Sawubona %igama lomsebenzisi%.
Siyakuhalalisela: futhi ngiyaqhubeka ngifaka ushevu ebuchosheni bakho ngolwazi mayelana nezinhlobonhlobo eziningi zobuthi - obuqinile futhi obungenamandla kangako.
Namuhla sizokhuluma ngesihloko, njengoba kuvela, esithakazelisa iningi - lokhu sekuvele kusobala, ikakhulukazi njengoba umhleli womncintiswano esuse umncintiswano oseduze kakhulu wokungahambisani nezindinganiso ze-WADA. Yebo, njengenjwayelo, ngemuva kombhalo kuzoba nevoti lokuthi kufanelekile ukuqhubeka nokuthi yini okufanele uqhubeke ngayo.
Khumbula, %igama lomsebenzisi%, manje nguwe kuphela onqumayo ukuthi kufanele yini ngiqhubeke ngixoxe izindaba ezinjalo nokuthi yini engizokutshela ngayo - lokhu kokubili ukukala kwe-athikili kanye nezwi lakho siqu.
Ngakho...
"Yellow Rain"
Imvula ephuzi ishaya ophahleni,
Etiyela nasemaqabungeni,
Ngimile ngejazi lami lemvula ngimanzi te.
- Chizh and Co.
Indaba "yemvula ephuzi" iyindaba yokwehluleka okukhulu. Igama elithi "imvula ephuzi" lavela ezenzakalweni zaseLaos naseNyakatho yeVietnam ezaqala ngo-1975, lapho ohulumeni ababili ababehlangene futhi besekela iSoviet Union belwa namavukelambuso e-Hmong kanye ne-Khmer Rouge ayecheme ne-United States. Into ehlekisayo ukuthi i-Khmer Rouge ikakhulukazi iqeqeshwe eFrance naseCambodia, futhi ukunyakaza kwaphinde kwagcwaliswa yintsha eneminyaka engu-12-15, eyayilahlekelwe abazali bayo futhi izonda abantu basedolobheni "njengabahlanganyeli baseMelika." Umbono wabo wawusekelwe kuMaoism, ukwenqaba yonke into yaseNtshonalanga nesimanje. Yebo, %username%, ngo-1975 ukuqaliswa kwentando yeningi kwakungehlukile nanamuhla.
Ngenxa yalokho, ngo-1982, uNobhala Wombuso wase-United States u-Alexander Haig wasola iSoviet Union ngokunikeza ubuthi obuthile ezifundazweni zamaKhomanisi eVietnam, eLaos naseCambodia ukuze busetshenziswe ekulweni nokuvukela umbuso. Kusolwa ukuthi ababaleki bachaza izigameko eziningi zokuhlaselwa ngamakhemikhali, okuhlanganisa noketshezi oluphuzi olunamathelayo oluwa ezindizeni noma ezindizeni ezinophephela emhlane, ezazibizwa ngokuthi "imvula ephuzi."
“Imvula ephuzi” yayibhekwa njengobuthi be-T-2 - i-trichothecene mycotoxin ekhiqizwa ukushintshwa kobuthi obuvela ezikhunjini zohlobo lwe-Fusarium, obuyingozi kakhulu ezinto eziphilayo ezitholakala eukaryotic - okungukuthi, yonke into ngaphandle kwamagciwane, amagciwane kanye ne-archaea ( ungathukutheli uma bekubiza nge-eukaryote!) . Lobu buthi bubangela i-lymphatic toxic agranulocytosis kanye nezimpawu eziningi zokulimala kwesitho lapho kuhlangana nesikhumba, amaphaphu, noma isisu. Izilwane nazo zingaba nobuthi ngesikhathi esifanayo (okuthiwa i-T-2 toxicosis).
Nansi i-T-2 enhle
Indaba yaqhunyiswa ngokushesha futhi ubuthi be-T-2 bahlukaniswa njengama-biological agents aqashelwa ngokusemthethweni njengakwazi ukusetshenziswa njengezikhali zebhayoloji.
Incwadi yango-1997 eyakhishwa uMnyango Wezokwelapha Wezempi Yase-US yathi abantu abangaphezu kwezinkulungwane eziyishumi babulawa ekuhlaselweni kwezikhali zamakhemikhali eLaos, eCambodia nase-Afghanistan. Izincazelo zokuhlasela zahlukahluka futhi zihlanganisa amathini e-aerosol nama-aerosols, ama-booby trap, amagobolondo ezikhali, amarokhethi namabhomu akhiqiza amaconsi oketshezi, uthuli, izimpushana, intuthu noma izinto "ezifana nezimbungulu" ezaziphuzi, zibomvu, ziluhlaza, zimhlophe noma zinsundu. umbala.
AmaSoviet aziphikile izimangalo zase-US, futhi uphenyo lokuqala lweNhlangano Yezizwe lwalungaqondile. Ikakhulukazi, ochwepheshe be-UN bahlole ababaleki ababili abathi bahlushwa imiphumela yokuhlaselwa ngamakhemikhali, kodwa esikhundleni salokho kwatholakala ukuthi banezifo zesikhumba fungal.
Ngo-1983, isazi sezinto eziphilayo sase-Harvard kanye nomphikisi we-bioweapons u-Matthew Meselson nethimba lakhe baya eLaos futhi benza uphenyo oluhlukile. Ithimba lika-Meselson liphawule ukuthi i-trichothecene mycotoxins ivela ngokwemvelo esifundeni futhi yabuza ubufakazi. Baqhamuke nenye inkolelo-mbono: ukuthi imvula ephuzi yayiyindle yezinyosi engenangozi. Ithimba likaMeselson linikeze okulandelayo njengobufakazi:
“Amathonsi emvula aphuzi” angawodwa atholakala emaqabunga futhi “ayemukelwa njengangempela” ayehlanganisa ikakhulukazi impova. Iconsi ngalinye laliqukethe ingxube ehlukile yezinhlamvu zempova—njengoba bekungalindeleka uma zivela ezinyosini ezihlukahlukene—futhi izinhlamvu zazibonisa izici zempova egaywe yizinyosi (amaprotheni angaphakathi kwempova ayengasekho, kodwa igobolondo elingaphandle, elingagayeki lahlala) . Ngaphezu kwalokho, ingxube yempova ivela ezitshalweni ezivamile zendawo lapho amaconsi ayeqoqwa khona.
