Ezinye izindatshana ochungechungeni:
- Umlando we-relay
- Umlando wamakhompyutha kagesi
- Umlando we-transistor
- Umlando we-inthanethi
Iminyaka engaphezu kwekhulu, inja ye-analog ibilokhu inyakazisa umsila wayo wedijithali. Imizamo yokwandisa amandla ezinzwa zethu - ukubona, ukuzwa, ngisho, ngomqondo othile, onjiniyela nososayensi baholele ekutheni bafune izingxenye ezingcono zamatelegrafu, izingcingo, imisakazo namarada. Kube ngenhlanhla kuphela lapho lolu sesho lwathola indlela eya ekudalweni kwezinhlobo ezintsha zemishini yedijithali. Futhi nginqume ukukhuluma indaba yalokhu njalo , lapho onjiniyela bezokuxhumana behlinzeka ngezinto zokusetshenziswa zamakhompiyutha okuqala edijithali, futhi ngezinye izikhathi baze baklame futhi bazakhele wona ngokwawo lawo makhompyutha.
Kodwa ngawo-1960, lokhu kubambisana okunezithelo kwaphela, kanye nayo indaba yami. Abakhiqizi bemishini yedijithali akusadingeki babheke emhlabeni we-telegraph, ucingo nomsakazo ukuthola amaswishi amasha, athuthukisiwe, njengoba i-transistor ngokwayo inikeze umthombo ongapheli wentuthuko. Unyaka nonyaka bamba bajula futhi bajula, njalo bethola izindlela zokwandisa isivinini kanye nokunciphisa izindleko.
Kodwa-ke, akukho kulokhu obekuzokwenzeka ukube ukusungulwa kwe-transistor bekumile .
Ukuqala kancane
Kube nesasasa elincane emaphephandabeni athandwayo ngesimemezelo sikaBell Labs sokusungulwa kwe-transistor. Ngo-July 1, 1948, i-New York Times yanikeza izigaba ezintathu kulo mcimbi ekugcineni kombiko wayo Wezindaba Zomsakazo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, lezi zindaba zavela ngemva kwezinye, ngokusobala zibhekwa njengezibaluleke kakhulu: isibonelo, umbukiso womsakazo wehora elide "Isikhathi Se-Waltz", okwakufanele sivele ku-NBC. Uma sibheka emuva, singase sifune ukuhleka, noma sithethise ababhali abangaziwa - behluleke kanjani ukubona isigameko esiphendule umhlaba wonke?
Kepha ukubona emuva kuhlanekezela ukubona, kukhulise amasiginali esikwaziyo ukuthi ukubaluleka kwawo kwalahleka olwandle lomsindo ngaleso sikhathi. I-transistor ka-1948 yayihluke kakhulu kuma-transistors amakhompyutha ofunda kuwo lesi sihloko (ngaphandle uma unqume ukuyiphrinta). Bahluke kakhulu kangangokuthi, naphezu kwegama elifanayo, kanye nomugqa onganqamuki wefa obaxhumanisa, kufanele babhekwe njengezinhlobo ezahlukene, uma kungenjalo isizukulwane esihlukile. Zinezingoma ezihlukene, izakhiwo ezihlukene, izimiso zokusebenza ezihlukene, ingasaphathwa eyehluka kakhulu ngosayizi. Kwaba ngokuvuselelwa okuqhubekayo kuphela lapho ithuluzi eliyinkimbinkimbi elakhiwa uBardeen noBrattain lakwazi ukuguqula umhlaba kanye nempilo yethu.
Eqinisweni, i-single-point germanium transistor ayizange ifanelwe ukunakwa okwengeziwe kunalokho eyakuthola. Yayinokukhubazeka okuningana okuzuzwe njengefa ku-vacuum tube. Yebo, yayincane kakhulu kunezibani ezihlangene kakhulu. Ukungabikho kwe-filament eshisayo kwakusho ukuthi ikhiqiza ukushisa okuncane, idla amandla amancane, ayizange iphele, futhi ayidingi ukufudumala ngaphambi kokusetshenziswa.
