🥇Umlando we-transistor, ingxenye 2: kusukela esiphambanweni sempi

Ezinye izindatshana ochungechungeni:

I-crucible yempi yabeka isiteji sokufika kwe-transistor. Kusukela ngo-1939 kuya ku-1945, ulwazi lobuchwepheshe emkhakheni we-semiconductors lwanda kakhulu. Futhi kwakukhona isizathu esisodwa esilula salokhu: i-radar. Ubuchwepheshe bempi obubaluleke kakhulu, izibonelo zazo ezihlanganisa: ukuthola ukuhlasela komoya, ukucinga imikhumbi-ngwenya, ukuqondisa ukuhlasela kwezindiza ebusuku ezindaweni ezihlosiwe, ukukhomba izinhlelo zokuvikela umoya kanye nezibhamu zasolwandle. Onjiniyela sebeze bafunda nendlela yokufaka ama-radar amancanyana abe amagobolondo ezikhali ukuze aqhume njengoba endizela eduze kwalapho okuqondiwe khona - amafusi omsakazo. Nokho, umthombo walobu buchwepheshe obusha bezempi obunamandla wawusendimeni enokuthula: ukucwaninga komkhathi ongenhla ngezinjongo zesayensi.

I-Radar

Ngo-1901, i-Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company yasakaza ngempumelelo umlayezo ongenazintambo ngaphesheya kwe-Atlantic, usuka eCornwall uya eNewfoundland. Leli qiniso liye laholela isayensi yanamuhla ekudidekeni. Uma amagagasi omsakazo ehamba ngomugqa oqondile (njengoba kufanele), lokho kudluliselwa kufanele kungenzeki. Awukho umugqa wokubona oqondile phakathi kweNgilandi neCanada ongaweli uMhlaba, ngakho umlayezo kaMarconi kwadingeka undizele emkhathini. Unjiniyela waseMelika u-Arthur Kennealy kanye nesazi sefiziksi saseBrithani u-Oliver Heaviside ngasikhathi sinye futhi ngokuzimela bahlongoza ukuthi incazelo yalesi simo kufanele ihlotshaniswe nongqimba lwegesi ene-ionized etholakala emkhathini ongaphezulu, okwazi ukukhombisa amaza omsakazo abuyele eMhlabeni (uMarconi ngokwakhe wayekholelwa ukuthi amaza omsakazo landela ukugoba kobuso boMhlaba, nokho, izazi zefiziksi azizange ziwusekele).

Ngawo-1920, ososayensi base besungule imishini emisha eyenza kwaba nokwenzeka ukufakazela kuqala ubukhona be-ionosphere bese befunda ukwakheka kwayo. Basebenzise amashubhu e-vacuum ukukhiqiza ama-pulses omsakazo we-short-wave, izimpondo eziqondisayo ukuze ziwathumele phezulu emkhathini futhi aqophe ama-echoes, futhi amadivaysi e-electron beam ukukhombisa imiphumela. Uma ukulibaziseka kokubuya kwe-echo isikhathi eside, kufanele kube kude i-ionosphere. Lobu buchwepheshe babubizwa ngokuthi ukuzwakala komkhathi, futhi bunikeze ingqalasizinda yobuchwepheshe eyisisekelo yokuthuthukiswa kwe-radar (igama elithi "radar", elisuka ku-RAdio Detection And Ranging, alizange livele kuze kube yi-1940s e-US Navy).

Kwaba yindaba nje yesikhathi ngaphambi kokuba abantu abanolwazi olufanele, izinsiza kanye nogqozi babone amandla okusetshenziswa komhlaba anjalo imishini (ngaleyo ndlela umlando we-radar uphambene nomlando wesibonakude, okwakuhloswe ngaso okokuqala ukusetshenziswa emhlabeni) . Futhi amathuba okuqonda okunjalo anda njengoba umsakazo usakazeka kakhulu emhlabeni wonke, futhi abantu abaningi babona ukuphazamiseka okuvela emikhunjini eseduze, izindiza nezinye izinto ezinkulu. Ulwazi lobuchwepheshe bokuzwakala komkhathi ongaphezulu lwasakazeka ngesikhathi sesibili Unyaka Wezwe Lomhlaba Wonke (1932-1933), lapho ososayensi behlanganisa imephu ye-ionosphere evela eziteshini ezahlukene ze-Arctic. Ngokushesha ngemva kwalokho, amaqembu eBrithani, e-USA, eJalimane, e-Italy, e-USSR nakwamanye amazwe athuthukisa izinhlelo zabo ze-radar ezilula.