Uhulumeni wase-US wacasuka kakhulu, wacasuka, futhi wasabela kulokhu okutholakele, ethi impova yengezwe ngamabomu ukwenza into engase ihogele kalula futhi "ukuqinisekisa ukugcinwa kobuthi emzimbeni womuntu." UMeselson uphendule lo mbono ngokusho ukuthi kwakukude kakhulu ukucabanga ukuthi othile uzokhiqiza izikhali zamakhemikhali "ngokuvuna impova egaywe izinyosi." Iqiniso lokuthi impova yavela eNingizimu-mpumalanga ye-Asia kwakusho ukuthi iSoviet Union yayingakwazi ukukhiqiza lesi sithako ekhaya futhi kwakuzodingeka ingenise amathani empova evela eVietnam (ngezimbiza ze-Star Balm, ngokusobala? Bekufanele inikeze uMeselson ukusikisela!) . Umsebenzi kaMeselson wachazwa ekubuyekezweni okuzimele kwezokwelapha ngokuthi "ubufakazi obunamandla bokuthi imvula ephuzi ingase ibe nencazelo evamile yemvelo."
Ngemuva kokuthi i-hypothesis yezinyosi yenziwe obala, indatshana yangaphambilini yamaShayina mayelana nokwenzeka kwenhlabathi ephuzi esiFundazweni saseJiangsu ngoSepthemba 1976 kungazelelwe (njengokuvamile) kwavela kabusha. Ngokumangalisayo, amaShayina aphinde asebenzisa igama elithi “imvula ephuzi” ukuze achaze lesi simo (futhi akhulume ngokunotha kolimi lwesiShayina!). Izakhamuzi eziningi zazikholelwa ukuthi ubulongwe obuphuzi buwuphawu lokuzamazama komhlaba okuseduze. Abanye bakholelwa ukuthi ama-droppings kwakuyizikhali zamakhemikhali ezifuthwe yiSoviet Union noma iTaiwan. Nokho, ososayensi baseShayina baphinde baphetha ngokuthi ubulongwe buvela ezinyosini.
Ukuhlolwa kwamasampuli okusolakala ukuthi emvula ephuzi ohulumeni baseBrithani, French kanye ne-Swedish kuqinisekisile ukuba khona kwe-pollen futhi kwehlulekile ukuthola noma iyiphi imikhondo ye-mycotoxins. Ucwaningo lwe-Toxicology kwenze ukungabaza ngokwethembeka kwemibiko yokuthi i-mycotoxins yatholwa kubantu okusolakala ukuthi bayizisulu kuze kufike ezinyangeni ezimbili ngemva kokuchayeka ngenxa yokuthi lezi zingxube azinzinzi emzimbeni futhi zikhishwa egazini emahoreni ambalwa nje.
Ngo-1982, uMeselson wavakashela ikamu lababaleki lama-Hmong namasampula endle yezinyosi ayeyiqoqe eThailand. Iningi lamaHmong okwaxoxwa nawo lathi lawa amasampula ezikhali zamakhemikhali abahlaselwa ngazo. Enye indoda yazichaza ngokunembile njengemfucumfucu yezinambuzane, kodwa ngemva kokuba umngane wayo eyibeke eceleni washo okuthile, yashintshela endabeni yezikhali zamakhemikhali.
Usosayensi wezempi wase-Australia uRod Barton wavakashela eThailand ngo-1984 futhi wathola ukuthi abantu baseThailand basola imvula ephuzi ngezifo ezihlukahlukene, kuhlanganise notwayi, njengoba "odokotela baseMelika eBangkok babika ukuthi i-United States inesithakazelo esikhethekile emvuleni ephuzi futhi inikeza ukwelashwa kwamahhala. usizo kubo bonke abasolwa ngokuba yizisulu."
Ngo-1987, i-New York Times yakhiqiza i-athikili echaza ukuthi izifundo zasensimini ezenziwa ngo-1983-85 ngamathimba kahulumeni wase-US azange zinikeze ubufakazi bokweseka izimangalo zokuqala mayelana nesikhali samakhemikhali "esimvula ephuzi", kodwa esikhundleni salokho kwangabaza ukwethembeka kwemibiko yokuqala. Ngeshwa, ezweni lentando yeningi enqobayo nenkululeko engakaze izwakale, lesi sihloko sahlolwa futhi sangavunyelwa ukuthi sishicilelwe. Ngo-1989, i-Journal of the American Medical Association yashicilela ukuhlaziya kwemibiko yokuqala eqoqwe kubabaleki base-Hmong, eyaphawula "ukungahambisani okusobala okwehlisa kakhulu ukwethembeka kobufakazi": Ithimba lezempi lase-US laxoxisana kuphela nalabo bantu abathi banolwazi ukuhlaselwa ngokusetshenziswa kwezikhali zamakhemikhali, abaphenyi babuze imibuzo eholayo kuphela ngesikhathi bephenywa, njll. Ababhali baphawula ukuthi izindaba zabantu zashintsha ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, zazingahambisani namanye ama-akhawunti, futhi abantu ababethi bangofakazi bokuzibonela kamuva bathi babezixoxela izindaba zabanye. Ngamafuphi, ukudideka ebufakazini ngendlela ehlanzekile.