Kodwa-ke, ukunqwabelana kokungcola endaweni okuthintana kuyo kwaholela ekuhlulekeni futhi kwanganaki amandla empilo ende yesevisi; yanikeza isignali enomsindo kakhulu; isebenza kuphela ngamandla aphansi kanye nebanga elincane lefrikhwensi; yehlulekile lapho kukhona ukushisa, amakhaza noma umswakama; futhi yayingakhiqizwa ngokufanayo. Ama-transistors amaningana adalwe ngendlela efanayo ngabantu abafanayo angaba nezici zikagesi ezihluke kakhulu. Futhi konke lokhu kwenzeke ngenani eliphindwe kasishiyagalombili kunelambu elijwayelekile.
Kwaze kwafika ngo-1952 lapho iBell Labs (kanye nabanye abanikazi belungelo lobunikazi) sebexazulule izinkinga zokukhiqiza ngokwanele ukuze ama-transistors anephuzu elilodwa abe amadivaysi asebenzayo, futhi nalapho awazange asabalale kakhulu ngale kwemakethe yosizo lokuzwa, lapho ukuzwela kwentengo kwakuphansi kakhulu. kanye nezinzuzo mayelana nempilo yebhethri zingaphezu kokubi.
Kodwa-ke, imizamo yokuqala yayisivele iqalile ukuguqula i-transistor ibe yinto engcono futhi ewusizo kakhulu. Empeleni zaqala ngaphambi kwesikhathi lapho umphakathi wazi khona ngobukhona bayo.
Izifiso zikaShockley
Ngasekupheleni kuka-1947, uBill Shockley wathatha uhambo oluya eChicago ejabule kakhulu. Wayenemibono engacacile mayelana nendlela yokwehlula i-transistor kaBardeen noBrattain esanda kusungulwa, kodwa wayengakalitholi ithuba lokuyithuthukisa. Ngakho esikhundleni sokujabulela ikhefu phakathi kwezigaba zomsebenzi, wachitha uKhisimusi noNcibijane ehhotela, egcwalisa amakhasi angaba ngu-20 encwajana ngemibono yakhe. Phakathi kwazo kwakukhona isiphakamiso se-transistor entsha ehlanganisa isemishi le-semiconductor - ucezu lwe-p-type germanium phakathi kwezingcezu ezimbili zohlobo lwe-n.
Ekhuthazwe yilo mkhono wakhe, u-Shockley wafaka isimangalo ku-Bardeen noBrattain ngokubuyela kwabo eMurray Hill, efuna lonke udumo ngokusungula i-transistor. Akuwona yini umbono wakhe womphumela wensimu owafaka uBardeen noBrattain elabhorethri? Akumele yini lokhu kwenze kube nesidingo ukudlulisa wonke amalungelo kulungelo lobunikazi kuye? Kodwa-ke, iqhinga likaShockley labuyela emuva: Abameli belungelo lobunikazi beBell Labs bathola ukuthi umsunguli ongaziwa, , onelungelo lobunikazi be-semiconductor field effect amplifier cishe eminyakeni engama-20 ngaphambili, ngo-1930. U-Lilienfeld, vele, akakaze asebenzise umbono wakhe, uma kubhekwa isimo sezinto ngaleso sikhathi, kodwa ingozi yokunqwabelana yayinkulu kakhulu - kwakungcono ukugwema ngokuphelele ukusho. umphumela wenkundla kulungelo lobunikazi
Ngakho-ke, nakuba i-Bell Labs yanikeza u-Shockley isabelo esikhulu sesikweletu somsunguli, baqambe kuphela u-Bardeen no-Brattain kulungelo lobunikazi. Kodwa-ke, osekwenziwe akukwazi ukuhlehliswa: Izifiso zikaShockley zabubhidliza ubudlelwano bakhe nabangaphansi ababili. UBardeen wayeka ukusebenza ku-transistor futhi wagxila ekusebenzeni okuphezulu kakhulu. Washiya amalabhorethri ngo-1951. UBrattain wasala lapho, kodwa wenqaba ukusebenza noShockley futhi, waphikelela ngokuthi adluliselwe kwelinye iqembu.