URobert Watson-Watt ngerada yakhe yango-1935

Kwabe sekwenzeka impi, nokubaluleka kwama- radar emazweni—kanye nezinsiza zokuwathuthukisa—kwanda kakhulu. E-United States, lezi zinsiza zahlangana nenhlangano entsha eyasungulwa ngo-1940 eMIT, eyaziwa ngokuthi I-Rad Lab (yaqanjwa ngokuqondile ukuze kudukiswe izinhloli zakwamanye amazwe futhi kudale umbono wokuthi i-radioactivity yayicwaningwa elabhorethri - ngaleso sikhathi bambalwa abantu ababekholelwa emabhomu e-athomu). Iphrojekthi ye-Rad Lab, engazange idume njenge-Manhattan Project, nokho yaqasha osolwazi befiziksi abavelele nabanekhono ngokulinganayo abavela kulo lonke elase-United States ukuba bangene ezinhlwini zayo. Izisebenzi zokuqala ezinhlanu zaselabhorethri (okuhlanganisa Luis Alvarez и Isidore Isaac Rabi) wabe esethola imiklomelo kaNobel. Ekupheleni kwempi, odokotela besayensi, ososayensi nonjiniyela abangaba ngu-500 basebenza elabhorethri, futhi ingqikithi yabantu abangu-4000 XNUMX yasebenza. Ingxenye yesigidi samaRandi—uma iqhathaniswa nesabelomali sonke se-ENIAC—yachithwa ku-Radiation Laboratory Series iyodwa, irekhodi lemiqulu engamashumi amabili nesikhombisa yalo lonke ulwazi olwatholwa elabhorethri phakathi nempi (nakuba ukusetshenziswa kukahulumeni wase-U.S. kubuchwepheshe be-radar kwakungalinganiselwe kwisabelomali se-Rad Lab ; phakathi nempi uhulumeni wathenga ama-radar abiza izigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezintathu zamadola).

I-MIT Building 20, lapho iRad Lab yayitholakala khona

Enye yezindawo eziyinhloko zocwaningo lwe-Rad Lab kwakuyi-radar yefrikhwensi ephezulu. Ama-radar angaphambili ayesebenzisa ubude begagasi obukalwa ngamamitha. Kodwa imishayo yefrikhwensi ephezulu enobude obungamaza obukalwa ngamasentimitha—ama-microwave—avunyelwe ama-antenna ahlangene futhi ayengasahlakazeki kancane ebangeni elide, ethembisa izinzuzo ezinkulu kububanzi nokunemba. Ama-radar ama-microwave angangena ekhaleni lendiza futhi abone izinto ezilingana ne-periscope yomkhumbi-ngwenya.

Owokuqala ukuxazulula le nkinga kwakuyiqembu lezazi zefiziksi zaseBrithani ezivela eNyuvesi yaseBirmingham. Ngo-1940 bathuthuka "i-resonant magnetron", esebenze "njengekhwelo" kagesi, iguqule ukushayeka kagesi okungahleliwe kube imishayo enamandla futhi eshunwe kahle yamamicrowaves. Le transmitter ye-microwave yayinamandla aphindwe izikhathi eziyinkulungwane kunembangi yaso eseduze; yavula indlela yezithutha zerada ezisebenza ngamaza aphezulu. Nokho, wayedinga umngane, isamukeli esikwazi ukubona amaza aphezulu. Futhi kuleli qophelo sibuyela emlandweni wama-semiconductors.

I-Magnetron cross-section

Ukubuya kwesibili kwendevu yekati

Kuvele ukuthi amashubhu e-vacuum ayengafanele neze ukuthola amasiginali we-microwave radar. Igebe phakathi kwe-cathode eshisayo kanye ne-anode ebandayo idala i-capacitance, okwenza isifunda senqabe ukusebenza kumafrikhwensi aphezulu. Ubuchwepheshe obungcono kakhulu obutholakalayo be-radar ye-high-frequency radar bekuyisidala "untshebe wekati"- ucezu oluncane locingo olucindezelwe ngokumelene nekristalu ye-semiconductor. Abantu abambalwa bathole lokhu ngokuzimela, kodwa into eseduze kakhulu endabeni yethu yilokho okwenzeka eNew Jersey.

Ngo-1938, i-Bell Labs yenza isivumelwano ne-Navy ukuze ithuthukise i-radar yokulawula umlilo ebangeni elingama-40 cm-elifushane kakhulu, ngakho-ke liphakeme kakhulu ngobuningi, kunama-radar akhona enkathini ye-pre-resonant magnetron. Umsebenzi oyinhloko wocwaningo waya ophikweni lwamalabhorethri eHolmdel, eningizimu yeStaten Island. Akuzange kuthathe isikhathi eside ukuthi abacwaningi bathole ukuthi yini ababezoyidinga ukuze uthole isamukeli esinemvamisa ephezulu, futhi ngokushesha unjiniyela uGeorge Southworth wayesehlola izitolo zomsakazo eManhattan ethola imitshina emidala yentshebe yekati. Njengoba bekulindelekile, yasebenza kangcono kakhulu kunomtshina wesibani, kodwa yayingazinzile. Ngakho uSouthworth wafuna isazi samakhemikhali kagesi okuthiwa uRussell Ohl futhi wamcela ukuthi azame ukuthuthukisa ukufana kwempendulo yomtshina wekristalu onephuzu elilodwa.

