Ezinye izindatshana ochungechungeni:
- Umlando we-relay
- Umlando wamakhompyutha kagesi
- Umlando we-transistor
- Umlando we-inthanethi
Ekuqaleni kwawo-1960, imishini yekhompyutha esebenzisanayo, evela embewini yamathenda ekhuliswe e-Lincoln Laboratory nase-MIT, kancane kancane yaqala ukusabalala yonke indawo, ngezindlela ezimbili ezihlukene. Okokuqala, amakhompyutha ngokwawo anweba ama-tendril afinyelela ezakhiweni eziseduze, amakhampasi, namadolobha, avumela abasebenzisi ukuthi baxhumane nawo bekude, ngabasebenzisi abaningi ngesikhathi. Lezi zinhlelo ezintsha zokwabelana ngesikhathi zithuthuke zaba izinkundla zemiphakathi yokuqala ebonakalayo, ye-inthanethi. Okwesibili, imbewu yokusebenzisana yasabalala kuzo zonke izifundazwe futhi yamila eCalifornia. Futhi umuntu oyedwa wayenesibopho salesi sithombo sokuqala, isazi sokusebenza kwengqondo okuthiwa .
Joseph "imbewu yama-apula"*
*Ukubhekiselwa kumlingiswa wendabuko waseMelika oqanjwe ngegama lesiteketiso , noma “Johnny Apple Seed,” odume ngokutshala kwakhe izihlahla zama-apula ngenkuthalo eMidwest-ntshonalanga ye-United States (imbewu yama-apula – imbewu yama-apula) / approx. ukuhumusha
UJoseph Carl Robnett Licklider - "Khotha" kubangani bakhe - okhethekile ku , inkambu exhumanisa izimo ezicatshangelwayo zokuphaphama, i-psychology elinganiselwe, kanye ne-physics yomsindo. Sikhulume ngaye kafushane ngaphambili - wayengumxhumanisi ezigcawini ze-FCC ku-Hush-a-Phone ngeminyaka yawo-1950. Wacija amakhono akhe e-Harvard Psychoacoustic Laboratory phakathi nempi, ethuthukisa ubuchwepheshe obathuthukisa ukuzwakala kokusakazwa komsakazo kumabhomu anomsindo.
Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider, aka Lick
Njengososayensi abaningi baseMelika besizukulwane sakhe, wathola izindlela zokuhlanganisa izithakazelo zakhe nezidingo zempi ngemva kwempi, kodwa hhayi ngenxa yokuthi wayenesithakazelo ngokukhethekile ezikhalini noma ekuvikelweni kwezwe. Kwakunemithombo emibili kuphela emikhulu yomphakathi yokuxhasa ucwaningo lwesayensi - lezi kwakuyizikhungo ezizimele ezasungulwa iziqhwaga zezimboni ekuqaleni kwekhulu leminyaka: iRockefeller Foundation kanye neCarnegie Institution. INational Institutes of Health yayinezigidi ezimbalwa zamaRandi, futhi iNational Science Foundation yasungulwa ngo-1950 kuphela, ngesabelomali esilinganiselwe ngokulinganayo. Ngawo-1950, indawo engcono kakhulu yokubheka uxhaso lwezimali zamaphrojekthi athokozisayo esayensi nobuchwepheshe kwakuwuMnyango Wezokuvikela.
Ngakho-ke ngawo-1950, uLick wajoyina i-MIT Acoustics Laboratory, eqhutshwa izazi ze-physics u-Leo Beranek no-Richard Bolt futhi ethola cishe yonke imali yayo evela ku-US Navy. Ngemuva kwalokho, isipiliyoni sakhe sokuxhuma izinzwa zomuntu nezinto zikagesi kwamenza waba umuntu oyinhloko wephrojekthi entsha yokuvikela umoya ye-MIT. Ukubamba iqhaza eqenjini lokuthuthukisa "", obambe iqhaza ekusetshenzisweni kombiko wezokuvikela emoyeni we-Valley Committee, uLeake ugcizelele ekufakeni ucwaningo ngezinto ezithinta abantu kulo msebenzi, okwaholela ekutheni aqokwe njengomunye wabaqondisi bokuthuthukiswa kwe-radar display at Lincoln Laboratory.
Lapho, ngesikhathi esithile maphakathi nawo-1950s, weqa izindlela no-Wes Clark kanye no-TX-2, futhi ngokushesha wangenwa yi-computer interactivity. Wawuthanda umqondo wokulawula ngokuphelele umshini onamandla, okwazi ukuxazulula ngokushesha noma yimuphi umsebenzi owabelwe wona. Waqala ukuthuthukisa umqondo wokudala "i-symbiosis yomuntu nomshini", ubambiswano phakathi komuntu nekhompyutha, okwazi ukuthuthukisa amandla ongqondo omuntu ngendlela efanayo nemishini yezimboni ithuthukisa amakhono akhe omzimba (it Kuyaphawuleka ukuthi uLeake ubheke lesi njengesigaba esimaphakathi, nokuthi amakhompyutha azofunda ukuzicabangela wona ewodwa). Uqaphele ukuthi u-85% wesikhathi sakhe sokusebenza
... yayinikelwe ngokuyinhloko emisebenzini yobufundisi noma yemishini: ukucinga, ukubala, ukudweba, ukuguqula, ukunquma imiphumela enengqondo noma eguquguqukayo yeqoqo lokuqagela noma lokuqagela, ukulungiselela ukwenza isinqumo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, ukukhetha kwami ngalokho okwakufanele nokungafanele ukuzama, ngokwezinga elihlazisayo, kwakunqunywa ukuphikisana kwamathuba abefundisi esikhundleni sekhono lobuhlakani. Imisebenzi ethatha isikhathi esiningi okuthiwa inikezelwe ekucabangeni kobuchwepheshe ingenziwa kangcono ngemishini kunabantu.