Ngenxa yokungakwazi ukusebenza nabanye abantu, uShockley akazange enze inqubekelaphambili kulabhorethri, ngakho naye wahamba lapho. Ngo-1956, wabuyela ekhaya ePalo Alto eyoqala inkampani yakhe ye-transistor, i-Shockley Semiconductor. Ngaphambi kokuba ahambe, wahlukana nomkakhe uJean lapho esalulama emdlavuzeni wesibeletho, futhi wazihlanganisa no-Emmy Lanning, ashada naye ngokushesha. Kodwa ezingxenyeni ezimbili zephupho lakhe laseCalifornian - inkampani entsha nonkosikazi omusha - eyodwa kuphela eyafezeka. Ngo-1957, onjiniyela bakhe abahamba phambili, becasulwa indlela yakhe yokuphatha kanye nendlela ayeyithatha ngayo inkampani, bamshiya ukuze athole inkampani entsha, i-Fairchild Semiconductor.
Shockley ngo-1956
Ngakho uShockley washiya igobolondo elingenalutho lenkampani yakhe futhi wathatha umsebenzi emnyangweni wobunjiniyela bukagesi eStanford. Lapho, waqhubeka nokuhlukanisa ozakwabo (kanye nomngane wakhe omdala, isazi se-physics ) imibono yokuwohloka kohlanga eyayimthakazelisa futhi - izihloko ebezingathandwa e-United States kusukela ekupheleni kwempi yokugcina, ikakhulukazi emibuthanweni yezemfundo. Wakuthokozela ukuvusa ingxabano, exova abezindaba nokudangala imibhikisho. Washona ngo-1989, ehlukene nezingane zakhe kanye nozakwabo, futhi wavakashelwa kuphela umkakhe wesibili ozinikele, u-Emmy.
Nakuba imizamo yakhe ebuthaka yokwenza amabhizinisi yehluleka, uShockley wayetshale imbewu emhlabathini othelayo. I-San Francisco Bay Area yakhiqiza amafemu amaningi amancane kagesi, athola uxhaso kuhulumeni wobumbano phakathi nempi. I-Fairchild Semiconductor, inzalo yengozi kaShockley, yazala inqwaba yezinkampani ezintsha, ezimbalwa zazo ezazisaziwa nanamuhla: Intel and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). Ekuqaleni kwawo-1970, indawo yayisithole isiteketiso esihlekisayo esithi "Silicon Valley." Kodwa linda kancane - uBardeen noBrattain badala i-germanium transistor. I-silicon yavelaphi?
Yile ndlela eyayibukeka ngayo indawo ye-Mountain View eyake yahlala iShockley Semiconductor ngo-2009. Namuhla ibhilidi lidiliziwe.
Ngase Silicon Crossroads
Isiphetho sohlobo olusha lwe-transistor, eyasungulwa uShockley ehhotela laseChicago, sasijabule kakhulu kunesomsunguli wayo. Konke kungenxa yesifiso sendoda eyodwa sokukhulisa amakristalu e-semiconductor angashadile, amsulwa. UGordon Teal, usokhemisi womzimba waseTexas owayefunde i-germanium eyayingasenamsebenzi ngaleso sikhathi ukuze athole iziqu zakhe zobudokotela, wathatha umsebenzi eBell Labs ngawo-30s. Ngemva kokufunda nge-transistor, waqiniseka ukuthi ukwethembeka namandla ayo kungathuthukiswa kakhulu ngokuyidala kusuka ku-crystal eyodwa ehlanzekile, kunokuba isuse izingxube ze-polycrystalline ezazisetshenziswa ngaleso sikhathi. UShockley wenqabile imizamo yakhe njengokumosha izinsiza.