U-Ol wayengumuntu ongajwayelekile, owayebheka ukuthuthukiswa kobuchwepheshe njengesiphetho sakhe, futhi ekhuluma ngemibono yesikhathi esizayo nemibono yesikhathi esizayo. Ngokwesibonelo, wathi emuva ngo-1939 wayazi ngokusungulwa kwesikhathi esizayo kwe-silicon amplifier, kodwa leso siphetho sasimiselwe omunye umuntu ukuba asisungule. Ngemva kokufunda inqwaba yezinketho, wazinza ku-silicon njengento engcono kakhulu yabamukeli baseSouthworth. Inkinga kwaba ikhono lokulawula okuqukethwe impahla ukulawula izici zayo zikagesi. Ngaleso sikhathi, i-ingots ye-silicon yezimboni yayisakazekile; ayesetshenziswa ezigayweni zensimbi, kodwa ekukhiqizeni okunjalo akekho owayehlukunyezwa, athi, okuqukethwe kwe-phosphorus ku-silicon. Ecela usizo lochwepheshe bensimbi abambalwa, u-Ol wazimisela ukuthola izikhala ezihlanzekile kakhulu kunalokho ayengakwenza ngaphambili.

Njengoba besebenza, bathola ukuthi amanye amakristalu abo alungisa i-current ohlangothini olulodwa, kanti abanye balungisa okwamanje kwenye. Bazibiza ngokuthi "n-type" kanye "nohlobo lwe-p". Ukuhlaziya okwengeziwe kwabonisa ukuthi izinhlobo ezahlukene zokungcola zazinesibopho salezi zinhlobo. I-silicon ikukholomu yesine yetafula le-periodic, okusho ukuthi inama-electron amane egobolondweni layo elingaphandle. Ku-silicon engenalutho engenalutho, ngayinye yalawa ma-electron ingahlangana nomakhelwane. Ukungcola okuvela kukholamu yesithathu, ithi i-boron, ene-electron eyodwa encane, idale “imbobo,” indawo eyengeziwe yokunyakaza kwamanje kukristalu. Umphumela waba i-semiconductor yohlobo lwe-p (enezindleko ezingaphezulu kwezinhle). Izinto ezisuka kukholomu yesihlanu, njenge-phosphorus, zinikeze ama-electron engeziwe amahhala ukuze athwale okwamanje, futhi kutholwe i-semiconductor yohlobo lwe-n.

Isakhiwo se-crystal se-silicon

Lonke lolu cwaningo lwaluthakazelisa kakhulu, kodwa ngo-1940 i-Southworth kanye no-Ohl babengasenasondeli ekudaleni i-prototype esebenzayo ye-radar yamafrikhwensi aphezulu. Ngaso leso sikhathi, uhulumeni waseBrithani wafuna imiphumela esebenzayo ngokushesha ngenxa yosongo oluvela ku-Luftwaffe, eyayivele idale ama-microwave alungele ukukhiqizwa asebenza ngokuhambisana nama-magnetron transmitters.

Kodwa-ke, ibhalansi yentuthuko yezobuchwepheshe maduze izofinyelela ohlangothini olusentshonalanga ye-Atlantic. UChurchill wanquma ukudalula zonke izimfihlo zobuchwepheshe zaseBrithani kubantu baseMelika ngaphambi kokuba angene empini (njengoba ayecabanga ukuthi lokhu kuzokwenzeka noma kunjalo). Wayekholelwa ukuthi kufaneleka ingozi yokuvuza kolwazi, kusukela ngaleso sikhathi wonke amakhono ezimboni zase-United States azophonswa ekuxazululeni izinkinga ezifana nezikhali ze-athomu nama-radar. I-British Science and Technology Mission (eyaziwa kangcono ngokuthi Umsebenzi kaTizard) wafika eWashington ngo-September 1940 futhi wamlethela imithwalo yakhe isipho esiyisimangaliso sezobuchwepheshe.