Umqondo ojwayelekile awuzange uhambe kude nalokho okwachazwa nguVannevar Bush ""- i-amplifier ehlakaniphile, umjikelezo awudweba ngo-1945 encwadini ethi As We May Think, nakuba esikhundleni sengxube yezingxenye ze-electromechanical kanye ne-electronic, njengoBush, safika kumakhompiyutha edijithali kuphela. Ikhompyutha enjalo ingasebenzisa isivinini sayo esimangalisayo ukuze isize emsebenzini wobufundisi ohlobene nanoma iyiphi iphrojekthi yesayensi noma yezobuchwepheshe. Abantu bazokwazi ukuzikhulula kulo msebenzi oyisicefe futhi bachithe konke ukunaka kwabo ekwakheni imibono ecatshangelwayo, ukwakha amamodeli nokwabela ikhompyutha imigomo. Ubambiswano olunjalo lunganikeza izinzuzo ezimangalisayo kukho kokubili ucwaningo nokuvikela izwe, futhi lungasiza ososayensi baseMelika ukuba badlulele abaseSoviet.
I-Memex ka-Vannevar Bush, umqondo wokuqala wesistimu yokubuyisa ulwazi oluzenzakalelayo ukuze ukhulise ubuhlakani
Ngokushesha ngemva kwalo mhlangano omkhulu, uLeak waletha uthando lwakhe lwamakhompuyutha asebenzisanayo emsebenzini omusha enkampanini yokubonisana ephethwe ozakwabo abadala, uBolt noBeranek. Bachitha iminyaka besebenza itoho lokubonisana eduze nomsebenzi wabo wezemfundo ku-physics; ngokwesibonelo, bafunda ama-acoustics ehholo lebhayisikobho eHoboken (eNew Jersey). Umsebenzi wokuhlaziya ama-acoustics esakhiwo esisha se-UN eNew York ubanikeze umsebenzi omningi, ngakho banquma ukushiya i-MIT futhi bayobonisana isikhathi esigcwele. Ngokushesha bajoyinwa umlingani wesithathu, umdwebi wezakhiwo uRobert Newman, futhi bazibiza ngoBolt, Beranek noNewman (BBN). Ngo-1957 base bekhule baba yifemu enosayizi omaphakathi enabasebenzi abambalwa, futhi uBeranek wanquma ukuthi basengozini yokugcwalisa imakethe yocwaningo lwe-acoustic. Wayefuna ukunweba ubuchwepheshe befemu ngale komsindo, ukuze amboze inhlanganisela egcwele yokusebenzelana kwabantu nendawo eyakhiwe, kusukela emahholo ekhonsathi kuya ezimotweni, nakuzo zonke izinzwa.
Futhi, kunjalo, walandelela uzakwabo wakudala ka-Licklider futhi wamqasha ngokuphana njengephini likamongameli omusha we-psychoacoustics. Kodwa-ke, uBeranek akazange acabangele intshiseko yasendle ka-Lik yekhompyutha esebenzisanayo. Esikhundleni sochwepheshe be-psychoacoustics, akazange athole uchwepheshe wama-computer ncamashi, kodwa umvangeli wekhompiyutha owayemagange ukuvula amehlo abanye. Kungakapheli unyaka, waqinisekisa uBeranek ukuthi akhiphe amashumi ezinkulungwane zamaRandi ukuze athenge ikhompuyutha, idivayisi encane, enamandla aphansi ye-LGP-30 eyenziwe usonkontileka woMnyango Wezokuvikela i-Librascope. Njengoba engenalo ulwazi lobunjiniyela, waletha omunye umakadebona wakwa-SAGE, u-Edward Fredkin, ukuze asize ukumisa umshini. Nakuba ikhompuyutha yayimphazamisa kakhulu uLik emsebenzini wakhe wosuku ngesikhathi ezama ukufunda ukuhlela, ngemva konyaka nengxenye waqinisekisa ozakwabo ukuthi basebenzise imali eyengeziwe (amaRandi angu-150, noma cishe amaRandi ayizigidi ezingu-000 emalini yanamuhla) ukuze athenge enamandla kakhulu. : i-PDP-1,25 yakamuva evela ku-DEC. Ukuvuza kwaqinisekisa i-BBN ukuthi ukusebenzisa ikhompuyutha yedijithali kwakuyikusasa, nokuthi ngandlela thize ukutshala kwabo ubuchwepheshe kule ndawo kuzokhokha.
Ngokushesha ngemva kwalokho, uLeake, cishe ngephutha, wazithola esesikhundleni esifanele ukusabalalisa isiko lokusebenzisana ezweni lonke, waba yinhloko yesikhungo esisha sikahulumeni samakhompyutha.
Ihabhu
Phakathi neMpi Yomshoshaphansi, zonke izenzo zaba nokusabela kwazo. Njengoba nje ibhomu lokuqala le-athomu laseSoviet laholela ekudalweni kwe-SAGE, kunjalo futhi , eyasungulwa yi-USSR ngo-Okthoba 1957, yabangela ukusabela okuhlukahlukene kuhulumeni waseMelika. Isimo sabhebhetheka nawukuthi nakuba i-USSR yayisemuva ngeminyaka emine i-United States mayelana nodaba lokuqhunyiswa kwebhomu lenuzi, yagxumela phambili ngamarokhethi, ngaphambi kwabaseMelika emjahweni wokuzungeza (kuvele ukuthi cishe izinyanga ezine).