Ngendlela, kunezikhathi ezithile ezibucayi kule ndaba. Umbiko we-CIA wangeminyaka yawo-1960 wabika izimangalo zikahulumeni waseCambodian zokuthi amabutho abo ahlaselwa ngezikhali zamakhemikhali ashiya impushana ephuzi. AbaseCambodia basole i-United States ngalezi zinsolo zokuhlasela kwamakhemikhali. Amanye amasampula emvula aphuzi aqoqwe eCambodia ngo-1983 atholakala ene-CS, into eyayisetshenziswa yi-United States phakathi neMpi YaseVietnam. I-CS iwuhlobo lwesisi esikhalisa izinyembezi futhi ayinabo ubuthi, kodwa ingase ibangele ezinye zezimpawu ezithambile ezibikwe izakhamuzi zase-Hmong.
Nokho, kwakukhona amanye amaqiniso: ukuhlolwa kwesidumbu somlweli we-Khmer Rouge okuthiwa u-Chan Mann, isisulu sezinsolo zokuhlasela kwe-Yellow Rain ngo-1982, kwathola imikhondo ye-mycotoxins, kanye ne-aflatoxin, i-Blackwater fever kanye nomalaleveva. Indaba yaqhunyiswa ngokushesha yi-US njengobufakazi bokusetshenziswa "kwemvula ephuzi", kodwa isizathu salokhu saba lula kakhulu: isikhunta esikhiqiza ama-mycotoxins sivame kakhulu eNingizimu-mpumalanga ye-Asia, futhi ubuthi obuvela kubo akuvamile. . Isibonelo, ilabhorethri yezempi yaseCanada ithole ama-mycotoxins egazini labantu abahlanu abavela endaweni abangakaze bathole imvula ephuzi kwabangu-270 abahloliwe, kodwa ayitholanga i-mycotoxins kunoma yimuphi kwabayishumi okusolwa ukuthi bayizisulu zokuhlaselwa ngamakhemikhali.
Manje sekuyabonakala ukuthi ukungcoliswa kwe-mycotoxin ezimpahleni ezifana nokolweni nommbila kuyinkinga evamile, ikakhulukazi eNingizimu-mpumalanga ye-Asia. Ngaphandle kwemvelo yakhona, ubutha buye bashubisa isimo, njengoba okusanhlamvu kwaqala ukugcinwa endaweni engafanele ukuze kungabanjwa amaqembu alwayo.
Iningi lezincwadi zesayensi ngesihloko manje liyawuphikisa umbono wokuthi "imvula ephuzi" kwakuyisikhali samakhemikhali saseSoviet. Kodwa-ke, lolu daba lusalokhu luyimpikiswano futhi uhulumeni wase-US akakahoxisi lezi zimangalo. Ngendlela, imibhalo eminingi yase-US ephathelene nalesi sigameko isahlukaniswa.
Yebo, yebo, umngane wami, uColin Powell cishe wayesanda kuqala umsebenzi wakhe ngaleyo minyaka - kodwa ibhizinisi lakhe laqhubeka, ngakho-ke akukho lutho olungacatshangwa ukuthi wasungula into entsha - njengoba nje kungekho sizathu sokukholelwa ukuthi i-United States. iza nohlobo oluthile lobuchwepheshe obusha lokulwela izintshisekelo zabo.
Ngendlela, amanye amacala omlando we-hysteria "yemvula ephuzi".
- Isiqephu sokukhululwa kwempova yezinyosi ngo-2002 eSangrampur, eNdiya, saphakamisa ukwesaba okungenasisekelo ngokuhlaselwa kwezikhali zamakhemikhali, kuyilapho empeleni kwakuhlotshaniswa nokufuduka okukhulu kwezinyosi ezinkulu zase-Asia. Umcimbi uvuselele izinkumbulo zalokho i-New Scientist ikuchaze ngokuthi "I-Cold War paranoia."
- Ngaphambi kokuhlasela kwe-Iraq ngo-2003, i-Wall Street Journal yathi uSaddam Hussein wayenesikhali samakhemikhali esibizwa ngokuthi "imvula ephuzi." Eqinisweni, ama-Iraqis ahlola i-T-2 mycotoxins ngo-1990, kodwa ahlanza kuphela u-20 ml wento emasikweni esikhunta. Noma kunjalo, isiphetho esisebenzayo senziwa ukuthi nakuba i-T-2 ingase ifanelekele ukusetshenziswa njengesikhali ngenxa yezindawo zayo ezinobuthi, ayisebenzi, ngoba kunzima kakhulu ukuyikhiqiza esikalini sezimboni.
- Ngomhla zingama-23 kuNhlaba wezi-2015, ngaphambi nje kweholide likazwelonke langomhla zingama-24 kuNhlaba (Usuku Lwezincwadi Nezamasiko ZaseBulgaria), imvula ephuzi yana eSofia, eBulgaria. Wonke umuntu wanquma ngokushesha ukuthi isizathu sasiwukuthi uhulumeni waseBulgaria wayegxeka izenzo zaseRussia e-Ukraine ngaleso sikhathi. Kamuva, i-Bulgarian National Academy BAN yachaza lo mcimbi njengempova.
Ngamafuphi, umhlaba wonke kade uyeka ukuhleka ngesihloko esithi “imvula ephuzi,” kodwa i-United States namanje ayidikibali.