Ukutholakala kwamandla amangalisayo we-magnetron ezwakalayo kanye nokusebenza kahle kwezitholi zekristalu zaseBrithani ekutholeni isignali yayo kuvuselele ucwaningo lwaseMelika kuma-semiconductors njengesisekelo se-radar yamafrikhwensi aphezulu. Wawumkhulu umsebenzi okwakumelwe wenziwe, ikakhulukazi kwisayensi yezinto zokwakha. Ukuze kuhlangatshezwane nesidingo, amakristalu e-semiconductor “kwadingeka ukuba akhiqizwe ngezigidi, ngaphezu kwalokho okwakungenzeka ngaphambili. Bekudingeka ukuthuthukisa ukulungiswa, ukunciphisa ukuzwela ukushaqeka kanye nokushiswa, futhi kuncishiswe ukuhluka phakathi kwamaqoqo ahlukene amakristalu. "

I-Silicon Point Contact Rectifier

I-Rad Lab ivule iminyango emisha yocwaningo ukuze itadishe izakhiwo zamakristalu e-semiconductor nokuthi zingashintshwa kanjani ukuze kwandiswe izakhiwo ezibalulekile zamamukeli. Izinto ezazithembisa kakhulu kwakuyi-silicon ne-germanium, ngakho i-Rad Lab yanquma ukuyidlala iphephile futhi yethula izinhlelo ezifanayo zokutadisha kokubili: i-silicon e-University of Pennsylvania kanye ne-germanium e-Purdue. Iziqhwaga zemboni ezifana neBell, Westinghouse, Du Pont, kanye noSylvania zaqala ezazo izinhlelo zocwaningo lwe-semiconductor futhi zaqala ukwakha izindawo ezintsha zokukhiqiza zezithonjana zekristalu.

Ngemizamo ehlanganyelwe, ukuhlanzeka kwe-silicon namakristalu e-germanium kunyuswe kusuka ku-99% ekuqaleni kuya ku-99,999% - okungukuthi, kuyizinhlayiyana zokungcola eyodwa kuma-athomu ayi-100. Kulolu hlelo, ithimba lososayensi nonjiniyela lajwayelana eduze nezakhiwo ezingabonakali ze-germanium ne-silicon futhi lasebenzisa nobuchwepheshe bokuzilawula: ukuncibilika, amakristalu akhulayo, anezela ukungcola okudingekayo (okufana ne-boron, okwandisa ukuhanjiswa).

Yabe isiphela impi. Isidingo se-radar sanyamalala, kodwa ulwazi namakhono atholakala phakathi nempi ahlala, futhi iphupho le-solid-state amplifier alikhohliwe. Manje umjaho wawuzokwakha i-amplifier enjalo. Futhi okungenani amaqembu amathathu abesesimweni esihle sokuwina lo mklomelo.

West Lafayette

Elokuqala kwakuyiqembu elivela eNyuvesi yasePurdue elaliholwa isazi sefiziksi esazalelwa e-Austria okuthiwa uCarl Lark-Horowitz. Eyedwa wakhipha umnyango we-physics wenyuvesi ekungaziwa ngethalente lakhe nomthelela futhi waba nomthelela esinqumweni se-Rad Lab sokuphathisa ilabhorethri yakhe ucwaningo lwe-germanium.

UCarl Lark-Horowitz ngo-1947, enkabeni, ephethe ipayipi

Ngasekuqaleni kwawo-1940, i-silicon yayibhekwa njengento engcono kakhulu yokulungisa i-radar, kodwa izinto ezingaphansi kwayo etafuleni le-periodic nazo zazibukeka zikufanelekela ukufundwa okwengeziwe. I-Germanium ibe nenzuzo engokoqobo ngenxa yezinga layo eliphansi lokuncibilika, okwenza kube lula ukusebenza nalo: cishe ama-degree angu-940, uma kuqhathaniswa namadigri angu-1400 e-silicon (acishe afane nensimbi). Ngenxa yezinga eliphezulu lokuncibilika, bekunzima kakhulu ukwenza into engenalutho engeke ingene ku-silicon encibilikisiwe, iyingcolise.

Ngakho-ke, uLark-Horowitz nozakwabo bachitha yonke impi befunda amakhemikhali, izakhiwo zikagesi nezomzimba ze-germanium. Isithiyo esibaluleke kakhulu kwaba “i-voltage ehlehlayo”: ama-germanium rectifiers kuma-voltage aphansi kakhulu ayeka ukulungisa wamanje futhi awuvumela ukuthi ugeleze ubheke kolunye uhlangothi. I-Reverse yamanje ishayela ishise izingxenye ezisele ze-radar. Omunye wabafundi bakaLark-Horowitz abathweswe iziqu, uSeymour Benzer, wafunda le nkinga isikhathi esingaphezu konyaka futhi ekugcineni wakha isithasiselo esisekelwe kuthini esamisa ama-reverse pulses kuma-voltage afinyelela kumakhulu ama-volts. Ngokushesha ngemva kwalokho, i-Western Electric, ingxenye yokukhiqiza ye-Bell Labs, yaqala ukukhipha izihlungi ze-Benzer ukuze zisetshenziswe empini.

