohlelweni lwe-Bell ngaphansi kwekhava yesinqumo se-Carterfone, awenze ashibhe futhi avame kakhulu.
Kodwa-ke, imiphumela ebaluleke kakhulu yokuhlukana kwe-AT&T ihlobene nesithombe esikhulu, hhayi imininingwane yezinqumo zomuntu ngamunye. Abaningi bababikezeli bokuqala beNkathi Yolwazi babone ngeso lengqondo inethiwekhi yezokuxhumana yamakhompiyutha yaseMelika ehlangene ngaphansi kwe-AT&T, noma mhlawumbe uhulumeni wobumbano uqobo. Kunalokho, amanethiwekhi amakhompiyutha athuthuka kancane, ahlukanisiwe, futhi ahlinzeka ngoxhumano phakathi kwawo kuphela. Ayikho inhlangano eyodwa eyayilawula ama-subnet ahlukahlukene, njengoba kwakunjalo ngeBell nezinkampani zendawo; Babehlobene hhayi njengabaphezulu nabangaphansi, kodwa njengabalingana.
Nokho, nalapha futhi siya phambili. Ukuze siqhubeke nendaba yethu, sidinga ukubuyela emuva maphakathi nawo-1960, ngesikhathi sokuvela kwamanethiwekhi okuqala ekhompyutha.
Okunye ongakufunda:
- U-Ray G. Bessing, Ubani Ophule I-AT&T? (2000)
- UPhilip L. Cantelon, Umlando we-MCI: Iminyaka Yokuqala (1993)
- U-Peter Temin no-Louis Galambos, Ukuwa Kohlelo Lwensimbi: Isifundo Ngamanani Nezepolitiki (1987)
- URichard H. K. Vietor, Umncintiswano Owenziwe: Ukulawulwa kanye Nokwehliswa Kwemithetho eMelika (1994)
Source: www.habr.com