"I-Agent Orange"
"I-Agent Orange" nayo isehluleki, kodwa ngeshwa ayimnandi kangako. Futhi ngeke kube khona ukuhleka lapha. Uxolo, %username%
Ngokuvamile, ama-herbicides, noma ama-defoliants njengoba ayebizwa kanjalo, aqala ukusetshenziswa ngesikhathi sokusebenza kwe-Malaya yi-Great Britain ekuqaleni kwawo-1950. Kusukela ngoJuni kuya ku-Okthoba 1952 Amahektha ayi-1,250 ezitshalo zasehlathini afafazwe nge-defoliant. I-Chemical giant Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), ekhiqize i-defoliant, ichaze iMalaya ngokuthi "inkundla yokuhlola enenzuzo."
Ngo-August 1961, ngaphansi kwengcindezi evela ku-CIA kanye nePentagon, uMongameli wase-US uJohn Kennedy wagunyaza ukusetshenziswa kwamakhemikhali ukucekela phansi uhlaza eNingizimu Vietnam. Inhloso yokufutha kwakuwukucekela phansi uhlaza lwasehlathini, obekuzokwenza kube lula ukubona ibutho lamasosha aseNyakatho yeVietnam kanye nabashokobezi.
Ekuqaleni, ngezinhloso zokuhlola, izindiza zaseNingizimu Vietnam ngaphansi kokuqondisa kwebutho lezempi laseMelika zasebenzisa ukufafaza nge-defoliant ezindaweni ezincane ezinamahlathi endaweni yaseSaigon (manje eyiHo Chi Minh City). Ngo-1963, indawo enkulu eNhlonhlweni yaseCa Mau (iSifundazwe sanamuhla saseCa Mau) yaphathwa ngama-defoliants. Ngemva kokuthola imiphumela ephumelelayo, umyalo waseMelika waqala ukusetshenziswa okukhulu kwama-defoliants.
Ngendlela, ngokushesha kwakungaseyona nje ihlathi: amasosha ase-US aqala ukukhomba izitshalo zokudla ngo-Okthoba 1962. Ngo-1965, ama-42% azo zonke izifutho zokubulala ukhula zaziqondiswe ezitshalweni zokudla.
Ngo-1965, amalungu e-US Congress atshelwa ukuthi "ukuqothulwa kwezitshalo kuqondwa njengomgomo obaluleke kakhulu ... kodwa ekubhekiseni emphakathini ohlelweni ukugcizelelwa ukuchithwa kwehlathi." Amasosha atshelwe ukuthi acekela phansi izilimo ngoba kuthiwa azophakela abashokobezi ngesivuno. Kamuva kwatholakala futhi kwafakazelwa ukuthi cishe konke ukudla okwacekelwa phansi yibutho lezempi kwakungakhiqizelwa amavukela mbuso; empeleni, yayikhuliselwe ukusekela umphakathi wendawo. Isibonelo, esifundazweni saseQuang Ngai, i-1970% yendawo yezitshalo yacekelwa phansi ngo-85 kuphela, kwashiya amakhulu ezinkulungwane zabantu ebulawa indlala.
Njengengxenye ye-Operation Ranch Hand, zonke izindawo zaseNingizimu Vietnam kanye nezindawo eziningi zaseLaos naseCambodia zachayeka ekuhlaselweni ngamakhemikhali. Ngaphezu kwezindawo zamahlathi, amasimu, izingadi namasimu enjoloba kwatshalwa. Kusukela ngo-1965, ama-defoliants afafazwe emasimini aseLaos (ikakhulukazi ezingxenyeni zawo eziseningizimu nasempumalanga), kusukela ngo-1967 - engxenyeni esenyakatho yendawo engahlosiwe. NgoZibandlela ka-1971, uMongameli uNixon wayala ukuthi kumiswe ukusetshenziswa kwemithi yokubulala ukhula, kodwa ukusetshenziswa kwayo kwakuvunyelwe kude nokufakwa kwamasosha aseMelika kanye nezindawo ezinkulu ezinabantu abaningi.
Sekukonke, phakathi kuka-1962 no-1971, amasosha ase-US afutha cishe amalitha angama-20 (000 cubic metres) amakhemikhali ahlukahlukene.
Amasosha aseMelika ngokuyinhloko asebenzisa ukwakheka kwe-herbicide okune: onsomi, owolintshi, omhlophe noluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka. Izingxenye zabo eziyinhloko kwakuyi-2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D), 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T), i-picloram ne-cacodylic acid. Ukwakhiwa kwewolintshi (okumelene namahlathi) nokuluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka (okumelene nerayisi nezinye izitshalo) kwasetshenziswa kakhulu - kodwa ngokujwayelekile kwakukhona "ama-ejenti" anele: ngaphezu kwewolintshi, epinki, ensomi, eluhlaza okwesibhakabhaka, emhlophe neluhlaza kwasetshenziswa - umehluko. yayisesilinganisweni sezithako nemigqa yombala emgqonyeni. Ukuze kuhlakazwe kangcono amakhemikhali, kwafakwa uphalafini noma udizili kuwo.
Ukuthuthukiswa kwenkomponi ngendlela elungele ukusetshenziswa ngobuhlakani kubalelwa ezingxenyeni zaselabhorethri ze-DuPont Corporation. Uphinde atuswe ngokubamba iqhaza ekutholeni izinkontileka zokuqala zokuhlinzekwa kwemithi yokubulala ukhula, kanye neMonsanto kanye neDow Chemical. Ngendlela, ukukhiqizwa kwaleli qembu lamakhemikhali kungokwesigaba sokukhiqiza okuyingozi, ngenxa yalokho izifo ezihambisanayo (ezivame ukubulala) zenzeke phakathi kwabasebenzi bezimboni zezinkampani zokukhiqiza ezibalwe ngenhla, kanye nabahlali bezindawo zokuhlala. ngaphakathi kwemingcele yedolobha noma endaweni lapho izinsiza zokukhiqiza bezigxilwe khona .