Ucwaningo lwe-germanium ePurdue lwaqhubeka ngemva kwempi. Ngo-June 1947, uBenzer, kakade owayenguprofesa, wabika ukungahambi kahle okungavamile: kwezinye izivivinyo, ama-oscillations aphezulu avela kumakristalu e-germanium. Futhi uzakwabo u-Ralph Bray waqhubeka nokufunda "ukumelana ne-volumetric" kuphrojekthi eyaqalwa phakathi nempi. Ukumelana nevolumu kuchaze ukuthi ugesi ugeleza kanjani kukristalu ye-germanium endaweni yokuxhumana yesilungisi. UBray uthole ukuthi ama-voltage aphezulu anciphisa kakhulu ukumelana kwe-n-type germanium kulawa maza. Engazi, wazibonela lokhu okuthiwa. "ingcosana" yezinkampani zenethiwekhi. Kuma-semiconductors ohlobo lwe-n, ukushaja okungekuhle okweqile kusebenza njengesithwali sokushaja iningi, kodwa "izimbobo" ezinhle zingathwala zamanje, futhi kulokhu, ama-voltage aphezulu adala izimbobo esakhiweni se-germanium, okubangela ukuba kuvele abathwali bamacala amancane. .

UBray noBenzer basondele ngokumangalisayo ku-germanium amplifier ngaphandle kokuqaphela. UBenzer wabamba uWalter Brattain, usosayensi weBell Labs, engqungqutheleni eyayingoJanuwari 1948 ukuze axoxe naye ngokudonsa kwevolumu. Wasikisela ukuba uBrattain abeke elinye iphuzu lokuthintana eduze nelokuqala elingaqhuba umsinga, bese bekwazi ukuqonda ukuthi kwenzekani ngaphansi. UBrattain wavuma ngokuthula lesi siphakamiso wabe esehamba. Njengoba sizobona, wayazi kahle kamhlophe ukuthi lokho kuhlola kwakungakwembulani.

U-Oney-sous-Bois

Iqembu le-Purdue belinakho kokubili ubuchwepheshe kanye nesisekelo sethiyori sokwenza ukugxumela ku-transistor. Kodwa babengazithela phezu kwayo ngephutha. Babenentshisekelo kuzakhiwo ezibonakalayo zezinto ezibonakalayo, hhayi ekusesheni uhlobo olusha lwedivayisi. Kwavela isimo esihluke kakhulu e-Aunes-sous-Bois (eFrance), lapho abacwaningi ababili bangaphambili be-radar baseJalimane, u-Heinrich Welker no-Herbert Mathare, bahola ithimba umgomo wabo kwakuwukudala imishini ye-semiconductor yezimboni.

U-Welker waqala wafunda wabe esefundisa i-physics eNyuvesi yaseMunich, ephethwe isazi semfundiso-nkolo esidumile u-Arnold Sommerfeld. Kusukela ngo-1940, washiya indlela yethiyori futhi waqala ukusebenza ku-radar yeLuftwaffe. UMathare (odabuka eBelgium) wakhulela e-Aachen, lapho afunda khona i-physics. Wajoyina umnyango wokucwaninga we-radio giant yaseJalimane i-Telefunken ngo-1939. Phakathi nempi, wasusa umsebenzi wakhe eBerlin empumalanga waya endlini yenkosi yaseSilesia ukuze agweme ukuhlasela kwezindiza ze-Allied, wabe esebuyela entshonalanga ukuze agweme i-Red Army eqhubekayo, ekugcineni iwele ezandleni zebutho laseMelika.

Njengezimbangi zabo ku-Anti-Hitler Coalition, amaJalimane ayazi ngasekuqaleni kwawo-1940 ukuthi imitshina yekristalu yayiyizamukeli ezifanele ze-radar, nokuthi i-silicon ne-germanium kwakuyizinto ezithembisa kakhulu ekudalweni kwazo. UMathare no-Welker bazama phakathi nempi ukuthuthukisa ukusetshenziswa kahle kwalezi zinto ekulungiseni izinto. Ngemuva kwempi, bobabili baphenywa ngezikhathi ezithile mayelana nomsebenzi wabo wezempi, futhi ekugcineni bathola isimemo esivela kumphathi wezobunhloli waseFrance eParis ngo-1946.

I-Compagnie des Freins & Signaux ("inkampani yamabhuleki namasiginali"), ingxenye yesiFulentshi yase-Westinghouse, ithole inkontileka evela kwabaphathi bezingcingo base-France ukuze benze izilungisi ze-solid-state futhi yafuna ososayensi baseJalimane ukuba babasize. Umfelandawonye onjalo wezitha zamuva ungase ubonakale uyinqaba, kodwa leli lungiselelo libonakale livuna izinhlangothi zombili. AmaFulentshi, anqotshwa ngo-1940, ayengenalo ikhono lokuthola ulwazi emkhakheni wama-semiconductors, futhi ayewadinga kakhulu amakhono amaJalimane. AmaJalimane awakwazanga ukwenza intuthuko kunoma yiziphi izinkambu zobuchwepheshe obuphezulu ezweni elihlaselwe futhi elikhungethwe yimpi, ngakho agxumela ithuba lokuqhubeka nokusebenza.