Nokho, uTeal waphikelela futhi wazuza impumelelo, ngosizo lukanjiniyela oyimishini u-John Little, enza umshini okhipha imbewu yekristalu encane ku-germanium encibilikisiwe. Njengoba i-germanium iphola eduze kwe-nucleus, yandisa isakhiwo sayo sekristalu, yakha i-lattice ye-semiconducting eqhubekayo futhi ehlanzekile. Ngentwasahlobo ka-1949, u-Teal no-Little babekwazi ukudala amakristalu ukuze ba-ode, futhi ukuhlolwa kwabonisa ukuthi basemuva kakhulu kwabaqhudelana nabo be-polycrystalline. Ikakhulukazi, abathuthi abancane abengezwe kubo bangaphila ngaphakathi ama-microseconds ayikhulu noma ngaphezulu (ngokuqhathaniswa nama-microsecond angeqi kweshumi kwamanye amasampula ekristalu).
Manje uTeal wayesengakwazi ukukhokhela izinsiza ezengeziwe, futhi wanxenxa abantu abengeziwe eqenjini lakhe, phakathi kwabo kwakukhona omunye usokhemisi ophathekayo owafika eBell Labs evela eTexas - Morgan Sparks. Baqala ukushintsha ukuncibilika ukuze benze i-p-type noma i-n-type germanium ngokungeza ubuhlalu bokungcola okufanele. Esikhathini esingangonyaka, base bethuthukise ubuchwepheshe kangangokuthi bakwazi ukutshala isangweji le-germanium npn ngqo ekuncibilikeni. Futhi kusebenze njengoba nje u-Shockley ayebikezele: isignali kagesi evela ohlotsheni lwempahla ye-p yashintsha amandla kagesi phakathi kwamakhondakta amabili axhunywe ezingcezu zohlobo luka-n eziwuzungezile.
UMorgan Sparks noGordon Teal ebhentshini lokusebenza eBell Labs
Le transistor ekhulile ye-junction idlula ukhokho wayo wephoyinti elilodwa cishe ngazo zonke izindlela. Ikakhulukazi, ibinokwethenjelwa kakhulu futhi ibikezelwa, ikhiqize umsindo omncane kakhulu (ngakho-ke yayizwela kakhulu), futhi yayiwonga kakhulu amandla - idla amandla amancane aphindwe izikhathi eziyisigidi kuneshubhu lokuvala elivamile. NgoJulayi 1951, iBell Labs yabamba enye ingqungquthela yabezindaba ukuze imemezele ukwakhiwa okusha. Ngisho nangaphambi kokuba i-transistor yokuqala ikwazi ukufika emakethe, yayisivele ingasasebenzi.
Nokho lesi bekuyisiqalo nje. Ngo-1952, iGeneral Electric (GE) yamemezela ukuthuthukiswa kwenqubo entsha yokwenza ama-junction transistors, indlela yokuhlanganisa. Ohlakeni lwayo, amabhola amabili e-indium (i-p-type donor) ahlanganiswe nhlangothi zombili zocezu oluncane lwe-n-type germanium. Le nqubo ibilula futhi ishibhile kunezindawo ezikhulayo ezihlanganisa ingxubevange; i-transistor enjalo inikeze ukumelana okuncane futhi yasekela amaza aphezulu.
Ama-transistors akhulile futhi ahlanganisiwe
Ngonyaka olandelayo, uGordon Teal wanquma ukubuyela ezweni lakubo futhi wathola umsebenzi eTexas Instruments (TI) eDallas. Le nkampani yasungulwa njenge-Geophysical Services, Inc., futhi ekuqaleni yakhiqiza imishini yokuhlola uwoyela, i-TI yayivule isigaba se-electronics phakathi nempi, futhi manje yayingena emakethe ye-transistor ngaphansi kwelayisensi evela ku-Western Electric (isigaba sokukhiqiza seBell Labs).
UTeal weza namakhono amasha awafunde ezindaweni zokucwaninga: ikhono lokukhula kanye i-silicon monocrystals. Ubuthakathaka obusobala kakhulu be-germanium kwaba ukuzwela kwayo ekushiseni. Lapho echayeke ekushiseni, ama-athomu e-germanium kukristalu asheshe akhiphe ama-electron amahhala, futhi aya ngokuya ephenduka abe umqhubi. Ezingeni lokushisa elingu-77 °C yayeka ngokuphelele ukusebenza njenge-transistor. Okuhlosiwe okuyinhloko kokuthengiswa kwe-transistor kwabezempi - umthengi ongase abe nozwela ngentengo ephansi kanye nesidingo esikhulu sezinto zikagesi ezizinzile, ezithembekile nezihlangene. Kodwa-ke, i-germanium ezwela izinga lokushisa ngeke ibe wusizo ezinhlelweni eziningi zempi, ikakhulukazi emkhakheni we-aerospace.