Enye impendulo ekuveleni kwe-Sputnik 1 ngo-1958 kwaba ukudalwa kwe-Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). Ngokuphambene nenani elincane elibekelwe isayensi yezakhamizi, i-ARPA ithole isabelomali sezigidi ezingu-520 zamaRandi, okuphindwe kathathu uxhaso lweNational Science Foundation, yona ngokwayo ephindeke kathathu ngenxa ye-Sputnik 1.
Yize i-Ejensi ingasebenza emikhakheni eminingi eyahlukene uNobhala Wezokuvikela ayibona ifanelekile, ekuqaleni yayihloselwe ukuthi igxilise ukunaka kwayo kumarokhethi nesikhala - lena kwakuyimpendulo ewujuqu ku-Sputnik 1. I-ARPA yabika ngokuqondile kuNobhala Wezokuvikela futhi ngenxa yalokho yakwazi ukukhuphuka ngaphezu kokuncintisana okuphikisayo nokunciphisa imboni ukuze ikhiqize uhlelo olulodwa, oluzwakalayo lokuthuthukiswa kohlelo lwesikhala saseMelika. Kodwa-ke, eqinisweni, wonke amaphrojekthi akhe kule ndawo asheshe athathwa yizimbangi: I-Air Force yayingeke ilahle ukulawula amarokhethi ezempi, futhi uMthetho we-National Aeronautics and Space Act, owasayinwa ngoJulayi 1958, wakha i-ejensi entsha yabantu. eyathatha zonke izindaba eziphathelene nomkhathi, hhayi ukuthinta izikhali. Kodwa-ke, ngemva kokudalwa kwayo, i-ARPA yathola izizathu zokusinda njengoba yathola amaphrojekthi amakhulu ocwaningo ezindaweni zokuvikela imicibisholo eyi-ballistic kanye nokutholwa kokuhlolwa kwe-nuclear. Kodwa-ke, iphinde yaba inkundla yokusebenza yamaphrojekthi amancane ama-ejensi ahlukahlukene ezempi ayefuna ukuwahlola. Ngakho esikhundleni senja, ukulawula kwaba umsila.
Iphrojekthi yokugcina ekhethiwe ibithi “", umkhumbi-mkhathi onenjini ye-nuclear pulse ("indiza eqhumayo"). I-ARPA yayeka ukuyixhasa ngo-1959 ngoba ayikwazanga ukuyibona njengento enye ngaphandle kwephrojekthi yabantu abavamile ewela ngaphansi kwe-NASA. I-NASA yona yayingafuni ukungcolisa igama layo elihlanzekile ngokuzibandakanya nezikhali zenuzi. Umbutho Wezempi wawumanqikanqika ukuphonsa imali ethile ukuze uqhubeke nomsebenzi, kodwa wagcina ufile ngemva kwesivumelwano sango-1963 esavimbela ukuhlolwa kwezikhali zenuzi emkhathini noma emkhathini. Futhi nakuba lo mbono wawuthakazelisa kakhulu ngokobuchwepheshe, kunzima ukucabanga ukuthi yimuphi uhulumeni onikeza ukukhanya okuluhlaza ukwethula irokhethi eligcwele izinkulungwane zamabhomu enuzi.
Ukungena kokuqala kwe-ARPA kumakhompuyutha kwavela ngenxa yesidingo sokuthile okufanele ilawuleke. Ngo-1961, i-Air Force yayinempahla emibili engasebenzi ezandleni zayo eyayidinga ukulayishwa ngokuthile. Njengoba izikhungo zokuqala zokubona ze-SAGE zisondela ekusetshenzisweni, i-Air Force yaqasha i-RAND Corporation yase-Santa Monica, e-California, ukuthi iqeqeshe abasebenzi futhi ihlomise izikhungo zokuvikela umoya zekhompyutha ezingamashumi amabili nanye ngezinhlelo zokulawula. Ukwenza lo msebenzi, i-RAND iveze ibhizinisi elisha, i-Systems Development Corporation (SDC). Ulwazi lwe-software olwatholwa yi-SDC lwalubalulekile kuButho Lomoya, kodwa iphrojekthi ye-SAGE yayiphela futhi akukho okungcono ababengakwenza. Impahla yesibili engenzi lutho yayiyinsalela ebiza kakhulu ye-AN/FSQ-32 ikhompuyutha eyayicelwe kwa-IBM ngephrojekthi ye-SAGE kodwa kamuva yathathwa njengengenasidingo. I-DoD ibhekane nezinkinga zombili ngokunikeza i-ARPA inhloso entsha yocwaningo ehlobene nezikhungo zokuyala kanye nesibonelelo sika-$6 million se-SDC sokufunda izinkinga zesikhungo somyalo sisebenzisa i-Q-32.
Ngokushesha i-ARPA yanquma ukulawula lolu hlelo locwaningo njengengxenye yoPhiko Olusha Lokucwaninga Lokucubungula Ulwazi. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, umnyango wathola isabelo esisha - ukwakha uhlelo emkhakheni wesayensi yokuziphatha. Manje akucaci ukuthi yiziphi izizathu, kodwa abaphathi banquma ukuqasha uLicklider njengomqondisi wazo zombili izinhlelo. Mhlawumbe kwakungumbono kaGene Fubini, umqondisi wocwaningo eMnyangweni Wezokuvikela, owayazi uLeake emsebenzini wakhe ku-SAGE.