U-Welker noMathare bamisa indlunkulu endlini enezitezi ezimbili endaweni yaseParis e-Aunes-sous-Bois, futhi ngosizo lwethimba lochwepheshe, bethula ngempumelelo imishini yokulungisa i-germanium ekupheleni kuka-1947. Base bephendukela ekugxileni nakakhulu. imiklomelo: U-Welker wabuyela entshisakalweni yakhe kuma-superconductors, kwathi uMathare wabuyela kuma-amplifiers.

Herbert Mathare ngo-1950

Phakathi nempi, iMathare yazama izinto zokulungisa amaphuzu amabili—“ama-duodeode”—ezama ukunciphisa umsindo wesifunda. Waqhubeka nokuhlola kwakhe futhi ngokushesha wathola ukuthi intshebe yekati yesibili, etholakala endaweni eyisigidi esingu-1/100 semitha ukusuka kweyokuqala, ngezinye izikhathi yayikwazi ukushintshanisa umphimbo ogeleza kuntshebe wokuqala. Wakha i-amplifier yesimo esiqinile, nakuba yayingenamsebenzi. Ukuze azuze ukusebenza okuthembekile, waphendukela ku-Welker, owayethole ulwazi olunzulu lokusebenza ngamakristalu e-germanium phakathi nempi. Ithimba lika-Welker lakhula laba likhulu, amasampula ahlanzekile ezinhlayiya ze-germanium, futhi njengoba ikhwalithi yento ithuthuka, izikhulisa-msindo zephoyinti lokuxhumana le-Mathare zathembeka ngoJuni 1948.

Isithombe se-X-ray se- "transistron" esisekelwe kumjikelezo we-Mathare, onamaphuzu amabili okuxhumana ne-germanium

I-Mathare yaze yaba nemodeli yethiyori yalokho okwakwenzeka: wayekholelwa ukuthi othintana naye wesibili wenza izimbobo ku-germanium, esheshisa ukudlula kwamandla ngokuthintana kokuqala, ehlinzeka ngabathwali bamacala amancane. U-Welker akazange avumelane naye, futhi wayekholelwa ukuthi okwenzekayo kuncike ohlotsheni oluthile lomphumela wensimu. Kodwa-ke, ngaphambi kokuba basebenzise ithuluzi noma inkolelo-mbono, bathola ukuthi iqembu labantu baseMelika lalithuthukise umqondo ofanayo ncamashi - i-germanium amplifier enamaphuzu amabili okuxhumana - ezinyangeni eziyisithupha ngaphambili.

UMurray Hill

Ekupheleni kwempi, uMervyn Kelly waguqula iqembu labacwaningi be-semiconductor beBell Labs elaliholwa nguBill Shockley. Le phrojekthi yakhula, yathola uxhaso oluthe xaxa, futhi yasuka esakhiweni sayo sokuqala selebhu eManhattan yaya esikhungweni esikhulayo saseMurray Hill, eNew Jersey.

I-Murray Hill Campus, ca. 1960

Ukuze azijwayeze kabusha nama-semiconductors athuthukile (ngemuva kwesikhathi sakhe ocwaningweni lwemisebenzi phakathi nempi), uShockley wavakashela ilabhorethri kaRussell Ohl's Holmdel entwasahlobo ka-1945. U-Ohl wachitha iminyaka yempi esebenza ku-silicon futhi akachithanga sikhathi. Wabonisa uShockley isikhulisi esingahluziwe sokwakha kwakhe, asibiza ngokuthi “i-desister.” Wathatha i-silicon point contact rectifier wathumela ibhethri ngayo. Ngokusobala, ukushisa okuvela kubhethri kunciphise ukumelana endaweni yokuxhumana, futhi kwashintsha isilungisisi saba isikhulisi esikwazi ukudlulisa amasignali omsakazo angenayo kuyisekethi enamandla ngokwanele ukunika amandla isipika.

Umthelela wawuluhlaza futhi ungathembeki, ungafaneleki ukuhweba. Kodwa-ke, kwanele ukuqinisekisa umbono ka-Shockley wokuthi kwakungenzeka ukudala i-semiconductor amplifier, nokuthi lokhu kufanele kube yinto ehamba phambili yocwaningo emkhakheni we-solid-state electronics. Futhi kwaba yilo mhlangano nethimba lika-Ola owaqinisekisa u-Shockley ukuthi i-silicon ne-germanium kufanele kufundwe kuqala. Babonisa izakhiwo zikagesi ezikhangayo, futhi izisebenzi zika-Ohl ze-metallurgists u-Jack Skaff no-Henry Theurer bathole impumelelo emangalisayo ekukhuliseni, ekuhlanzeni, nasekufakeni izidakamizwa la makristalu phakathi nempi, bedlula bonke ubuchwepheshe obutholakala kwezinye izinto ze-semiconductor. Iqembu lika-Shockley lalingeke liphinde lichithe isikhathi ngezikhulisi ze-copper oxide zangaphambi kwempi.