I-silicon yayizinzile kakhulu, kodwa yeza ngenani lephoyinti lokuncibilika eliphakeme kakhulu, eliqhathaniswa nelensimbi. Lokhu kubangele ubunzima obukhulu, njengoba kwakudingeka amakristalu acwenge kakhulu ukuze kwakhiwe ama-transistors ekhwalithi ephezulu. I-silicon encibilikisiwe eshisayo yayingamunca ukungcola kunoma iyiphi i-crucible ebikuyo. UTeel nethimba lakhe kwa-TI bakwazile ukunqoba lezi zinselele besebenzisa amasampula e-silicon ahlanzekile kakhulu avela eDuPont. Ngo-May 1954, engqungqutheleni ye-Institute of Radio Engineering e-Dayton, e-Ohio, u-Teal wabonisa ukuthi imishini emisha ye-silicon ekhiqizwa elabhorethri yakhe yayiqhubeka nokusebenza ngisho nalapho icwiliswa emafutheni ashisayo.
Ukuqala okuphumelelayo
Ekugcineni, ngemva kweminyaka eyisikhombisa i-transistor yasungulwa okokuqala, yayingenziwa ngento eyase yafana nayo. Futhi cishe isikhathi esifanayo sizodlula ngaphambi kokuvela kwama-transistors acishe afane nomumo osetshenziswa kuma-microprocessors wethu nama-memory chips.
Ngo-1955, ososayensi beBell Labs bafunda ngempumelelo ukwenza ama-silicon transistors ngobuchwepheshe obusha be-doping - esikhundleni sokwengeza amabhola aqinile okungcola ekuncibilikeni okuwuketshezi, bafaka izithasiselo zegesi endaweni eqinile ye-semiconductor.). Ngokulawula ngokucophelela izinga lokushisa, ingcindezi kanye nobude benqubo, bathole ukujula okudingekayo kanye nezinga le-doping. Ukulawula okukhulu kwenqubo yokukhiqiza kunikeze amandla amakhulu okulawula izakhiwo zikagesi zomkhiqizo wokugcina. Okubaluleke nakakhulu, ukusabalalisa okushisayo kwenza kube nokwenzeka ukukhiqiza umkhiqizo ngamaqoqo-ungadopha i-slab enkulu ye-silicon bese uyisika ibe ngama-transistors. Amasosha ahlinzeke ngezimali iBell Laboratories ngoba ukusetha ukukhiqiza kudinga izindleko eziphezulu zangaphambili. Babedinga umkhiqizo omusha wesixhumanisi se-radar esexwayiso esinemvamisa ephezulu kakhulu (“"), uchungechunge lweziteshi ze-radar zase-Arctic eziklanyelwe ukubona amabhomu aseSoviet endiza esuka eNorth Pole, futhi ayezimisele ukukhipha u-$100 nge-transistor ngayinye (lezi kwakuyizinsuku lapho imoto entsha yayingathengwa ngamaRandi angu-2000 XNUMX).
Ukuhlanganisa nge , eyayilawula indawo yokungcola, yavula ithuba lokunamathisela yonke isekethe ngokuphelele ku-substrate eyodwa ye-semiconductor - lokhu kwacatshangwa ngesikhathi esisodwa i-Fairchild Semiconductor kanye ne-Texas Instruments ngo-1959." kusuka ku-Fairchild kusetshenziswe ukufakwa kwamakhemikhali kwamafilimu ensimbi axhuma okuxhunywe kugesi we-transistor. Yaqeda isidingo sokudala izintambo zezandla, ukunciphisa izindleko zokukhiqiza kanye nokwethenjelwa okwandisiwe.