NjengoBeranek osukwini lwakhe, uJack Ruina, ngaleso sikhathi owayeyinhloko ye-ARPA, wayengazi ukuthi yini eyayilindelwe kuye lapho ememela uLik kwinhlolokhono. Ukholelwa ukuthi uthola uchwepheshe wokuziphatha onolwazi oluthile lwesayensi yekhompyutha. Kunalokho, wahlangabezana namandla aphelele emibono ye-symbiosis yomuntu-computer. U-Leake waphikisa ngokuthi isikhungo sokulawula ngekhompuyutha sizodinga amakhompuyutha asebenzisanayo, ngakho-ke umshayeli oyinhloko wohlelo locwaningo lwe-ARPA kuzomele abe impumelelo ekunqamukeni kwekhompyutha esebenzisanayo. Futhi ku-Lik lokhu kwakusho ukwabelana isikhathi.
Ukuhlukaniswa kwesikhathi
Amasistimu okwabelana ngesikhathi avele kumgomo ofanayo oyisisekelo njengochungechunge lwe-TX luka-Wes Clark: amakhompyutha kufanele asebenziseke kalula. Kodwa ngokungafani noClark, abagqugquzeli bokwabelana ngesikhathi bakholelwa ukuthi umuntu oyedwa akakwazi ukusebenzisa ikhompyutha ngokuphumelelayo. Umcwaningi angase ahlale imizuzu embalwa efunda okukhiphayo kohlelo ngaphambi kokwenza ushintsho oluncane kulo futhi aluqalise futhi. Futhi ngalesi sikhathi, ikhompuyutha ngeke ibe nento yokwenza, amandla ayo amakhulu azobe engasebenzi, futhi izobiza. Ngisho nezikhawu phakathi kwama-keystrokes angamakhulu ama-millisecond zazibonakala sengathi kwalasha omkhulu wesikhathi se-computer esichithwe lapho izinkulungwane zezibalo bezingenziwa khona.
Wonke lawo mandla ekhompuyutha akudingeki ukuthi achitheke uma engabiwa phakathi kwabasebenzisi abaningi. Ngokuhlukanisa ukunaka kwe-computer ukuze ikwazi ukusiza umsebenzisi ngamunye ngokushintshana kwakhe, umklami we-computer angabulala izinyoni ezimbili ngetshe elilodwa—anikeze inkohliso ye-computer esebenzisanayo ngokuphelele elawulwa umsebenzisi ngaphandle kokumosha amandla amaningi okucubungula izinsimbi ezibizayo.
Lo mqondo wabekwa ku-SAGE, ongasebenzela inqwaba yama-opharetha abehlukene ngasikhathi sinye, ngamunye wabo eqapha umkhakha wakhe we-airspace. Lapho ehlangana no-Clark, uLeake washeshe wabona amandla okuhlanganisa ukuhlukaniswa komsebenzisi kwe-SAGE nenkululeko yokusebenzisana ye-TX-0 ne-TX-2 ukuze akhe ingxube entsha, enamandla eyakha isisekelo sokumela kwakhe i-symbiosis yomuntu-computer, okuyinto wethula uMnyango Wezokuvikela ephepheni lakhe lika-1957. Uhlelo oluhlakaniphe ngempela, noma Phambili kumshini oxubile/izinhlelo zokucabanga zomuntu" [sage English. - sage / cishe. transl.]. Kuleli phepha uchaze uhlelo lwekhompiyutha lososayensi olufana kakhulu nesakhiwo ku-SAGE, ngokufaka ngesibhamu esilula, kanye "nokusetshenziswa ngesikhathi esisodwa (ukwabelana kwesikhathi okusheshayo) kwamakhono wokubala nokugcina omshini ngabantu abaningi."
Kodwa-ke, uLeake ngokwakhe wayengenawo amakhono onjiniyela okuklama noma ukwakha uhlelo olunjalo. Wafunda izisekelo zokuhlela kwa-BBN, kodwa lokho kwaba izinga lamakhono akhe. Umuntu wokuqala owasebenzisa ithiyori yokwabelana ngesikhathi kwakunguJohn McCarthy, isazi sezibalo e-MIT. UMcCarthy wayedinga ukufinyelela njalo kuyi-computer ukuze akhe amathuluzi namamodeli okusebenzisa ingqondo yezibalo—izinyathelo zokuqala, ayekholelwa ukuthi, eziholela ekuhlakanipheni kokwenziwa. Ngo-1959, wakha i-prototype eyayihlanganisa imojuli esebenzisanayo eboshelwe ekhompyutheni ye-IBM 704 ecubungula iqoqo lenyuvesi. Okuxakayo ukuthi "idivayisi yokwabelana ngesikhathi" yokuqala yayinekhonsoli eyodwa kuphela esebenzisanayo - i-teletypewriter ye-Flexowriter.
Kepha ngasekuqaleni kwawo-1960, ubuhlakani bobunjiniyela be-MIT base befike esidingweni sokutshala imali eningi kumakhompyutha asebenzisanayo. Wonke umfundi nothisha owayenentshisekelo yokuhlela waba umlutha kumakhompyutha. Ukucubungula idatha yeqoqo kusebenzise isikhathi sekhompyutha kahle kakhulu, kodwa kwamosha isikhathi esiningi sabacwaningi - isilinganiso sesikhathi sokucubungula umsebenzi ku-704 sasingaphezu kosuku.
Ukutadisha izinhlelo zesikhathi eside ukuhlangabezana nezidingo ezikhulayo zezinsiza zekhompiyutha, i-MIT yabiza ikomidi lenyuvesi elibuswa ngabameli bokwabelana kwesikhathi. U-Clark waphikisa ngokuthi ukuthuthela ekusebenzisaneni akusho ukwabelana kwesikhathi. Ngamafuphi, wathi, ukwabelana ngesikhathi kwakusho ukuqeda ukuboniswa kwevidiyo okusebenzisanayo kanye nokusebenzisana kwesikhathi sangempela—izici ezibalulekile zephrojekthi ayesebenza kuyo e-MIT Biophysics Lab. Kodwa ezingeni elibaluleke kakhulu, uClark ubonakala ephikisana ngokujulile nomqondo wokwabelana ngendawo yakhe yokusebenza. Kuze kube ngu-1990, wenqaba ukuxhuma ikhompyutha yakhe ku-inthanethi, ethi amanethiwekhi “ayiphutha” futhi “awasebenzi.”