Ngosizo lukaKelly, uShockley waqala ukuhlanganisa iqembu elisha. Abadlali abamqoka bahlanganisa u-Walter Brattain, owasiza u-Shockley ngomzamo wakhe wokuqala we-solid-state amplifier (ngo-1940), kanye no-John Bardeen, isazi sefiziksi esencane nesisebenzi esisha saseBell Labs. Cishe uBardeen wayenolwazi olubanzi kakhulu lwefiziksi yesimo esiqinile kunoma yiliphi ilungu leqembu—uhlaka lwakhe lwachaza amazinga wamandla ama-electron esakhiweni sensimbi ye-sodium. Wayengomunye futhi umlandeli kaJohn Hasbrouck Van Vleck, njengo-Atanasov noBrattain.

Futhi njengo-Atanasov, imibhalo kaBardeen noShockley yayidinga izibalo eziyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu. Kwadingeka basebenzise ithiyori ye-quantum mechanical of semiconductors, echazwe u-Alan Wilson, ukuze abale ukwakheka kwamandla kwezinto kusetshenziswa isibali sedeskithophu sikaMonroe. Ngokusiza ekudaleni i-transistor, empeleni, baba nesandla ekusindiseni abafundi abazothweswa iziqu esikhathini esizayo kulo msebenzi.

Indlela yokuqala kaShockley yokwenza i-solid-state amplifier incike kulokho okwabizwa kamuva ngokuthi "umphumela wenkundla". Ulengise ipuleti lensimbi phezu kwe-semiconductor yohlobo lwe-n (enezindleko ezingaphezu kwezimbi). Ukufaka inkokhiso ephozithivu epuletini kudonsele ama-electron amaningi phezu kwekristalu, kwakha umfula wamashaji angemahle lapho amandla kagesi akwazi ukugeleza kalula. Isignali ekhulisiwe (emelwe izinga lokushaja ku-wafer) ngale ndlela ingashintsha umjikelezo oyinhloko (udlula ebusweni be-semiconductor). Ukusebenza kahle kwalolu hlelo kwasikiselwa kuye ngolwazi lwakhe lwethiyori ye-physics. Kodwa, naphezu kokuhlolwa nokuhlolwa okuningi, uhlelo aluzange lusebenze.

Ngo-March 1946, u-Bardeen wayesedale ithiyori ethuthuke kahle eyachaza isizathu salokhu: ingaphezulu le-semiconductor ezingeni le-quantum liziphatha ngendlela ehlukile kunengaphakathi layo. Izindleko ezingezinhle ezidonselwa phezulu zibambeka "ezimweni ezingaphezulu" futhi zivimbe inkambu kagesi ukuthi ingangeni epuletini kokubalulekile. Ithimba lonke lithole lokhu kuhlaziya kuphoqa, futhi lethule uhlelo olusha locwaningo ngezindlela ezintathu:

Fakazela ubukhona bezindawo ezingaphezulu.
Funda izakhiwo zabo.
Thola ukuthi ungazinqoba kanjani futhi uzenze zisebenze i-transistor ye-field-effect.

Ngemva konyaka nengxenye yocwaningo nokuhlola, ngo-November 17, 1947, uBrattain wenza intuthuko. Wathola ukuthi uma ebeka uketshezi olugcwele i-ion, njengamanzi, phakathi kwe-wafer ne-semiconductor, inkambu kagesi evela ku-wafer yayizophusha ama-ion aqonde ku-semiconductor, lapho ayezonciphisa izindleko ezivaleleke ezindaweni ezingaphezulu. Manje wayesekwazi ukulawula ukuziphatha kukagesi kocezu lwe-silicon ngokushintsha ukushaja ku-wafer. Le mpumelelo yanikeza uBardeen umbono wendlela entsha yokwakha i-amplifier: azungeze indawo yokuxhumana ye-rectifier ngamanzi e-electrolyte, bese usebenzisa ucingo lwesibili emanzini ukulawula izimo ezingaphezulu, futhi ngaleyo ndlela ulawule izinga lokuhamba kwe-main. othintana naye. Ngakho uBardeen noBrattain bafinyelela entanjeni.