2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)
2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T)
I-Picloram
I-Cacodylic acid
Isisekelo sokudala ukubunjwa "kwama-agent" kwakuwumsebenzi wesazi sezitshalo saseMelika u-Arthur Galston, owathi kamuva wafuna ukuvinjelwa kokusetshenziswa kwengxube, yena ngokwakhe ayeyibheka njengesikhali samakhemikhali. Ekuqaleni kwawo-1940, ngaleso sikhathi owayengumfundi osemncane owayethweswe iziqu eNyuvesi yase-Illinois, u-Arthur Galston, wafunda ngamakhemikhali nemvelo ye-auxins kanye nesayensi yezitshalo zikabhontshisi wesoya; wathola umphumela we-2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid ekuqhakazeni. inqubo yalesi sigaba sezitshalo. Wasungula elabhorethri ukuthi ekugxilweni okuphezulu le asidi iholela ebuthakathaka bemicu ye-cellulose lapho kuhlangana khona isiqu namaqabunga, okuholela ekuchithekeni kwamaqabunga (ukuchithwa). UGalston wavikela incwadi yakhe ngesihloko asikhethile ngo-1943. futhi wanikela iminyaka emithathu elandelayo emsebenzini wokucwaninga ngokukhiqizwa kwemikhiqizo yenjoloba yezidingo zempi. Phakathi naleso sikhathi, ulwazi mayelana nokutholakala kososayensi osemusha, ngaphandle kolwazi lwakhe, lwasetshenziswa abasizi bezempi yaselabhorethri esikhungweni se-Camp Detrick (isikhungo esiyinhloko sohlelo lwaseMelika lokuthuthukiswa kwezikhali zebhayoloji) ukunquma amathuba okusetshenziswa kwempi. ama-chemical defoliants ukuze axazulule izinkinga zamaqhinga (yingakho igama elisemthethweni lalolu hlobo lwezinto ezaziwa ngokuthi "i-tactical defoliants" noma "i-tactical herbicides") enkundleni yemidlalo yaseshashalazini yasePacific, lapho amasosha aseMelika abhekana nokuphikiswa okunamandla kwamabutho aseJapan athatha ithuba lehlathi eliminyene. . UGalston washaqeka lapho, ngo-1946, Ochwepheshe ababili abahamba phambili abavela eCamp Detrick beza kuye eCalifornia Institute of Technology futhi bamazisa ukuthi imiphumela ye-thesis yakhe yasebenza njengesisekelo sentuthuko yezempi yamanje (yena, njengombhali, wayenelungelo lokuthola umklomelo wombuso). Kamuva, lapho imininingwane yokungenelela kwamasosha aseMelika eVietnam ngeminyaka yawo-1960. ehlanganiswe emaphephandabeni, uGalston, ezizwa enecala ekuthuthukisweni kwe-Agent Orange, wafuna ukuba kumiswe ukufuthwa kwento emazweni eNhlonhlo ye-Indochina. Ngokusho kososayensi, ukusetshenziswa kwalesi sidakamizwa eVietnam "kwanyakazisa inkolelo yakhe ejulile endimeni eyakhayo yesayensi futhi kwamholela ekuphikisaneni okusebenzayo nenqubomgomo esemthethweni yase-US." Ngokushesha nje lapho ulwazi mayelana nokusetshenziswa kwento lufinyelela kusosayensi ngo-1966, uGalston ngokushesha wabhala inkulumo yenkulumo yakhe engqungqutheleni yaminyaka yonke yesayensi ye-American Society of Plant Physiologists, nalapho ikomidi eliphezulu lomphakathi lenqaba ukumvumela. ekhuluma, uGalston waqala ukuqoqa amasignesha kososayensi akanye nabo ngaphansi kwesicelo kuMongameli wase-US uLyndon Johnson. Ososayensi abayishumi nambili babhale esicelweni sabo imibono yabo ngokungavunyelwa kokusetshenziswa “kwama-ejenti” kanye nemiphumela engase ibe khona enhlabathini nasezindaweni ezifuthwe.
Ukusetshenziswa okukhulu kwamakhemikhali ngamasosha aseMelika kwaholela emiphumeleni emibi. Amahlathi omhlume (amahektha ayizinkulungwane ezingu-500) acishe abhujiswa ngokuphelele, ama-60% (cishe amahektha ayisigidi esi-1) ehlathi kanye nama-30% (amahektha angaphezu kwezinkulungwane eziyi-100) amahlathi asezindaweni eziphansi athinteka. Kusukela ngo-1960, ukuvunwa kwamasimu enjoloba kwehle ngo-75%. Amasosha aseMelika acekele phansi kusuka ku-40% kuya ku-100% wezitshalo zikabhanana, irayisi, ubhatata, upopo, utamatisi, ama-70% amasimu kakhukhunathi, ama-60% e-hevea, amahektha ayizinkulungwane eziyi-110 wamasimu e-casuarina.
Ngenxa yokusetshenziswa kwamakhemikhali, ibhalansi yemvelo yaseVietnam ishintshe kakhulu. Ezindaweni ezithintekile, ezinhlotsheni zezinyoni ezingu-150, kwasala ezingu-18 kuphela, izilwane eziphila emanzini nasezweni nezinambuzane zacishe zanyamalala ngokuphelele, nenani lezinhlanzi emifuleni lehla. Ukwakheka kwe-microbiological yomhlabathi kwaphazamiseka futhi izitshalo zafakwa ubuthi. Inani lezinhlobo zezihlahla nezihlahla emahlathini emvula ashisayo liye lehla kakhulu: ezindaweni ezithintekile kuphela izinhlobo ezimbalwa zezihlahla kanye nezinhlobo eziningana zotshani obunameva, ezingafanelekile ukudla kwemfuyo, zihlala.