Yena nabafundi bakhe bakhe “i-subculture,” ikhule elincane ngaphakathi kwesiko lemfundo esesivele liwenzile lekhompyutha esebenzisanayo. Kodwa-ke, izimpikiswano zabo zeziteshi zokusebenzela ezincane ezingadingi ukwabiwa nanoma ubani azibakholisanga ozakwabo. Uma kucatshangelwa izindleko zekhompiyutha eyodwa encane kakhulu ngaleso sikhathi, le ndlela yabonakala ingenangqondo kwezomnotho kwabanye onjiniyela. Ngaphezu kwalokho, abaningi ngaleso sikhathi babekholelwa ukuthi ama-computer—izitshalo zamandla ezihlakaniphile zeNkathi Yolwazi ezayo—ayeyozuza emnothweni wesilinganiso, njengoba nje izimboni zikagesi zazuza. Entwasahlobo ka-1961, umbiko wokugcina wekomidi wagunyaza ukwakhiwa kwezinhlelo ezinkulu zokwabelana ngesikhathi njengengxenye yokuthuthukiswa kwe-MIT.
Ngaleso sikhathi, u-Fernando Corbato, owaziwa ngelika-“Corby” kozakwabo, wayesesebenzela ukukhuphula ucwaningo lukaMcCarthy. Ubeyisazi sefiziksi ngokuqeqeshwa, futhi wafunda ngamakhompiyutha ngenkathi esebenza eWhirlwind ngo-1951, ngenkathi esengumfundi oneziqu eMIT (okuwukuphela kwakhe kubo bonke ababambiqhaza kule ndaba owasinda - ngoJanuwari 2019 wayeneminyaka engama-92). Ngemva kokuphothula iziqu zakhe zobudokotela, waba umqondisi esikhungweni esisanda kwakhiwa se-MIT Computing Centre, esakhelwe phezu kwe-IBM 704. UCorbato nethimba lakhe (ekuqaleni uMarge Merwin noBob Daly, abahleli bezinhlelo ababili abaphezulu besikhungo) babiza uhlelo lwabo lokwabelana ngesikhathi ngokuthi i-CTSS ( Isistimu Yokwabelana Ngesikhathi Evumelanayo, "isistimu yokwabelana kwesikhathi ehambisanayo") - ngoba ingasebenza kanye nokugeleza komsebenzi okujwayelekile kwe-704, icoshe ngokuzenzakalelayo imijikelezo yekhompyutha yabasebenzisi njengoba kudingeka. Ngaphandle kwalokhu kuhambisana, iphrojekthi ibingeke isebenze ngenxa yokuthi uCorby wayengenayo imali yokuthenga ikhompuyutha entsha okwakuzokwakhiwa kuyo uhlelo lokwabelana ngesikhathi kusukela ekuqaleni, futhi imisebenzi ekhona yokucubungula iqoqo ayikwazanga ukuvalwa.
Ekupheleni kuka-1961, i-CTSS yayingakwazi ukusekela amatheminali amane. Ngo-1963, i-MIT yabeka amakhophi amabili e-CTSS emishinini ye-IBM 7094 eshintshashintshayo ebiza u-$3,5 wezigidi, cishe izikhathi eziyishumi umthamo wenkumbulo namandla okucubungula ama-10s adlule. Isofthiwe yokuqapha yajikeleza kubasebenzisi abasebenzayo, isebenzela ngamunye isekhondi elihlukanisayo ngaphambi kokudlulela kokulandelayo. Abasebenzisi bangagcina izinhlelo nedatha ukuze bayisebenzise kamuva endaweni yabo evikelwe ngephasiwedi yokugcina idiski.
U-Corbato egqoke ithayi yakhe yesiginesha yomnsalo egumbini lekhompyutha ene-IBM 7094
U-Corby uchaza ukuthi ukwaba isikhathi kusebenza kanjani, okuhlanganisa nomugqa wamazinga amabili, emsakazweni kamabonakude ka-1963.
Ikhompyutha ngayinye inganikeza amatheminali angaba ngu-20. Lokhu bekwanele hhayi nje ukusekela amakamelo ambalwa amancane, kodwa futhi nokusabalalisa ukufinyelela kwekhompyutha kuyo yonke iCambridge. UCorby kanye nabanye onjiniyela ababalulekile babenezindawo zabo zokugcina ehhovisi, futhi ngesinye isikhathi iMIT yaqala ukuhlinzeka ngezindawo zokuhlala kubasebenzi bezobuchwepheshe ukuze bakwazi ukusebenza ohlelweni ngemva kwamahora ngaphandle kokuya emsebenzini. Wonke amatheminali angaphambili ayenomshini wokubhala oguquliwe okwazi ukufunda idatha futhi uyikhiphe ngocingo, bese ushaya iphepha lokuphakelayo eliqhubekayo. Amamodemu axhume amatheminali ezingcingo ebhodini lokushintshela eliyimfihlo kukhempasi ye-MIT, lapho ayekwazi ukuxhumana nekhompyutha ye-CTSS. Ngakho i-computer yanweba izinzwa zayo ngocingo nezimpawu ezishintshayo zisuka kweyedijithali ziye ku-analogi ziphinde zibuyele emuva. Lesi bekuyisigaba sokuqala sokuhlanganiswa kwamakhompyutha nenethiwekhi yezokuxhumana. Ukuhlanganiswa kugqugquzelwe indawo yokulawula eyimpikiswano ye-AT&T. Umnyombo wenethiwekhi wawusalawulwa, futhi inkampani yayidingeka ukuthi inikeze imigqa eqashiwe ngamanani amisiwe, kodwa izinqumo ezimbalwa ze-FCC zaziqede ukulawula kwenkampani phezu konqenqema, futhi inkampani yayinezwi elincane ekuxhumaniseni amadivayisi emigqeni yayo. Ngakho-ke, i-MIT ayizange idinge imvume yamatheminali.