Umbono kaBardeen wasebenza, kodwa ukukhuliswa kwaba buthaka futhi kusebenza kumaza aphansi kakhulu okungafinyeleleki endlebeni yomuntu - ngakho-ke kwakungasizi ngalutho njengesikhulisi socingo noma somsakazo. U-Bardeen uphakamise ukushintshela ku-germanium engavimbeli i-reverse-voltage ekhiqizwa e-Purdue, ekholelwa ukuthi amanani ambalwa azoqoqwa phezu kwayo. Ngokushesha bathola ukwanda okunamandla, kodwa ngendlela ephambene nalokho okwakulindelwe. Bathola umthelela wenkampani yenethiwekhi - esikhundleni sama-electron alindelekile, okwamanje ageleza ku-germanium akhuliswe yizimbobo ezivela ku-electrolyte. I-current on the wire ku-electrolyte idale ungqimba lohlobo lwe-p (isifunda esinamashaji amaningi amahle) endaweni ye-n-type germanium.

Ukuhlola okwalandela kwabonisa ukuthi ayikho i-electrolyte eyayidingeka nhlobo: ngokubeka amaphuzu amabili okuxhumana eduze nendawo ye-germanium, kwakungenzeka ukushintsha indlela yamanje ukusuka kwenye yazo ukuya kweyamanje kwenye. Ukuze awasondeze ngangokunokwenzeka, u-Brattain wasonga ucezu lwephepha legolide ocezu lwepulasitiki elingunxantathu wabe esesika ucwecwe ngokucophelela ekugcineni. Khona-ke, esebenzisa isiphethu, wacindezela unxantathu ngokumelene ne-germanium, ngenxa yalokho imiphetho emibili yokusikwa yathinta indawo yayo ebangeni elingu-0,05 mm. Lokhu kunikeze i-Bell Labs' transistor prototype ukubukeka kwayo okuhlukile:

I-Brattain ne-Bardeen transistor prototype

Njengomshini kaMathare no-Welker, empeleni, kwakuyi-"whisker yekati" yakudala, enamaphuzu amabili okuxhumana esikhundleni selilodwa. NgoDisemba 16, ikhiqize ukwanda okukhulu kwamandla ne-voltage, kanye nemvamisa ye-1000 Hz ebangeni elizwakalayo. Ngemva kwesonto, ngemva kokuthuthukiswa okuncane, uBardeen noBrattain base benyuse amandla kagesi izikhathi ezingu-100 namandla izikhathi ezingu-40, futhi babonisa abaqondisi bakaBell ukuthi idivayisi yabo ingakhiqiza inkulumo ezwakalayo. U-John Pierce, elinye ilungu leqembu lokuthuthukiswa kombuso oqinile, waqamba igama elithi "transistor" ngemuva kwegama le-Bell's copper oxide rectifier, i-varistor.

Ezinyangeni eziyisithupha ezalandela, ilabhorethri yagcina indalo entsha iyimfihlo. Abaphathi bebefuna ukwenza isiqiniseko sokuthi banesiqalo esihle ekudayiseni i-transistor ngaphambi kokuthi omunye umuntu ayibambe. Umhlangano wabezindaba wawuhlelelwe umhla zingama-30 kuNhlangulana, 1948, ngesikhathi esifanele ukuqeda amaphupho ka-Welker noMathare okungafi. Ngaleso sikhathi, iqembu locwaningo lwe-semiconductor lawa ngokuthula. Ngemva kokuzwa ngalokho uBardeen noBrattain abakufeza, umphathi wabo, uBill Shockley, waqala ukusebenza ukuze azithathele lonke udumo. Futhi nakuba adlale indima yokubuka kuphela, u-Shockley uthole ukumenyezelwa okulinganayo, uma kungenjalo okungaphezulu, esethulweni somphakathi - njengoba kubonakala kulesi sithombe sakhe esikhishiwe ngesikhathi kuqhubeka isenzo, eduze nje kwebhentshi laselabhu:

Isithombe sika-1948 esidlangalaleni - uBardeen, uShockley noBrattain

Nokho, udumo olulinganayo lwalunganele kuShockley. Futhi ngaphambi kokuba noma ubani ongaphandle kweBell Labs azi nge-transistor, wayematasa eyiqambela eyakhe. Futhi lokhu bekuwukuphela kokuqala kweziningi ezinjalo zokuvuselelwa.

Yini enye ongayifunda

URobert Buderi, I-Invention eyashintsha umhlaba (1996)
UMichael Riordan, "Indlela IYurophu Yaphuthelwa Ngayo I-Transistor," IEEE Spectrum (Nov. 1, 2005)
UMichael Riordan noLillian Hoddeson, uCrystal Fire (1997)
U-Armand Van Dormael, "I-'French' Transistor," www.cdvandt.org/VanDormael.pdf (1994)

Source: www.habr.com

Umlando we-Transistor, Ingxenye 2: Kusuka Ku-Crucible of War