Ekugcineni, ngo-1960, onjiniyela ababili beBell Labs (uJohn Atalla noDavon Kahn) baqalisa umqondo wasekuqaleni kaShockley we-transistor esebenza ensimini. Ungqimba oluncane lwe-oxide ebusweni be-semiconductor lwakwazi ukucindezela ngokuphumelelayo izimo ezingaphezulu, okwenza insimu kagesi isuka esangweni le-aluminium ingene ku-silicon. Ngakho-ke kwazalwa i-MOSFET [metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor] (noma isakhiwo se-MOS, esivela ku-metal-oxide-semiconductor), okwabonakala kulula kakhulu ukusenziwe miniaturize, futhi esasetshenziswa cishe kuwo wonke amakhompyutha anamuhla (ngokuthakazelisayo. , u-Atalla wayevela e-Egypt, kanti uKang ungowaseNingizimu Korea, futhi cishe yilaba onjiniyela ababili kuphela abavela kuwo wonke umlando wethu abangenazo izimpande zaseYurophu).
Ekugcineni, eminyakeni eyishumi nantathu ngemva kokusungulwa kwe-transistor yokuqala, kwavela into efana ne-transistor kukhompyutha yakho. Kwakulula ukwenza futhi kusetshenziswe amandla amancane kune-transistor ye-junction, kodwa yayiphuza ukuphendula amasignali. Kwaba kuphela ngokusabalala kwamasekethe amakhulu ahlanganisiwe, amakhulu noma izinkulungwane zezingxenye ezitholakala ku-chip eyodwa, lapho izinzuzo ze-transistors zomphumela wensimu zavela phambili.
Umfanekiso ovela kulungelo lobunikazi lomphumela wenkundla
Umphumela wenkundla kwaba umnikelo omkhulu wokugcina we-Bell Labs ekuthuthukisweni kwe-transistor. Abakhiqizi abakhulu bezinto zikagesi njengeBell Laboratories (ene-Western Electric yabo), iGeneral Electric, i-Sylvania ne-Westinghouse baqongelele inani elimangalisayo locwaningo lwe-semiconductor. Kusukela ngo-1952 kuya ku-1965, iBell Laboratories iyodwa yabhalisa amalungelo obunikazi angaphezu kwamakhulu amabili kulesi sihloko. Nokho imakethe yezentengiselwano yasheshe yawela ezandleni zabadlali abasha abanjengoTexas Instruments, Transitron, noFairchild.
Imakethe yokuqala ye-transistor yayincane kakhulu ukuthi ingadonsa ukunaka kwabadlali abakhulu: cishe amaRandi ayizigidi ezingu-18 ngonyaka maphakathi nawo-1950, uma kuqhathaniswa nesamba semakethe ye-electronics yamaRandi ayizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezimbili. lapho ososayensi abasebasha bekwazi ukuthola ulwazi lwe-semiconductor ngaphambi kokudlulela phambili ukuze badayisele amafemu amancane amasevisi abo. Lapho imakethe ye-electronics yamashubhu iqala ukuncipha kakhulu maphakathi nawo-2, kwase kwephuze kakhulu ukuthi iBell Labs, Westinghouse kanye nokunye ukuncintisana nabaqalayo.
Ukushintshwa kwamakhompyutha kuya kuma-transistors
Ngawo-1950, ama-transistors ahlasela umhlaba we-electronics ezindaweni ezine ezinkulu. Ezokuqala ezimbili kwakuyizinsiza-kuzwa kanye namarediyo aphathwayo, lapho ukusetshenziswa kwamandla okuphansi nempilo yebhethri ewumphumela wedlula ezinye izinto ezicatshangelwayo. Okwesithathu kwaba ukusetshenziswa kwezempi. Ibutho lase-US lalinethemba elikhulu lama-transistors njengezinto ezinokwethenjelwa, ezihlangene ezingasetshenziswa kukho konke kusukela kumarediyo asenkundleni kuya emicibisholo ecitshwayo. Kodwa-ke, ezinsukwini zokuqala, ukusebenzisa kwabo imali kuma-transistors kwakubonakala kufana nokubheja ngekusasa lobuchwepheshe kunokuqinisekiswa kwenani lawo ngaleso sikhathi. Futhi ekugcineni, kwakukhona futhi ikhompyutha yedijithali.