Izinguquko ezilwaneni zaseVietnam zaphumela ekususweni kohlobo olulodwa lwegundane elimnyama ezinye izinhlobo ezithwala isifo esiwumshayabhuqe eNingizimu naseNingizimu-mpumalanga ye-Asia. Imikhaza ethwala izifo eziyingozi iye yavela ohlotsheni lwemikhaza. Izinguquko ezifanayo ziye zenzeka ekubunjweni kwezinhlobo zomiyane: esikhundleni somiyane abangenabungozi, omiyane abathwala umalaleveva baye bavela.
Kodwa konke lokhu kuncane ngenxa yethonya labantu.
Iqiniso liwukuthi ezingxenyeni ezine "zama-ejenti," ezinobuthi kakhulu yi-cacodylic acid. Ucwaningo lwakuqala ngama-cacodyles lwenziwa nguRobert Bunsen (yup, isishisi saseBunsen sihlonishwa) eNyuvesi yaseMarburg: “Iphunga lalo mzimba libangela ukushoshozela ezingalweni nasemilenzeni, kuze kube sekugcineni. isiyezi nokungezwani... Kuyaphawuleka ukuthi uma umuntu evezwa iphunga lalezi zinhlanganisela kubangela ukuthi ulimi lumbozwe ngengubo emnyama, ngisho noma ingasekho imiphumela emibi.” I-Cacodylic acid inobuthi kakhulu uma ingenwa, ihogelwa, noma ithinta isikhumba. Kuboniswe kumagundane kuyi-teratogen, evame ukubangela ulwanga oluqhekekile kanye nokufa kwengane ngemithamo ephezulu. Kuye kwaboniswa ukubonisa izakhiwo ze-genotoxic kumaseli womuntu. Nakuba ingeyona i-carcinogen eqinile, i-cacodylic acid ithuthukisa umphumela wezinye izinto ezibangela umdlavuza ezithweni ezifana nezinso nesibindi.
Kodwa lezi nazo ziyizimbali. Iqiniso liwukuthi, ngenxa yohlelo lokuhlanganisa, i-2,4-D ne-2,4,5-T ihlale iqukethe okungenani i-20 ppm ye-dioxin. .
Uhulumeni waseVietnam uthi izigidi ezi-4 zezakhamizi zawo zivezwe ku-Agent Orange kanti eziningi eziyizigidi ezi-3 ziye zagula. I-Vietnam Red Cross ilinganisela ukuthi abantu abangafika ku-1 million bakhubazekile noma banezinkinga zempilo ngenxa ye-Agent Orange. Cishe abantu baseVietnam abangama-400 babulawa ubuthi be-Agent Orange. Uhulumeni wase-United States uphikisana nalezi zibalo njengezingathembekile.
Ngokocwaningo olwenziwa uDkt. Nguyen Viet Ngan, izingane ezisezindaweni lapho kwakusetshenziswa khona i-Agent Orange zinezinkinga zempilo ezihlukahlukene, ezihlanganisa ulwanga oluvulekile, ukukhubazeka kwengqondo, i-hernia, neminwe nezinzwane ezengeziwe. Ngawo-1970, amazinga aphezulu e-dioxin atholakala obisini lwebele lwabesifazane baseNingizimu Vietnam nasegazini lamasosha ase-US ayekhonza eVietnam. Izindawo ezithinteke kakhulu izintaba ezigudle iTruong Son (Izintaba Ezinde) kanye nomngcele ophakathi kweVietnam neCambodia. Izakhamuzi ezithintekile kulezi zifunda zihlushwa izifo ezihlukahlukene zofuzo.
Chofoza lapha uma ngempela ufuna ukubona imiphumela ye-Agent Orange kumuntu. Kodwa ngiyakuxwayisa: akufanelekile.
Zonke izizinda zangaphambili zamasosha ase-US eVietnam lapho imithi yokubulala ukhula yayigcinwa futhi ilayishwa ezindizeni kungenzeka ukuthi isenamazinga aphezulu e-dioxin emhlabathini, ebeka usongo lwezempilo emiphakathini ezungezile. Ukuhlolwa okubanzi kokungcoliswa kwe-dioxin kwenziwa ezizindeni zomoya zangaphambili zase-US e-Da Nang, e-Pho Cat District nase-Bien Haa. Eminye yenhlabathi nenhlabathi inamazinga aphezulu kakhulu e-dioxin adinga ukungcoliswa. E-Da Nang Air Base, ukungcoliswa kwe-dioxin kuphakeme izikhathi ezingama-350 kunezindinganiso zamazwe ngamazwe. Umhlabathi ongcolile kanye ne-sediment kuyaqhubeka kuthinta abantu baseVietnam, ukufaka ubuthi ukudla kwabo futhi kubangela ukugula, izimo zesikhumba ezinzima kanye nezinhlobo ezihlukahlukene zomdlavuza emaphashini, i-larynx ne-prostate.
(Ngendlela, usasebenzisa i-Vietnamese balm? Nokho, ngingathini...)
Kufanele sibe nenhloso futhi sithi amasosha ase-US eVietnam nawo ahlukumezekile: awazange aziswe ngengozi, ngakho-ke ayeqiniseka ukuthi ikhemikhali yayingenabungozi futhi ayizange ithathe izinyathelo zokuphepha. Lapho bebuyela ekhaya, omakadebona baseVietnam baqala ukusola okuthile: impilo yabaningi yayisiwohlokile, amakhosikazi awo aphuphunyelwa yizisu, futhi izingane zazalwa zinezinkinga. Omakadebona baqala ukufaka izicelo ku-Department of Veterans Affairs ngo-1977 ukuze bathole izinkokhelo zokukhubazeka ngenxa yezinsiza zezokwelapha ababekholelwa ukuthi zihlobene nokuchayeka ku-Agent Orange, noma ikakhulukazi i-dioxin, kodwa izicelo zabo zenqatshwa ngenxa yokuthi abakwazanga ukufakazela ukuthi lesi sifo saqala bebesebenza noma kungakapheli unyaka owodwa ngemuva kokuxoshwa (imibandela yokunikeza izinzuzo). Thina, ezweni lakithi, sijwayelene kakhulu nalokhu.