Itheminali yekhompiyutha ejwayelekile kusukela maphakathi nawo-1960: IBM 2741.
Umgomo omkhulu ka-Licklider, uMcCarthy, noCorbato kwakuwukukhulisa ukutholakala kwamandla ekhompyutha kubacwaningi ngabanye. Bakhethe amathuluzi abo kanye nokuhlukaniswa kwesikhathi ngezizathu zezomnotho: akekho ongacabanga ukuthenga ikhompyutha yakhe kuwo wonke umcwaningi e-MIT. Kodwa-ke, lokhu kukhetha kuholele emiphumeleni emibi ebingahlosiwe ebingeke yenzeke ku-Clark's one-man, one-computer paradigm. Isistimu yefayela eyabelwe kanye nereferensi yama-akhawunti wabasebenzisi kwabavumela ukwabelana, ukuhlanganyela, kanye nokuphelelisa umsebenzi womunye nomunye. Ngo-1965, u-Noel Morris no-Tom van Vleck basheshisa ukusebenzisana nokuxhumana ngokwakha uhlelo lwe-MAIL, olwavumela abasebenzisi ukushintshana imiyalezo. Lapho umsebenzisi ethumela umlayezo, uhlelo lwabela ifayela lebhokisi leposi elikhethekile endaweni yefayela yomamukeli. Uma leli fayela belingangenalutho, uhlelo lokungena beluzobonisa umlayezo othi "UNEMEyili." Okuqukethwe emshinini kube izinkulumo zezenzo zomphakathi wabasebenzisi, futhi lesi sici senhlalo sokwabelana kwesikhathi e-MIT saziwa kakhulu njengombono wasekuqaleni wokusetshenziswa kwekhompyutha okusebenzisanayo.
Imbewu elahliwe
Ukuvuza, emukela ukunikezwa kwe-ARPA futhi eshiya i-BBN ukuthi ihole Ihhovisi elisha le-Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO) le-ARPA ngo-1962, ngokushesha waqala ukwenza lokho ayekuthembisile: egxile emizamweni yenkampani yocwaningo lwekhompuyutha ekusabalaliseni nasekuthuthukiseni ihadiwe nesofthiwe yokwabelana ngesikhathi. Wawuyeka umkhuba ojwayelekile wokucubungula iziphakamiso zocwaningo ezazifika etafuleni lakhe wangena ngokwakhe kulo mkhakha, enxenxa onjiniyela ukuthi bakhe iziphakamiso zocwaningo angathanda ukuzigunyaza.
Isinyathelo sakhe sokuqala kwaba wukulungisa kabusha iphrojekthi yocwaningo ekhona ezikhungweni zokuyala zeSDC eSanta Monica. Kwavela umyalo ovela ehhovisi lika-Lick e-SDC wokunciphisa imizamo yalolu cwaningo futhi igxile ekuguquleni ikhompuyutha ye-SAGE engasasebenzi ibe uhlelo lokwabelana ngesikhathi. ULeake wayekholelwa ukuthi isisekelo sokusebenzisana komshini womuntu wokwabelana ngesikhathi kufanele sibekwe kuqala, futhi izikhungo zokuyala zizofika kamuva. Ukuthi ukubeka phambili okunjalo kwaqondana nezithakazelo zakhe zefilosofi kwakuyingozi nje ejabulisayo. UJules Schwartz, umakadebona wephrojekthi ye-SAGE, wayesungula uhlelo olusha lokwabelana ngesikhathi. Njenge-CTSS yayo yangaleso sikhathi, ibe yindawo yokuhlangana ebonakalayo, futhi imiyalo yayo yayihlanganisa umsebenzi we-DIAL wokuthumela imilayezo yombhalo eyimfihlo isuka komunye umsebenzisi iye komunye - njengasesibonelweni esilandelayo sokushintshisana phakathi kuka-Jon Jones kanye ne-id 9 yomsebenzisi.
DIAL 9 LO NGU-JOHN JONES, NGIDINGA 20K UKUZE NGIlayishe UHLELO lwami
KUSUKA KU-9 SINGAKUZUZA NGEMIZUZU emi-5.
KUSUKA 9 QHUBEKA PHAMBILI Ulayishe
DIAL 9 LO NGU-JOHN JONES NGIDINGA 20K UKUQALA UHLELO
KUSUKA 9 SINGAKUNIKA EMZUZWENI OYI-5
KUSUKA 9 UKUQHUBEKA PHAMBILI
Khona-ke, ukuze kutholakale uxhaso lwezimali zamaphrojekthi wokwabelana ngesikhathi esizayo e-MIT, uLicklider wathola uRobert Fano ukuthi ahole iphrojekthi yakhe evelele: Iphrojekthi ye-MAC, eyasinda kwaze kwaba ngawo-1970 (i-MAC yayinezifinyezo eziningi - "izibalo nezibalo", "ikhompyutha yokufinyelela eminingi" , “ukuqonda ngosizo lomshini” [Izibalo Nezibalo, Ikhompyutha Yokufinyelela Kaningi, Ingqondo Esizwa Ngomshini]). Nakuba abathuthukisi bebenethemba lokuthi uhlelo olusha luzokwazi ukusekela okungenani abasebenzisi abangu-200 ngesikhathi esisodwa, abazange bacabangele inkimbinkimbi ehlala ikhula yesofthiwe yabasebenzisi, ethatha kalula yonke intuthuko yejubane nokusebenza kahle kwehadiwe. Ngenkathi yethulwa e-MIT ngo-1969, uhlelo lwalungakwazi ukusekela abasebenzisi abangaba ngu-60 lisebenzisa amayunithi alo amabili okucubungula amaphakathi, okwakuyinani elifanayo labasebenzisi ngeprosesa ngayinye njenge-CTSS. Kodwa-ke, inani eliphelele labasebenzisi lalilikhulu kakhulu kunomthwalo omkhulu owawungenzeka - ngoJuni 1970, abasebenzisi abangu-408 base bebhalisiwe.