Emkhakheni wamakhompiyutha, ukushiyeka kokushintshwa kwamashubhu e-vacuum kwakwaziwa kahle, abanye ababengabaza ngaphambi kwempi babekholelwa ngisho nokuthi i-computer ye-electronic yayingenziwa into ewusizo. Lapho izinkulungwane zezibani ziqoqwa emshinini owodwa, zadla ugesi, zikhiqiza ukushisa okukhulu, futhi ngokokwethenjelwa, umuntu wayengathembela kuphela ekukhathaleni kwazo okuvamile. Ngakho-ke, i-transistor enamandla aphansi, epholile, nengenantambo yaba ngumsindisi wabakhiqizi bamakhompyutha. Ububi bayo njenge-amplifier (ukukhipha umsindo, isibonelo) bekungeyona inkinga enjalo uma isetshenziswa njengeswishi. Okuwukuphela kwesithiyo kwakuyizindleko, futhi ngokuhamba kwesikhathi zazizoqala ukwehla kakhulu.
Zonke izivivinyo zakuqala zaseMelika ngamakhompiyutha ashintshiwe zenzeka lapho kuhlangana khona isifiso samasosha sokuhlola amandla obuchwepheshe obusha obuthembisayo kanye nesifiso sonjiniyela sokuthuthela kumaswishi athuthukisiwe.
I-Bell Labs yakha i-TRADIC ye-U.S. Air Force ngo-1954 ukuze ibone ukuthi ama-transistors angavumela yini ikhompuyutha yedijithali ukuthi ifakwe ebhodini lebhomu, esikhundleni sokuzulazula kwe-analog nokusiza ekutholeni okuhlosiwe. I-MIT Lincoln Laboratory ithuthukise ikhompuyutha ye-TX-0 njengengxenye yephrojekthi ebanzi yokuvikela umoya ngo-1956. Umshini wasebenzisa okunye okuhlukile kwe-surface barrier transistor, elungele kahle ukusebenzisa ikhompyutha ngesivinini esikhulu. UPhilco wakha ikhompiyutha yakhe ye-SOLO ngaphansi kwenkontileka ne-Navy (kodwa empeleni ngesicelo se-NSA), wayiqeda ngo-1958 (esebenzisa okunye okuhlukile kwe-surface barrier transistor).
ENtshonalanga Yurophu, lapho ingekho izinsizakusebenza phakathi neMpi Yomshoshaphansi, indaba yayihluke kakhulu. Imishini efana ne-Manchester Transistor Computer, (elinye igama eliphefumulelwe iphrojekthi ye-ENIAC, futhi lipelwe emuva), kanye nesi-Austrian bekungamaphrojekthi aseceleni asebenzisa izinsiza abadali bawo ababengakwazi ukuzihlanganisa—okuhlanganisa nama-transistors anephuzu elilodwa esizukulwane sokuqala.
Kuningi ukuphikisana ngesihloko sekhompuyutha yokuqala yokusebenzisa ama-transistors. Konke kuya phansi, vele, ekukhetheni izincazelo ezifanele zamagama anjengokuthi “kuqala,” “transistor,” kanye “nekhompyutha.” Kunoma yikuphi, siyazi ukuthi indaba iphelelaphi. Ukuthengiswa kwamakhompyutha e-transistorized kwaqala cishe ngokushesha. Unyaka nonyaka, amakhompiyutha enani elifanayo aba namandla kakhulu, futhi amakhompiyutha anamandla afanayo aba eshibhile, futhi le nqubo yabonakala ingenakuqhathaniswa kangangokuthi yakhushulelwa ezingeni lomthetho, eduze kwamandla adonsela phansi kanye nokongiwa kwamandla. Ngabe sidinga ukuphikisana ngokuthi yiliphi itshe elaqala ukudilika?
Uvelaphi umthetho kaMoore?
Njengoba sisondela ekupheleni kwendaba yokushintsha, kufanelekile ukubuza: yini ebangele ukuthi lokhu kugoqe kwenzeke? Kungani umthetho kaMoore ukhona (noma wawukhona - sizophikisana ngalokho ngesinye isikhathi)? Awukho umthetho kaMoore wezindiza noma izihlanzi, njengoba nje kungekho neyodwa yamashubhu evacuum noma ama-relay.