Ngo-April 1993, uMnyango Wezindaba Zomakadebona wawukhokhe isinxephezelo kuzisulu ezingama-486 kuphela, nakuba wawuthole izicelo zokukhubazeka emasosheni angu-39 ayechayeke ku-Agent Orange ngenkathi esebenza eVietnam.
Kusukela ngo-1980, kuye kwenziwa imizamo yokuzuza isinxephezelo ngokumangalelana, kuhlanganise nezinkampani ezikhiqiza lezi zinto (i-Dow Chemical neMonsanto). Phakathi nokuqulwa kwamacala ekuseni ngoMeyi 7, 1984, ecaleni elafakwa izinhlangano zomakadebona baseMelika, abameli bezinkampani zeMonsanto neDow Chemical bakwazile ukuxazulula icala lekilasi ngaphandle kwenkantolo amahora ambalwa ngaphambi kokuba kuqale ukukhethwa kwamajaji. Lezi zinkampani zivumile ukuthi zizokhokha u-$180 million njengesinxephezelo uma omakadebona besula zonke izimangalo ezibhekiswe kuzo. Omakadebona abaningi ababeyizisulu bacasulwa ukuthi icala lixazululwe esikhundleni sokuya enkantolo: bazizwa bekhashelwe abameli babo. “Ukuqulwa Kwamacala Obulungiswa” kwaqhutshelwa emadolobheni amakhulu amahlanu aseMelika, lapho omakadebona nemikhaya yabo baxoxa khona ngokusabela kwabo kulesi sinqumo futhi bagxeka izenzo zabameli nezinkantolo, befuna ukuba icala liqulwe ithimba lontanga yabo. IJaji likaHulumeni uJack B. Weinstein lizichithile lezi zikhalazo, lathi ukuxazululwa "kwakulungile futhi kunobulungisa." Ngonyaka ka-1989, uvalo lwamangqalabutho lwaqinisekiswa lapho kunqunywa ukuthi imali izokhokhwa kanjani ngempela: ngangokunokwenzeka (yebo, ncamashi. kakhulu!) Umakadebona wase-Vietnam okhubazekile angathola umkhawulo ongu-$12, okhokhwa ngezitolimende phakathi neminyaka eyi-000. Ukwengeza, ngokwamukela lezi zinkokhelo, omakadebona abakhubazekile bangase bangafaneleki ukuthola izinzuzo eziningi zikahulumeni ezihlinzeka ngosekelo olukhulu lwemali, njengezitembu zokudla, usizo lomphakathi, nezimpesheni zikahulumeni.
Ku-2004, umkhulumeli we-Monsanto uJill Montgomery uthe iMonsanto yayingeyena obangela ukulimala noma ukufa okubangelwa "ama-ejenti": "Sizwelana nabantu abakholelwa ukuthi balimele futhi baqonde ukukhathazeka kwabo nesifiso sokuthola imbangela, kodwa "Okwesayensi" okuthembekile. ubufakazi bubonisa ukuthi i-Agent Orange ayibangeli imiphumela emibi yezempilo yesikhathi eside. "
I-Vietnam Association of Victims of Agent Orange and Dioxin Poisoning (VAVA) yafaka icala "lokulimala komuntu, ukuklanywa kwamakhemikhali kanye nesikweletu sokukhiqiza" eNkantolo Yesifunda Yase-United States yeSifunda Esisempumalanga yaseNew York eBrooklyn ngokumelene nezinkampani ezimbalwa zaseMelika, ikhala ngokuthi ukusetshenziswa "kwama-ejenti" kwephule i-1907 Hague Convention on Land Wars, i-1925 Geneva Protocol kanye ne-1949 Geneva Conventions. I-Dow Chemical kanye neMonsanto babengabakhiqizi ababili abakhulu bama-ejenti ezempi yase-US futhi baqanjwe ecaleni kanye nenqwaba yezinye izinkampani (Diamond Shamrock, Uniroyal, Thompson Chemicals, Hercules, njll.). Ngomhla ziyi-10 kuNdasa, 2005, iJaji uJack B. Weinstein leSifunda SaseMpumalanga (lona kanye owayengamele icala le-US Veterans level 1984) walichitha leli cala, lanquma ukuthi akukho ukuma ezimangalweni. Uphethe ngokuthi i-Agent Orange yayingabhekwa njengoshevu ngaphansi komthetho wamazwe ngamazwe ngesikhathi isetshenziswa e-United States; I-US ayizange ivinjelwe ukuyisebenzisa njengesibulala-zinambuzane; futhi izinkampani ezakhiqiza le nto yayingenawo umthelela endleleni kahulumeni yokuyisebenzisa. U-Weinstein wasebenzisa isibonelo saseBrithani ukusiza ukunqoba izimangalo: "Ukube abantu baseMelika babenecala lobugebengu bempi ngokusebenzisa i-Agent Orange eVietnam, khona-ke abaseBrithani babezoba necala lempi ngoba babeyizwe lokuqala ukusebenzisa imithi yokubulala ukhula kanye ne-defoliants e-Vietnam. war." futhi wazisebenzisa ngezinga elikhulu kulo lonke uhlelo lwesiMalaya. Njengoba bekungekho mbhikisho ovela kwamanye amazwe ekuphenduleni ukusetshenziswa kweBrithani, i-US yakubona njengokubeka isibonelo sokusetshenziswa kwemithi yokubulala ukhula kanye nama-defoliants ezimpini zasehlathini. " Uhulumeni wase-US naye ubengahlanganyeli kuleli cala ngenxa yokungavikeleki kombuso, futhi inkantolo yanquma ukuthi izinkampani zamakhemikhali, njengosonkontileka bakahulumeni waseMelika, zazinokuzivikela okufanayo. Icala ladluliswa futhi lanqunywa yiNkantolo Yezikhalo Yesifunda Yesibili eManhattan ngoJuni 18, 2007. Amajaji amathathu eNkantolo yesiFunda yesiBili yokuDluliswa kwamaCala asemukele isinqumo sikaWeinstein sokuchitha leli cala. Banqume ukuthi nakuba ama-herbicides ane-dioxin (ushevu owaziwayo), ayihloselwe ukusetshenziswa njengoshevu kubantu. Ngakho-ke, ama-defoliants awabhekwa njengezikhali zamakhemikhali ngakho-ke awaphuli umthetho wamazwe ngamazwe. Ukucutshungulwa okwengeziwe kwecala yithimba eliphelele lamajaji eNkantolo Yokudlulisa Amacala nakho kusiqinisekisile lesi sinqumo. Abameli bezisulu bafaka isicelo eNkantolo Ephakeme yase-US ukuze ilalele leli cala. Ngo-March 2, 2009, iNkantolo Ephakeme yenqaba ukubuyekeza isinqumo seNkantolo Yokudlulisa Amacala.