Isofthiwe yesistimu yephrojekthi, ebizwa ngokuthi i-Multics, yaziqhenya ngokuthuthuka okukhulu, okunye kwakho okusabhekwa njengento ehamba phambili ezinhlelweni zokusebenza zanamuhla: uhlelo lwefayela olunesakhiwo esinesihlahla esinamafolda angaqukatha amanye amafolda; ukuhlukaniswa kokubulawa komyalo kusuka kumsebenzisi kanye nesistimu ezingeni lehadiwe; ukuxhumanisa okunamandla kwezinhlelo nokulayishwa kwamamojula ohlelo ngesikhathi sokwenziwa njengoba kudingeka; ikhono lokwengeza noma lokususa ama-CPU, amabhange enkumbulo noma amadiski ngaphandle kokuvala uhlelo. U-Ken Thompson no-Dennis Ritchie, abahleli bezinhlelo kuphrojekthi ye-Multics, kamuva basungula i-Unix OS (ogama layo libhekisela kweyandulelayo) ukuze ilethe eminye yale mibono ezinhlelweni zamakhompiyutha ezilula, nezisezingeni elincane [Igama elithi "UNIX" (ekuqaleni elithi "Unics" ) lisuselwa kwelithi "Multics". I-"U" ku-UNIX imele "Uniplexed" ngokuphambene negama elithi "Multiplexed" ngaphansi kwegama elithi Multics, ukugqamisa umzamo wabadali be-UNIX wokuqhela ezinkingeni zesistimu ye-Multics ukuze kukhiqizwe indlela elula nesebenza ngempumelelo.] .
ULick watshala imbewu yakhe yokugcina eBerkeley, eNyuvesi yaseCalifornia. Yaqala ngo-1963, i-Project Genie12 yazala i-Berkeley Timesharing System, ikhophi encane, egxile kwezohwebo ye-Project MAC. Yize ibiqhutshwa ngamalunga amaningi enyuvesi, empeleni ibiqhutshwa ngumfundi uMel Peirtle, ngosizo oluvela kwabanye abafundi — ikakhulukazi uChuck Tucker, Peter Deutsch, noButler Lampson. Abanye babo base bevele balibambile igciwane lokusebenzisana eCambridge ngaphambi kokuthi bafike eBerkeley. Deutsch, indodana kaprofesa we-MIT physics kanye nomshisekeli we-computer prototyping, wasebenzisa ulimi lohlelo lwe-Lisp ku-Digital PDP-1 esemncane ngaphambi kokuba abe ngumfundi eBerkeley. U-Lampson uhlele i-PDP-1 ku-Cambridge Electron Accelerator ngenkathi engumfundi e-Harvard. U-Pairtle nethimba lakhe bakha isistimu yokwabelana ngesikhathi ku-SDS 930 eyakhiwe yi-Scientific Data Systems, inkampani entsha yekhompyutha eyasungulwa e-Santa Monica ngo-1961 (intuthuko yezobuchwepheshe eyenzeka e-Santa Monica ngaleso sikhathi ingaba isihloko esihluke ngokuphelele. Iminikelo kubuchwepheshe bekhompyutha obusezingeni eliphezulu ngeminyaka yawo-1960 yenziwa yi-RAND Corporation, SDC, kanye ne-SDS, zonke zazinekomkhulu lapho).
I-SDS ihlanganise isofthiwe ye-Berkeley ekwakhiweni kwayo okusha, i-SDS 940. Yaba enye yezinhlelo zekhompiyutha zokwabelana ngesikhathi ezidume kakhulu ngasekupheleni kwawo-1960. I-Tymshare ne-Comshare, ehweba ukwabelana kwesikhathi ngokuthengisa izinsiza zekhompyutha ezikude, yathenga inqwaba yama-SDS 940s. UPyrtle nethimba lakhe baphinde banquma ukuzama isandla sabo emakethe yezohwebo futhi basungula i-Berkeley Computer Corporation (BCC) ngo-1968, kodwa ngesikhathi sokwehla komnotho. ka-1969-1970 yafaka isicelo sokuqothuka. Iningi leqembu lika-Peirtle laphelela e-Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center (PARC), lapho u-Tucker, Deutsch, kanye no-Lampson banikele khona kumaphrojekthi ayingqopha-mlando ahlanganisa indawo yokusebenza yomuntu siqu ye-Alto, amanethiwekhi endawo, kanye nephrinta ye-laser.