Impendulo inezingxenye ezimbili:
- Izici ezinengqondo zeswishi njengesigaba se-artifact.
- Ikhono lokusebenzisa izinqubo zamakhemikhali kuphela ukwenza ama-transistors.
Okokuqala, mayelana nengqikithi yokushintsha. Izakhiwo zama-artifact amaningi kufanele zenelise inqwaba yezingqinamba zomzimba ezingathetheleli. Indiza yabagibeli kufanele isekele isisindo esihlangene sabantu abaningi. Isicoci se-vacuum kufanele sikwazi ukumunca inani elithile lokungcola ngesikhathi esithile endaweni ethile ebonakalayo. Izindiza nemishini yokuhlanza ngeke kusize uma kungancishiswa kube yi-nanoscale.
Iswishi, i-automatic switch engakaze ithintwe isandla somuntu, inokulinganiselwa okungokomzimba okuncane kakhulu. Kumelwe ibe nezifunda ezimbili ezihlukene, futhi kufanele ikwazi ukuxhumana namanye amaswishi afanayo lapho izifunda zawo zishintsha. Okusho ukuthi, okumele ikwazi ukukwenza wukuvula nokuvala. Yini ekhethekile ngama-transistor? Kungani ezinye izinhlobo zokushintshwa kwedijithali zingazange zihlangabezane nentuthuko enjalo?
Lapha sifika eqinisweni lesibili. Ama-Transistors angenziwa kusetshenziswa izinqubo zamakhemikhali ngaphandle kokungenelela kwemishini. Kusukela ekuqaleni, isici esibalulekile sokukhiqizwa kwe-transistor kwakuwukusetshenziswa kokungcola kwamakhemikhali. Kwabe sekufika inqubo yokuhlela, eyaqeda isinyathelo sokugcina sokukhiqiza—ukuhlanganisa izintambo. Ngenxa yalokho, wasusa ukulinganiselwa kokugcina ngokomzimba ku-miniaturization. Ama-transistors akusadingeki ukuba abe mkhulu ngokwanele ukuze iminwe yomuntu ibe nkulu—noma yimuphi umshini. Konke kwenziwa ngamakhemikhali alula, ngesilinganiso esincane ngendlela engenakucatshangwa: i-asidi ukuze ifakwe, ukukhanya ukulawula ukuthi yiziphi izingxenye zomhlaba ezingamelana nokushumeka, kanye nomhwamuko wokwethula ukungcola namafilimu ensimbi kumathrekhi agxilile.
Kungani i-miniaturization idingeka nhlobo? Ukunciphisa usayizi kwanikeza umthala wonke wemiphumela emibi engathandeki: ukwanda kwesivinini sokushintsha, ukunciphisa ukusetshenziswa kwamandla kanye nezindleko zamakhophi ngamanye. Lezi zikhuthazi ezinamandla ziholele wonke umuntu ukuthi afune izindlela zokuqhubeka nokunciphisa amaswishi. Futhi imboni ye-semiconductor iye yasuka ekwenzeni amaswishi alingana nozipho lomunwe yaya ekuhlanganiseni amashumi ezigidi zamaswishi ngemilimitha-skwele ngayinye ekuphileni komuntu oyedwa. Kusukela ekuceleni amadola ayisishiyagalombili ngeswishi eyodwa kuya ekunikezeni amaswishi ayizigidi ezingamashumi amabili ngedola.
I-Intel 1103 memory chip kusukela ngo-1971. Ama-transistors angawodwana, angamashumi kuphela ama-micrometer ngosayizi, awasabonakali ngeso. Futhi kusukela lapho baye bancipha izikhathi eziyinkulungwane.
Okunye ongakufunda:
- U-Ernest Bruan noStuart MacDonald, iRevolution in Miniature (1978)
- UMichael Riordan noLillian Hoddeson, uCrystal Fire (1997)
- UJoel Shurkin, i-Broken Genius (1997)
Source: www.habr.com