Ngomhla zingama-25 kuNhlaba wezi-2007, uMongameli Bush wasayina umthetho owawuhlinzeka ngezigidi ezi-3 zamaRandi ngokuqondile ukuze kuxhaswe izinhlelo zokulungisa izizinda ze-dioxin ezikhungweni zezempi zase-U.S. zangaphambili, kanye nezinhlelo zezempilo zomphakathi zemiphakathi ezungezile. Kumele kushiwo ukuthi ukubhujiswa kwama-dioxins kudinga ukushisa okuphezulu (okungaphezu kuka-1000 ° C), inqubo yokubhubhisa inamandla amakhulu, ngakho-ke abanye ochwepheshe bakholelwa ukuthi isisekelo somoya sase-US kuphela e-Da Nang sizodinga amaRandi ayizigidi ezingu-14 ukuhlanza, kanye nokuhlanza ezinye izizinda zangaphambili zezempi zase-Vietnamese ezinamazinga aphezulu okungcola kuzodinga enye i-$ 60 million.
UNobhala Wezwe u-Hillary Clinton uthe ngesikhathi evakashele e-Hanoi ngo-Okthoba 2010 ukuthi uhulumeni wase-US uzoqala umsebenzi wokuhlanza ukungcoliswa kwe-dioxin e-Da Nang Air Base.
NgoJuni 2011, kwaba nomcimbi esikhumulweni sezindiza i-Da Nang ukuphawula ukuqala kokuqeda ukungcola okuxhaswe yi-US kwezindawo ze-dioxin eVietnam. Kuze kube manje, uKhongolose waseMelika ubeke u-$32 wezigidi ukuxhasa lolu hlelo.
Ukusiza labo abathintekayo yi-dioxin, uhulumeni waseVietnam udale "amadolobhana okuthula", ngalinye liqukethe izisulu ze-50 kuya kwezingu-100 ezithola ukwesekwa kwezokwelapha nengqondo. Kusukela ngo-2006, kunamadolobhana anjalo angu-11. Omakadebona beMpi YaseVietnam yaseMelika kanye nabantu abaziyo nabazwelana nezisulu ze-Agent Orange baye basekela lezi zinhlelo. Iqembu lamazwe ngamazwe lama-Vietnam War Veterans avela e-United States kanye nabalingani bayo, kanye nesitha sabo sangaphambili, omakadebona be-Vietnam Veterans Association, basungule i-Vietnam Friendship Village ngaphandle kwase-Hanoi. Lesi sikhungo sihlinzeka ngosizo lwezokwelapha, ukuhlunyeleliswa kwezimilo kanye nokuqeqeshwa komsebenzi ezinganeni kanye nomakadebona baseVietnam abathintwe yi-dioxin.
Uhulumeni waseVietnam uhlinzeka ngemali encane yanyanga zonke kubantu abangaphezu kuka-200 baseVietnam okusolwa ukuthi bahlaselwe yimithi yokubulala ukhula; ngo-000 kuphela, lesi samba sasingu-$ 2008 wezigidi. I-Vietnam Red Cross iqoqe imali engaphezu kwezigidi ezingu-40,8 zamaRandi ukusiza abagulayo noma abakhubazekile, futhi izisekelo eziningana zase-US, izinhlaka ze-UN, ohulumeni base-Europe kanye nezinhlangano ezingekho ngaphansi kukahulumeni banikele ngemali elinganiselwa ezigidini ezingu-22 zamaRandi ukuze kuhlanzwe, kutshalwe kabusha amahlathi, ukunakekelwa kwezempilo nezinye izinsiza. .
Funda kabanzi mayelana nokweseka izisulu ze-Agent Orange .
Lena indaba yokutshalwa kwentando yeningi, %username%. Futhi akusahlekisa.
Futhi manje…
Abasebenzisi ababhalisiwe kuphela abangabamba iqhaza kuhlolovo. , wamukelekile.
Futhi yini okufanele ngiyibhale ngokulandelayo?
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Akukho, kwanele kakade - ushaywe umoya
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Ngitshele ngezidakamizwa zokulwa
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Sitshele nge-phosphorus ephuzi kanye nengozi eduze kwaseLvov
Bangu-32 abasebenzisi abavotile. Abasebenzisi abangama-4 bayenqaba.
Source: www.habr.com