UMel Peirtle (maphakathi) eduze ne-Berkeley Timesharing System
Yebo, akuwona wonke amaphrojekthi wokwabelana ngesikhathi kusukela ngeminyaka yawo-1960s eyabongwa u-Licklider. Izindaba zalokho okwakwenzeka eMIT naseLincoln Laboratories zasakazeka ngezincwadi zobuchwepheshe, izingqungquthela, ukuxhumana kwezemfundo, kanye noshintsho lwemisebenzi. Ngenxa yale migudu, ezinye izimbewu, ezithwalwa umoya, zamila. EYunivesithi yase-Illinois, uDon Bitzer wathengisa uhlelo lwakhe lwe-PLATO eMnyangweni Wezokuvikela, okwakufanele unciphise izindleko zokuqeqeshwa kwezobuchwepheshe kwabasebenzi bezempi. U-Clifford Shaw udale i-Air Force exhaswa ngezimali yi-JOHNNIAC Open Shop System (JOSS) ukuze kuthuthukiswe ikhono lezisebenzi ze-RAND lokwenza ukuhlaziya izinombolo ngokushesha. Uhlelo lwe-Dartmouth lokwabelana ngesikhathi lwaluhlobene ngokuqondile nemicimbi e-MIT, kodwa ngaphandle kwalokho kwakuyiphrojekthi ehluke ngokuphelele, exhaswe ngokuphelele izakhamuzi ezivela ku-National Science Foundation ngaphansi kokucatshangwa ukuthi ulwazi lwekhompyutha luzoba ingxenye edingekayo yemfundo yabaholi baseMelika. isizukulwane esilandelayo.
Maphakathi nawo-1960, ukwabelana kwesikhathi kwakungakayithathi ngokugcwele i-ecosystem yekhompyutha. Amabhizinisi okucubungula ama-batch endabuko abusa kukho kokubili ukuthengiswa nokuduma, ikakhulukazi ngaphandle kwamakolishi. Kodwa isayithola indawo yayo.
Ihhovisi likaTaylor
Ehlobo lika-1964, cishe eminyakeni emibili ngemva kokufika e-ARPA, uLicklider washintsha imisebenzi futhi, kulokhu wathuthela esikhungweni socwaningo se-IBM enyakatho ye-New York. Eshaqiswe ukulahlekelwa yinkontileka yeProjekthi ye-MAC eyaphikisana nomenzi wamakhompiyutha u-General Electric ngemva kweminyaka eminingi yobudlelwane obuhle ne-MIT, uLeake kwadingeka anikeze i-IBM isipiliyoni sakhe sokuqala sokuthambekela okwakubonakala sengathi kudlula inkampani. KuLeake, umsebenzi omusha unikeze ithuba lokuguqula isisekelo sokugcina sokucutshungulwa kweqoqo lendabuko libe ukholo olusha lokusebenzisana (kodwa akuphumelelanga - uLeake waphonswa ngemuva, futhi umkakhe wahlupheka, eyedwa e-Yorktown Heights. Wathuthela ehhovisi laseCambridge le-IBM, wabe esebuyela e-MIT ngo-1967 ukuyohola i-Project MAC).
Uthathelwe indawo njengenhloko ye-IPTO ngu-Ivan Sutherland, uchwepheshe osemusha wezithombe zekhompyutha, naye owashintshwa ngo-1966 nguRobert Taylor. Iphepha lika-Lick lango-1960 elithi "Symbiosis of Man and Machine" laguqula u-Taylor waba ikholwa le-interactive computing, futhi isincomo sika-Lick samletha ku-ARPA ngemva kokusebenza kafushane ohlelweni locwaningo e-NASA. Ubuntu bakhe nolwazi lwakhe lwamenza wafana noLeake kunoSutherland. Isazi sokusebenza kwengqondo ngokuqeqeshwa, wayentula ulwazi lwezobuchwepheshe emkhakheni wamakhompyutha, kodwa wanxephezela ukuntula kwakhe ngomdlandla nobuholi obuqinisekayo.
Ngolunye usuku, ngenkathi u-Taylor esehhovisi lakhe, inhloko entsha ye-IPTO yaba nombono. Uhlale edeskini elinamatheminali amathathu ahlukene amvumela ukuthi axhumane nezinhlelo ezintathu zokwabelana ngesikhathi ezixhaswe yi-ARPA eziseCambridge, Berkeley naseSanta Monica. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, abazange baxhumeke komunye nomunye - ukuze adlulisele ulwazi kusuka ohlelweni olulodwa kuya kwesinye, kwakudingeka akwenze ngokwakhe, ngokomzimba, esebenzisa umzimba wakhe nengqondo.
Imbewu ephonswe ngu-Licklider yathela izithelo. Wakha umphakathi womphakathi wabasebenzi be-IPTO owakhula waba ezinye izikhungo zamakhompiyutha eziningi, ngasinye sazo esakha umphakathi omncane wochwepheshe bamakhompiyutha ababebuthene eziko lekhompuyutha ehlanganyela isikhathi. UTaylor ucabange ukuthi sekuyisikhathi sokuhlanganisa lezi zikhungo. Izakhiwo zabo zezenhlalakahle nezobuchwepheshe, lapho zixhunyiwe, zizokwazi ukwakha uhlobo lwe-superorganism, ama-rhizomes azosakazeka kulo lonke izwekazi, akhiqize kabusha izinzuzo zezenhlalakahle zokwabelana kwesikhathi ngezinga eliphezulu. Futhi ngalomcabango kwaqala izimpi zobuchwepheshe nezepolitiki ezaholela ekudalweni kwe-ARPANET.
Yini enye ongayifunda
- Richard J. Barber Associates, I-Advanced Research Projects Agency, 1958-1974 (1975)
- U-Katie Hafner no-Matthew Lyon, Lapho Abathakathi Bahlala Khona Kamuva: Umsuka We-inthanethi (1996)
- Severo M. Ornstein, Computing in the Middle Ages: A View From the Trenches, 1955-1983 (2002)
- M. Mitchell Waldrop, The Dream Machine: JCR Licklider kanye neRevolution That Made Computing Personal (2001)
Source: www.habr.com